Model Answer Paper

AS-2305
M. Sc. (Ist Semester) Examination, 2013
FORESTRY
Paper: III
(Forest Management, Remote Sensing and GIS)
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Q.1. (a) Fill in the Blanks:
Answer: 6 x 2 = 12
i. A felling area usually one of an annual series is called Coupe
ii. The part or parts of forest set aside to be regenerated or otherwise treated during a
specified period is known as Periodic block.
iii. Stocking refers to the adequacy of a given forest stand density to meet some specified
management objectives.
iv. Financial rotation is the rotation which yields the highest net return on the invested
capital.
v. Yield regulation by increment method is mathematically expressed as Y= V+ a – Vn / n.
vi. Visible range of EMR ranges between 0.4 - 0.7 micron meter.
(b) Describe the following in brief:
Answer:
(i) Map Scale:
Length on a map or globe and its relation to the same distance on the earth expressed as a ratio.
Or,
Way of reducing actual distance on the earth’s surface so that it fits on a map.
There are three types of Scales:
1. Graphical Scale:
i.e.: 1cm to 1km/1cm represents 1km. This means that 1cm on the map represents 1km on
the earth’s surface.
2. Fractional Scale: written in numbers as a ratio i.e: 1:100 000 or 1/100 000. This means
that 1cm on the map represents 1km on the earth’s surface.
3. Verbal Scale: Use a ruler to measure linear scale i.e 1cm represents 1km on the earth’s
surface.
(ii) Criteria and Indicators:
Answer: Criteria and indicators are tools used to define, assess and monitor periodic progress
towards sustainable forest management in a given country or in a specified forest area, over a
period of time.
The ultimate aim of criteria and indicators is to promote improved forest management practices
over time, and to further the development of a healthier and more productive forest estate, taking
into consideration the social, economic, environmental, cultural and spiritual needs of the full
range of stakeholder groups in countries concerned.
Criteria: define the essential elements against which sustainability is assessed, with due
consideration paid to the productive, protective and social roles of forests and forest ecosystems.
Each criterion relates to a key element of sustainability, and may be described by one or more
indicators.
Indicators: are parameters which can be measured and correspond to a particular criterion. They
measure and help monitor the status and changes of forests in quantitative, qualitative and
descriptive terms that reflect forest values as seen by those who defined each criterion.
Criteria and indicators are applied at three different levels:
1. Regional
2. National
3. Forest management unit level
The guiding framework for evolving National level C & I under the Bhopal-India Process by the
Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal was borrowed from the ITTO. The Bhopal-India
Process has recommended 8 Criteria and 43 Indicators. Criteria and indicators have been also
adopted to promote sustainable forest management and facilitate the evaluation of progress
towards it. The six Pan-European criteria for SFM are:
• Maintenance and appropriate enhancement of forest resources and their contribution to
global carbon cycles;
• Maintenance of forest ecosystems’ health and vitality;
• Maintenance and encouragement of productive functions of forests (wood and non-
wood);
 • Maintenance, conservation and appropriate enhancement of biological diversity in forest
ecosystems;
• Maintenance, conservation and appropriate enhancement of protective functions in forest
management (notably soil and water); and
• Maintenance of other socio-economic functions and conditions.
(iii). Periodic Blocks:
Answer: A Periodic block is defined as the part or parts of forest set aside to be regenerated, or
otherwise treated, or otherwise treated during a specified period. The regeneration block is called
floating or single when it is the only P.B. allotted at each working plan revision; they are termed
fixed or permanent.
The number of periodic blocks in the working cycle or felling series is found by dividing the
rotation by the regeneration period for example Chir pine forests worked under uniform shelter
wood system on a rotation of 120 years and regeneration period of 30 years will be 120/30 = 4
and the normal area f each P.B. is the area of the W.C. or F.S. divided by the number of P.B.s.
The P.B.s 1-30 year age –class and at the end of the 120 years age class and at the end of a 120
year rotation, they whole working cycle would have similarly been converted into four P.B. s
containing age classes 91-120, 61-90, 31-60, and 1-30 and designated as P. B. I, P.B. II, P.B. III
and P.B. IV respectively.
(IV) IIRS:
Answer: The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing is the training and education arm of the Indian
Department of Space. Located in Dehradun, the institute offers courses in Remote sensing and
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), ranging in length from one week to two years.
