Chapter 1

MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS

Matter

Matter is anything that occupies space has mass and can be perceived by out
senses. In other words “Matter is used to cover all the substances and the materials
from which the universe is made. Everything in this universe is made up of
material which scientists have named “matter”.
Examples:
The air we breathe, the food we eat, stones, clouds, stars, plants and animals, even
a small drop of water or a particle of sand– each thing is matter

Panch Tatva

In early times, human beings have been trying to understand their surroundings.
Early Indian philosophers classified matter in the form of five basic elements – the
“Panch Tatva”– air, earth, fire, sky and water.

According to them everything, living or nonliving, was made up of these five basic
elements.

Modern day scientists have evolved two types of classification of matter based on
their physical properties and chemical nature.

Physical Nature of Matter

Matter is made up of particles

 All matter comprises of very small particles.

 All matter can be broken up in a similar manner to get very small particles.
 Size of these particles is order of 10 -8m to 10-10m. It cannot be seen with naked
eyes.
 Hence we now conclude that all matter is made up of small particles.

Properties of matter

All matter consists of small particles of matter. These particles have some common
characteristics. These characteristics are laid down in a theory called Kinetic
Theory of Matter. The Kinetic Theory of Matter States
A. All matter comprises of small particles.
B. These particles have space in between them.
C. The particles are continuously moving.
D. The particles attract each other.

A. Particles of matter have space between them

1. Matter is made up of small particles.

2. These particles have small spaces between them.
3. These spaces are invisible to the naked eye.
4. But particles of other matter can get /trap between these spaces without
increase in volume.

B. Particles of matter are continuously moving

Particles present in matter move continuously.

The particles of matter shown three types of motion.
1. Translatory Motion – When particles move in straight lines, changing
direction without loss of energy on colliding with another particle or the wall of
the container, the motion is called translatory motion. Translatory motion is
maximum in gases and the least in solids when compared to liquids.
2. Rotational Motion – When particles move around their own axis, the motion is
called rotational motion. This motion is similar to the rotation of earth around
its axis. Rotational motion will be high in gases and in liquids.
3. Vibrational Motion – When particles have a to and fro motion about a mean
position, the motion is called Vibrational motion. This motion is maximum in
solids as the particles are held in a rigid structure.

C. Particles of matter attract each other

1. The force with which particles attract to each other varies from matter to matter.
2. In some kinds of matter (waste paper, matchstick) the attraction force is small
(as we can tear or break them easily).
3. In other kinds of mater (iron nail) the attraction force is large (as we cannot
break the nail easily).
4. This attraction force keeps the particles together.
5. The strength of this force of attraction varies from one kind of matter to
another.

Diffusion
“The mixing and spreading out of a substance with another substance due to
the movement or motion of its particles is called diffusion.” The diffusion of
one substance into another substance goes on until a uniform mixture is formed.

Diffusion in gases

Diffusion in gases is very fast. This is because the particles in gases move very
quickly in all directions.

Examples – 1
1. The smell of food being cooked in the kitchen reaches us even from a
considerable distance.
2. The smell of hot sizzling food reaches us even when we are at a considerable
distance but to get the smell of cold food, we have to go close to it.
3. This is due to the fact that the rate of diffusion of hot gases (released by the hot
sizzling food) is much faster than the rate of cold gases released by the cold
food.

Example –2
1. When someone opens a bottle of perfume in one corner of a room, its smell
spreads in the whole room quickly.
2. When the bottle of perfume is opened, then the liquid perfume quickly changes
into vapour (or gas).
3. The perfume vapours move very rapidly in all directions in air, mix with the air
particles and hence spread with air in the whole room.

Example – 3
The leakage of cooking gas (LPG) in our homes is detected due to the diffusion of
a strong smelling substance present in the cooking gas, into air.

Diffusion in liquids
Diffusion in liquids is slower than that in gases. This is because the particles in
liquids move slower as compared to the particles in gases.

Solid in liquid
If a crystal of potassium permanganate is placed at the bottom of water in a beaker,
then the purple colour of potassium permanganate spreads into the whole water,
slowly.

Liquid in liquid
1. If a drop of ink is put into a beaker of water, then the colour of ink spreads into
the whole water of the beaker.
2. The spreading of ink in water, on its own, is due to the diffusion of ink particles
into water.

Gas in liquid
The gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen are essential for the survival of
aquatic plants and animals. The carbon dioxide gas and oxygen gas present in
air (or atmosphere) diffuse into water (of ponds, lakes, rivers and sea), and
dissolve in it. The aquatic plants use the dissolved carbon dioxide for preparing
food by photosynthesis and aquatic animals use the dissolved oxygen of water for
breathing

Diffusion in solids
Diffusion in solids is a very, very slow process.