This Institute has come a long way. Journey from photo-interpretation to institute for remote
sensing and Geographical science and IIRS has come to qualify for international stature. Today
we have courses for all levels of users from researchers to policy makers. Its goal is to develop a
mechanism from pixel to policy through human capacity building in Natural Resource
Management. It is focusing to develop electronic course through Internet/developing network
with non remote sensing institutions and nation building programme and increasing its outreach.
Besides, IIRS has also contributed towards several R & D projects that has helped in
operationalisation of technology in various application areas like landslide hazard zonation,
ground water targeting etc.
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun has been premier institute responsible for capacity
building in the field of Remote Sensing and GIS applications. It has grown manifolds and
establish itself as an institute of repute both nationally and internationally.
Q.2. Describe the principle, scope and objectives of scientific, technical and economical
aspects applied to forestry.
Answer: The forests make up one of the earth’s greatest reservoirs of renewable resources.
Properly managed, they can provide essential products indefinitely and at the same time remain a
home for wildlife and a vital source of water supplies. Forest management is the process of
organizing forest stands/ecosystems so that they produce a continuous stream of whatever
resources are desired from that forest-timber, wildlife tourism, recreation, or any conceivable
combination of the resources of the forest. The forester’s task then, is to facilitate the production
of resources from the forest in a manner that ensures that they will be forever available. The
management techniques for accomplishing these purposes vary from the extraordinary simple to
the exceedingly complex.
Forest Management:
Definitions:
(1) Forest Management is the practical application of the scientific, technical and economic
principles of forest.
(2) It is that branch of forestry whose function is the organization of a forest property for
management and maintenance, by ordering intime and place the various operations necessary for
the conservation, protection and improvement of the forest on the one hand, and the controlled
harvesting of the forest on the other hand.
(3) It is the application of business methods and technical forestry principles to the operation of a
forest property.
(4) The task of forest management is to build up, put in order, and keep in order a forest
business.
(5) The practical application of scientific, economic and social principles to the administration
and working of a forest estate for specified objectives.
(6) It is that branch of forestry concerned in broad sense with the overall administrative,
economic, legal and social aspects and in strict sense with technical and scientific aspects,
especially silviculture, protection and forest regulation. Forest regulation concerns with the
technical aspects of organizing and maintaining a forest to fulfill the objects of forest
management.
Thus, forest management is the practical application of science, technology and economics to a
forest estate for the achievement of certain objectives like production of wood, timber and
industrial raw material, and other forest products. In its restricted sense, it is more especially
concerned with the organization of a forest for the purpose of securing a sustained yield from it
and for realizing the objects of management.
Principles of Forest Management:
The forest policies of many countries carry the following sentence:
1. “To manage the forest in such a way as to ensure a sustained yield of timber and other
forest products in perpetuity.”
2. The most celebrated principle of forest management all over the world is the “Principle of
Sustained Yield”. This being criticized as static one, was replaced by the “Principle of
increasing yield” in the recent past. But this new concept covers only those forests which
are in the early stages of their development.
3. Yet another concept known as “Principle of Progressive Yield” emerged in Helsinki
World Forestry Congress in 1948, but this is applicable to fast growing, short rotation
species responding readily to the scientific methods. Thus for long term forest the
“Principle of Sustained Yield” remains unchallenged.
Scope of Forest Management:
Though forest management is an integration of silviculture, silvicultural systems, protection,
economics etc., each of which is a separate subject itself; “Yield Regulation” remains the core
subject of forest management. It involves the study of sustained yield, normal forest,
management units, rotation, increment, yield calculation, and serves as a tool in answering to the
questions when to cut, how much to cut, and what to cut, i.e. for establishing sustained yield
forest management plans.
Management of forests broadly involves:
- Control of composition and structure of the growing stock.
- Harvesting and marketing of forest produce.
- Administration of forest property and personnel.
Objectives of Forest Management:
The objectives of forest management are embodied in National Forest Policy of the country. The
National Goals provide the basis for forest policy.
(1) To ensure the sustainability of forests, i.e. through proper management practices, the forests
may be used and are retained as renewable resource; and
(2) Forests are harvested in order to bring about economic growth, job creation, increased
participation. Careful uses without changing the character of the forest, and successful
regeneration after harvest ensure the sustainability of forests.
Q.3. Define remote sensing and its role in forest resource management?
Answer: Remote sensing can be broadly defined as the collection and interpretation of
information about an object, area, or event without being in physical contact with the object.
Aircraft and satellites are the common platforms for remote sensing of the earth and its natural
resources.
According to the United Nations, Remote Sensing means sensing of earth’s surface from space
by making use of the properties of electromagnetic wave emitted, reflected or diffracted by the
sensed objects, for the purpose of improving natural resource management, land use and the
protection of the environment.
Principals of remote sensing:
1. Source of electromagnetic radiation or EMR, (Sun): Electromagnetic energy refers to all
energy that moves with the velocity of light in a harmonic wave pattern. The electromagnetic
spectrum is the continuous range of electromagnetic radiation, extending from gamma rays
(highest frequency & shortest wavelength) to radio waves (lowest frequency & longest
wavelength) and including visible light. Remote sensing involves the measurement of energy in
many parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. The major regions of interest in satellite sensing are
visible light, reflected and emitted infrared, and the microwave regions. The measurement of this
radiation takes place in what are known as spectral bands.
A passive Remote Sensing system records the energy naturally radiated or reflected from an
object. An active Remote Sensing system supplies its own source of energy, which is directed at
the object in order to measure the returned energy.
2. Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth, through atmosphere:
Our eyes inform us that the atmosphere is essentially transparent to light, and we tend to assume
that this condition exists for all Electromagnetic radiation. In fact, however, the gases of the
atmosphere selectively scatter light of different wavelengths. Particles and gases in the
atmosphere can affect the incoming light and radiation. These effects are caused by the
mechanisms of scattering and absorption.
Scattering:
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact with
and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much
scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation, the
abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere.
There are three (3) types of scattering which take place.
Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the
radiation. These could be particles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen
molecules. Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more
than longer wavelengths.
Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the
radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering which
tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering.
3. Interaction of EMR with earth’s surface A number of interactions are possible when
Electromagnetic energy encounters matter, whether solid, liquid or gas. The interactions that take
place at the surface of a substance are called surface phenomena.
· Radiation may be reflected. If it is returned unchanged from the surface of a substance with the
angle equal and opposite to the angle of incidence, it is termed specular reflectance. If radiation
is reflected equally in all directions, it is termed diffuse. Real materials lie somewhere in
between.
4. Transmission of Energy from Surface to Remote Sensor Mounted on the Platform:
While EMR is transmitted from the surface of the earth to the sensor, it again passes through the
atmosphere. Here, electromagnetic radiation is modified again in the same way as it is
transmitted from the sun to the surface of the earth.
In order for a sensor to collect and record energy reflected or emitted from a target or surface, it
must reside on a stable platform removed from the target or surface being observed. Platforms
for remote sensors may be situated on the ground, on an aircraft or balloon (or some other
platform within the Earth's atmosphere), or on a spacecraft or satellite outside of the Earth's
atmosphere.
5. Data Interpretation:
In the foregoing paragraphs, we have studied two major types of Remote Sensing data products,
viz. pictorial and digital. The pictorial data products, such as aerial photographs and satellite
imageries are interpreted visually. Likewise, digital data products or digital images are
interpreted mathematically by using computer software. So, there are two ways of Remote
Sensing data interpretation – 1) Visual Interpretation and 2) Digital Interpretation.
Role if Remote Sensing in Forest Management:
The first step towards the sustainable forest management of any region or country is to have a
clear status of the resource base. Remote sensing along with GIS and direct field measurements
have shown the potential to facilitate the mapping, monitoring, and modeling of the forest
resources. In addition to the inventory requirements the role of remote sensing extends to
facilitate the operational forest management activities as well.
1. Vegetation/cover type mapping:
Remote sensing can provide information on forests through classification of spectral response
pattern. The distribution of vegetation types and their spatial arrangements are of great interest to
forest managers.
Forest cover, crown closure, and tree density:
It has been discussed widely in literature that the Landsat and SPOT data were related to forest
cover, stand age, and crown closure. The darker image tones because of decreasing visible
reflectance would be associated with the increasing crown development. The increasing stand
size and age resulting in larger canopy were found to reflect more strongly in infrared because
greater atmospheric penetration would create deeper shadows from larger tree.