Example:
If we write something on a blackboard and leave it uncleaned for a considerable
period of time (say, at least 10 to 15 days), we will find that it becomes quite
difficult to clean the blackboard afterwards. This is due to the fact that some of the
particles of chalk have diffused into the surface of backboard.

Force of Attraction (or Cohesion)

1. There is some force of attraction between the particles of the matter which bind
them together. This force of attraction between the particles of same substance
is known as force of attraction (or cohesion).
2. In general, the force of attraction is maximum in the particles of solid matter
and minimum in the particles of gaseous matter.
Solid > Liquid >Gases

STATES OF MATTER

Solids have a definite shape and volume. They are harder than liquid and gases.
Solids have a definite shape, distinct boundaries and fixed volumes that is, have
negligible compressibility. Solids have a tendency to maintain their shape when
subjected to outside force. Solids may break under force but it is difficult to change
their shape, so they are rigid.

Liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape. They take the shape of the
container in which they are kept. Liquids flow and change shape, so they are not
rigid but can be called fluid.

Gases have no definite shape or volume. They occupy the entire space available to
them and take the shape of the container in which they are stored.

Plasma The state consists of super energetic and super excited particles. These
particles are in the form of ionised gases. The fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs
consist of plasma. Inside a neon sign bulb there is neon gas and inside a fluorescent
tube there is helium gas or some other gas. The gas gets ionised, that is, gets
charged when electrical energy flows through it. This charging up creates a plasma
glowing inside the tube or bulb. The plasma glows with a special colour depending
on the nature of gas. The Sun and the stars glow because of the presence of plasma
in them. The plasma is created in stars because of very high temperature.

Bose- Einstein Condensate (BEC) The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of

extremely low density, about one-hundred-thousandth the density of normal air, to
super low temperatures.
Comparison of Some Important Characteristics of Solids, Liquid and Gas

Rigid and fluid

Rigid means „unbending‟ or „inflexible‟. A stone is rigid because it is unbending or
inflexible. Fluid means „a material which can flow easily‟ and requires a vessel (or
container) to keep it.

A solid is a rigid form of matter. Due to their rigidity, solids have a tendency to
maintain their shape when subjected to outside force. Thus, the main identifying
characteristic of solids is their rigidity. Solids do not require a container to keep
them. A brick and a log of wood are two common solids.

A liquid is a fluid form of matter which occupies the lower part of the container.
Being fluids, liquids require a container to keep them. A liquid has a well-defined
surface, so a liquid can be kept in an open container. The liquid will not escape
from the open container by itself. Water and milk are two common liquids around
us.
A gas is a fluid from of matter which fills the whole container in which it is kept.
Being fluids, gases also require a container to keep them. A gas does not have a
free surface, so a gas has to be kept in a closed container. A gas will escape if kept
in an open container. This is why gases are usually kept in air-tight gas
cylinders. For example, cooking gas (LPG) is kept in air-tight metal cylinders.
From this discussion we conclude that both, liquids and gases are known as fluids.
Characteristic of liquids and gases of „flowing‟ easily is called „fluidity‟. Due to
fluidity, liquids and gases change their shapes readily when subjected to outside
force.

Inter conversion of the state of matter

Changing temperature, pressure or both can change matter from one physical state
to another.
Changing a solid to a liquid is called melting.
Changing a liquid to solid is called solidification.
Changing a liquid to gas is called vaporization.
Changing a gas to liquid is called condensation.
Changing a solid to gas directly is called sublimation.
Note: While pressure will not have an effect to change the physical state of a solid
but increasing pressure in a gas can bring the particles closer together so as to
liquefy the gas. Decreasing pressure over the surface of a liquid helps in vaporizing
a liquid.
Effect of change of temperature and pressure
We can change the physical state of matter in two ways:
i) By changing the temperature
ii) By changing the pressure
By increasing the temperature, a solid can be converted into liquid state; and liquid
can be converted into gaseous state and by decreasing the temperature is vice-
versa.

Melting (fusion)
 The process in which a solid substance changes into a liquid on heating is called
melting (or fusion).
 The point of temperature at which solid melts and changes into a liquid at
atmospheric pressure is called melting of the substance.
 When a solid substance is heated the heat energy makes its particles vibrate
more vigorously. At the melting point the particles of a solid have sufficient
kinetic energy to overcome the strong forces of attraction holding them in fixed
positions and break to form small groups of particles. And the solid melts to
form a liquid.
 Higher the melting point of a solid substance, greater will be the force of
attraction between its particles. For example, the melting point of iron metal is
very high (1535°C) which tells us that the force of attraction between the
particles of iron is very strong.