Forest Age:
The remote sensing data will be suggestive of age or age classes based on the differences in tree
size, density, understory, canopy developments, nutrient status, and species type among the
young and old forest stands, which in turn will effect the illumination, absorption, and shadows
in the image. <80 years, 80-200, and >200 years old by relating the changes in illumination,
absorption, and shadows to the spectral response pattern.
Tree Height:
The use of aerial photography for tree height estimation is well known to forest managers as well
as remote sensing scientists. The tree height estimation is usually used in the development of
other information of interest in forest management such as to predict timber volume and so on.
The digital airborne and satellite remote sensing are not very successful in producing reliable
estimates of tree or canopy height and the biophysical relationship between the height and
spectral response are rarely strong enough to justify the model development. However, there are
successful attempts in site specific situations that relate photogrammetric principles to shadows
on imagery and to estimate height as a relative attribute in few general height classes.
Biomass Estimation:
Traditionally the stand biomass estimates are derived by conversion of stem volume estimates
from forest inventory database or through forest cover type volume tables in less well
inventoried areas. The recent strategy has been to develop large scale system for biomass
estimation by referencing all available information from the forest inventory, satellite and
airborne imagery, and field data in a multistage approach.
2. Change Detection:
In addition to the cover type mapping and forest resources inventory, remote sensing has strong
application in detecting and mapping the changes in the forest landscape that are dynamic in
nature. There are slow changes such as due to successional, growth, structural, and age processes
that are variable in nature over time and space.
3. Biodiversity assessment and habitat modeling:
Wildlife habitat mapping from satellite remote sensing data has been of interest for long mainly
because of its potential to provide highly accurate and effective maps generated from synoptic,
repetitive, and consistent reflectance data over large forest areas.
Q.4. Define Rotation. Explain in detail types of Rotation?
Answer: It is also known as Production period. It is the period which a forest crop takes between
its formation and final felling. It is not common one to all forest crops, nor for the same crop in
different regions. It expresses the rate of growth of the crop to produce the desired size and
quality of crop.
Definitions:
• The planned number of years between the formation or regeneration of a crop and its
final felling. In the case of a selection forest, the average age at which a tree is considered
mature for felling.
• The period of years required to establish and grow timber crops to specified conditions of
maturity.
• The number of years fixed by the working plan between the formation or regeneration
and the final felling of a forest crop.
• The interval of time between the formation of a young crop by seeding, planting or other
means and its final harvesting.
• The period which elapses between the formation of a wood and the time when it is finally
cut over.
Types of Rotation:
Based on the objects of management and also of “necessity”, the rotation is classified as:
Physical rotation, Silvicultural rotation, Technical rotation, Rotation of maximum volume
production, Rotation of highest income, Financial rotation/Economic rotation.
i. Physical Rotation: Rotation that coincides with the natural lease of life of a species on a
given site. Trees are harvested only on their death. This is followed in protected forests,
park lands, roadside avenues, recreation forestry etc.. It is not relevant in economic
forestry.
ii. Silvicultural Rotation: The rotation through which a species retains satisfactory vigour
of growth and reproduction in a given site. This rotation presupposes the crops which are
regenerated by natural means and coppicing. It is not only long but has also very wide
range of limits. It is useful in forests managed primarily for aesthetic and recreational
purposes, where large old trees with accompanying regeneration provide scenic beauty.
Some foresters do not distinguish between Physical and Silvicultural rotations.
iii. Technical Rotation: Rotation under which a species yield the maximum material of a
specified size or suitability for economic conversion or for special use. The harvest
depends upon the form in which he market demands the forest product to suit specific
purposes, e.g. transmission poles, railway sleepers, match wood, paper pulpwood, saw
 logs etc. It is adopted, particularly, by industrial firms which own forests and plantations
for the purpose of supplying raw materials for their plants.
iv. Rotation of Maximum Volume Production: The rotation that yield the greatest annual
quantity of material or that which produces the greatest mean annual increment of wood.
This is the widely used rotation throughout the world. It embodies the principles of
sustained yield. Besides it aims profitable extraction and sale of wood. Maximum volume
production is achieved when the mean annual increment (MAI) of a crop reaches the
culmination point. This rotation yields largest volume per unit area, per annum, and is an
important rotation which is adopted frequently. It is suitable where the total quantity of
woody material is important and not the size and specification, like firewood, raw
material for paper pulp, fibre and particle board industries based on disintegration
processes of wood.
v. Rotation of Highest Income: It is the rotation that yields highest average annual gross or
net revenue irrespective of the capital value of the forests; also known as rotation of
highest revenue or forest rental. It is calculated without interest and irrespective of the
times when the items of income or expenditure occur. Land value is also not considered
in this case. This rotation is fixed under the assumption that the wood has same value
whatever its size, and annual expenses do not vary with alterations in the rotation
vi. Financial Rotation: Financial Rotation: It is the rotation which yields the highest net
return on the invested capital. It is a rotation determined on financial considerations, i.e.,
that yielding the highest rate of interest. It is also known as “Economic Rotation”. In this
rotation all items of revenue and expenditure are calculated with compound interest at an
assumed rate, usually the rate at which the Government is able to borrow money.
Q. 5. What do you mean by increment? Differentiate between Current Annual Increment
and Mean Annual Increment.
Answer: Forest is a capital in the economic sense, which should produce interest. Trees are the
capital and growth (increment) is interest; both are indistinguishable. Increment is the increase in
growth of a tree or crop with age. It may be in term of wood content, or any of the factors which
increase with age-diameter, height, basal area, volume, quality price or value. It is determined for
any given period, by measuring it at the beginning and at the end of the period.
Definition: The increase in girth, diameter, basal area, height, volume, quality, price of
individual trees or crops during a given period.
In Forest Management, the term increment refers usually to only volume increment, and that too
of crops rather than of individual trees. It is intimately connected with the volume and age of the
crops.
Current Annual Increment (C.A.I.): The increase in growth that takes place in a particular
year is called the C.A.I. for that year. Usually taken as the periodic annual increment over a short
preceding period. It may be expressed as (V (n+1) – Vn) where V (n+1) is the volume of wood
produced in (n+1) year and Vn the volume in n years.
Mean Annual Increment (M.A.I.): It is the average annual rate of growth up to any given date
i.e., it is an average rate of growth representing the total growth or yield at a given age
distributed or spread over the period. The total increment up to a given age divided by that age is
M.A.I. The volume of a tree is built up of successive C.A.Is., which, of course, vary considerably
from year to year. The C.A.I. is a chapter in the history of the tree. The mean of all C.A.Is. is
known as Mean Annual Increment (M.A.I.) an average annual rate of growth upto any given age;
it is derived by dividing total increment upto any specified age by that age.
M.A.I. = (Vx – Vo )/x, when Vx is volume at the end of x years; Vo is the volume at the
beginning.
Final Mean Annual Increment (F.M.A.I.): It is the M.A.I. at rotation age. This is calculated by
dividing the total of volumes (final yield at the end of rotation + intermediate yields from
thinnings, etc.) by the rotation period.
F.M.A.I. = (Vr + Vi)/r, when Vr is the volume at the end of rotation;
Vi is the intermediate yield, and
r is the rotation in years.
Q. 6. Describe the history of forest Management in India. Discuss the importance and need
of sustainable development of forests in Indian context? 10 X 1 =10
Answer: There is enough evidence to show that dense forests once covered India. The changing
forest composition and cover can be closely linked to the growth and change of civilizations.
Over the years, as man progressed the forest began gradually depleting. The growing population
and man’s dependence on the forest have been mainly responsible for this.
All ancient texts have some mention of the forest and the activities that were performed in these
areas. Forests were revered by the people and a large number of religious ceremonies centred on
trees and plants. The Agni Purana, written about 4000 years ago, stated that man should protect
trees to have material gains and religious blessings. Around 2500 years ago, Gautama Buddha
preached that man should plant a tree every five years. Sacred groves were marked around the
temples where certain rules and regulations applied When Chandra Gupta Maurya came to
power around 300 BC, he realized the importance of the forests and appointed a high officer to
look after the forests. Ashoka stated that wild animals and forests should be preserved and
protected. He launched programmes to plant trees on a large scale. These rules continued even
during the Gupta period.
During the Muslim invasions a large number of people had to flee from the attacks and take
refuge in the forests. This was the beginning of a phase of migration to the forest. They cleared
vast areas of forests to make way for settlements.
The Muslim invaders were all keen hunters and therefore had to have patches of forests where
they could go hunting. This ensured that the trees in these areas were not felled, and the forest
ecology was not tampered with. The Mughals showed more interest in gardens and their
development. Akbar ordered the planting of trees in various parts of his kingdom. Jahangir was
well known for laying out beautiful gardens and planting trees.
During the early part of the British rule, trees were felled without any thought. Large numbers of
trees such as the sal, teak, and sandalwood were cut for export. The history of modern Indian
forestry was a process by which the British gradually appropriated forest resources for revenue
generation. Trees could not be felled without prior permission and knowledge of the authority.
This step was taken to ensure that they were the sole users of the forest trees.
But after some time, the British began to regulate and conserve. In 1800, a commissioner was
appointed to look into the availability of teak in the Malabar forests. In 1806, the Madras
government appointed Capt. Watson as the commissioner of forests for organizing the
production of teak and other timber suitable for the building of ships.
In 1855, Lord Dalhousie framed regulations for conservation of forest in the entire country. Teak
plantations were raised in the Malabar hills and acacia and eucalyptus in the Niligiri Hills.
In Bombay, the conservator of forest, Gibson, tried to introduce rules prohibiting shifting
cultivation and plantation of teak forests. From 1865 to 1894, forest reserves were established to
secure material for imperial needs. From the 18th century, scientific forest management systems
were employed to regenerate and harvest the forest to make it sustainable. Between 1926 and
1947 afforestation was carried out on a large scale in the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. In the early
1930s, people began showing interest in the conservation of wild life.
During World War I forest resources were severely depleted as large quantities of timber were
removed to build ships and railway sleepers and to pay for Britain’s war efforts. Between the two
wars, great advancements in scientific management of the forests were made, with many areas
undergoing regeneration and sustained harvest plans being drawn up. Sadly, emphasis was still
not on protection and regeneration but on gaining maximum revenue from the forests. World
War II made even greater demand on the forest than World War I had done.
With the independence of India in 1947, a great upheaval in forestry organization occurred. The
princely states were managed variably, giving more concessions to the local populations. The
transfer of these states to the government led to deforestation in these areas. But some forest
officials claim that the maharajas cut down a lot of their forests and sold them. This may have
been the case in some instances, but a lot of forest had existed and has been lost since the
government took over these states.
The new Forest Policy of 1952 recognized the protective functions of the forest and aimed at
maintaining one-third of India’s land area under forest. Certain activities were banned and
grazing restricted. Much of the original British policy was kept in place, such as the
classification of forest land into two types.
In pursuance of India’s new forest policy of 1988, the central government issued broad
guidelines for encouraging people’s participation in forest management. By 2001, 25 of the 28
states came out with their own program of partnership and usufruct1 sharing mechanisms with
people, popularly known as the JFM program. The Joint Forest Management (JFM) program is
described as “a forest management strategy under which the government represented by the
Forest Department and the village community enter into an agreement to jointly protect and
manage forestlands adjoining villages and to share responsibilities and benefits” (Government of
India, 2002). The 1988 National Forest Policy laid the foundation for the preponderance of
conservation over commercial forestry and people’s participation throughout the decades of
exclusionary regime in India. The 1990 resolution of the Ministry of Environment and Forests on
JFM was a blueprint for devolution, intended to guide participatory forest management in
different states of the country. In view of a shift in paradigm in natural re-source governance
across international boundaries, the JFM program in India was a laudable effort towards
devolution and decentralization in forest administration. An increasing focus on people-centered
policies, bottom-up planning processes, and decentralized governance are some of the key
characteristics of this new paradigm. Beginning in 1990, the JFM program in India is one of the
biggest comanagement efforts of the world that acted as a policy vehicle for resolving forest
resource conflicts. Recent data indicate that 99,000 registered JFM committees are involved in
managing 214,300 square km of forests in 28 states of India involving 13.8 million families,
28.75 percent of which are tribal.
Forests in India are mostly state owned and cover an area of 67.71 million hectares,
corresponding to 20.60 percent of the total geographical area of the country. Nearly 100 million
people reside in forests and another 275 million live on the periphery and earn their livelihood
from forests. The livelihoods of approximately 370 million people who directly or indirectly
depend on forest products and services are therefore mired in poverty. There is a very huge
pressure on the forest resources for meeting the needs and livelihoods of both human and animal
population which is increasing at an alarming rate.
Q.7. What do you mean by Growing stock? How you will determine normal growing stock
in clear felling system? 10X 1= 10
Answer: Growing stock is defined as the the sum by numbers or volume of all the trees growing
in the forest or a specified part of it.
Normal growing stock is defined as the total volume of trees in a fully stocked forest with
normal distribution of age classes for a given rotation.
Determination of actual growing stock:
It may be determined by any of the following methods:
1. By complete or total enumeration
2. By sample or partial enumeration
3. By sample plot measurement
Determination of normal growing stock: N.G.S. in clear felling system:
a). Based on final M.A I:
i. r x i = I.
ii. Final M.A.I of any age gradation multiplied by rotation, r.
 iii. The sum of C.A. I s of all the r age gradations.
iv. The total M.A.I. of all the series.
b). Calculation of N.G. S. from yield table:
Volume of N.G.S. can be accurately determined by plotting the yield table on graph paper
drawing a smooth curve either by planimeter, area square or by counting the squares.
Different formulas and equations used for determination by this method are:
A+ B x n+1/2, B+C x n+1/2, and C+D x n+1/2.
Summing up the N.G.S. volume will be;
n+1/2. x (A+ A+B+ B+C+C+D)-(A+ B+C)
= (n+1) (A+ B+ C+ D/2) – (A+B+C) = n(A+B+C+D/2) + D/2.
Q.8. Write short notes on the following: 4 X 2.5 = 10
Answer: (a) Coupe:
A felling area usually one of the annual series is called coupe.
The clear felling system is a silvicultural system in which equal or equiprodcutive areas of
mature crop are successively clear-felled in one operation to be regenerated most frequently,
artificially but sometimes naturally also. The new crop produced is absolutely even-aged. It
requires large sums of money and large number of laborers to regenerate the forest artificially.
The area to be clear-felled each year in uniformly productive sites is l/n of the total area allotted
to this system, where n = number of years in the rotation and is usually referred to annual coupe.
The coupes to be felled every year are made equi-productive.
(b) Stand Density:
Stand density is a measure of the stocking of a stand of trees based on the number of trees per
unit area and diameter at breast height of the tree of average basal area. It may also be defined as
the degree of crowding within stocked areas, using various growing space ratios based on crown
length or diameter, tree height or diameter, and spacing. Stand density index is usually well
correlated with stand volume and growth, and several variable-density yield tables have been
created using it. Basal area, however, is usually satisfactory as a measure of stand density index
and because it is easier to calculate it is usually preferred over SDI.
Let's assume that a stand with basal area of 150 square feet (14 m2) and 400 trees per acre is
measured. The dbh of the tree of average basal area D is:
Substituting this value into the stand density equation gives:
log10SDI = log10 (400) + 1.605log10 (8.29) - 1.605 = 2.47
SDI = 102.47
SDI = 295
(c) Special objects of forest management:
The ultimate object of management is to convert the forests into normal forest and to bring about
all round improvement to the forests so that they reach a state of maximum productivity in the
shortest possible time. The immediate objects of management are:-
I. To work the forests scientifically on the principle of sustained yield by restricting the
quantum of felling equal to the increment put on by the forests.
II. To manage the commercial or the surplus forests to ensure highest possible sustained
financial return to the State.
III. To manage the community or the deficit forests in such a way as to meet the righholders
demand for timber and firewood as far as practicable and to enrich these forests so as to
improve the village economy.
IV. To rehabilitate the degraded forest.
V. To improve the density and quality of forests by planting the blanks and areas containing
inferior & useless species.
(d) Kinds of abnormality in forest:
The deviation from the normal series of age gradation, normal increment and and normal
growing stock of any forest is called the abnormality of that forests.
Forests may be abnormal usually in the following ways:
i. They may be overstocked.
ii. They may be understocked.
iii. Abnormal distribution of age classes or age gradation.
iv. The increment may be sub- normal.
v. Normal increment in an abnormal forest.