Boiling (vaporisation)
 The process in which a liquid substance changes into a gas rapidly on heating is
called boiling
 The point of temperature at which a liquid boils and changes rapidly into a gas
atmospheric pressure is known as boiling point of a liquid.

Condensation
 The process of changing a gas (or vapour) to a liquid by cooling is called
condensation where a gas is cooled enough.
 So, when steam (or water vapour) changes into water on cooling, it is called
condensation of steam (or condensation of water vapour).
 It is the reverse of vaporization. (Boiling)
Freezing
 The process of changing a liquid (solidification) into a solid by cooling is called
freezing.
 When a liquid is cooled, its particles lose energy due to which they move
slowly.
 If the liquid is cooled enough (upto freezing point) its each particle stops
moving and vibrates about a fixed position. At this stage the liquid freezes and
becomes a solid.
 Freezing is the reverse of melting.
 Freezing means solidification from above discussion, we conclude that state of
matter can be changed by changing the temperature.

Effect of change in pressure on the state of matter

 Matter consists of small particles separated by small distances.
 In the solid state the inter particle distances are very small.
 In the liquid state the inter particles distances are a little more than in solids.
 In the gaseous state the inter particle distances are he largest when compared to
liquids or solids.
 It can thus be seen that when pressure is exerted on matter, the effect of the
pressure on solids will be negligible as the particles are very close together.
 The effect of pressure in liquids will be small.
 The effect of pressure on gases will be the largest as the inter particle distances
are large.
 Thus, when ever pressure is exerted on gases, the particles move closer
together.
 As the particles move closer together, the attractive forces between the particles
increase.
 This increase in attractive forces helps in the change of state of the gas. If the
pressure exerted is sufficiently large he attractive forces increase to such an
extent that the physical state changes from gaseous to liquid.
 The reverse can be expected to happen if the pressure on a gas is deceased.
Latent heat

Heat which required by substance to change its state without rise of its
temperature. It is called latent heat (hidden heat) because it becomes hidden in the
substance undergoing the change of state and does not show its presence by raising
the temperature.
The latent heat is that heat which is used up in overcoming the force of
attraction between the particles of substance during the change of state. It does not
increase the kinetic energy of the particle of the substance. And since there is no
rise in temperature of the substance.

Latent heat of vapourization and fusion

There are two types of latent heat:
i) Latent heat of fusion
ii) Latent heat of vaporization

Latent heat of vaporisation

The amount of heat in Joules which is required to convert unit mass or 1 kg liquid
in vapours form without rise in temperature is known as latent heat of vaporization.
“If the liquid freezes to form a solid and steam condenses to form water, an equal
amount of latent heat of fusion and vaporization respectively will be given out by
the substance.” Different substances have different Latent Heat of vaporization.

Latent heat of fusion (solid to liquid)

It is quantity of heat in Joules which is required to convert unit mass or 1 kg solid
into liquid form without rise in temperature. Different substances have different
Latent Heat of Fusion.

Sublimation
The changing of a solid directly into vapours on heating, and of vapours into solid
on cooling is known as sublimation.

 The common substance which undergo sublimation are: Ammonium chloride,

Iodine, Comphor, Naphthalene and Anthracene etc.
 Another example of sublimation is provided by solid carbon dioxide (which is
commonly known as dry ice).
 Solid carbon dioxide (or dry ice) sublimes to form carbon dioxide gas.
Evaporation
 Evaporation is the phenomenon in which a liquid changes to gaseous state
below its boiling point.
 Water molecules are attracted by other water molecules in all directions.
 But at the surface of water, the water molecules are pulled only inward that is
below the surface of water.

Note: Evaporation is a phenomenon that theoretically takes place in all liquids. But
in general when we say evaporation we mean evaporation of water.

Vapour: A substance that can exist in the gaseous state at a temperature at which
normally it is a solid or liquid is called vapour.
Examples of solids that can exist as vapour: camphor, naphthalene

Factors Affecting Evaporation

Evaporation depends on temperature, surface area and weather conditions
 Evaporation increases if the surface area of the water is large as the number of
water molecules at the surface increases. This increases the probability of more
water molecules breaking free on acquiring sufficient kinetic energy.
 Evaporation is more as the temperature approaches the boiling point of water.
As the temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules increases. This
decreases the extra kinetic energy the surface molecules require to break free or
evaporate. So evaporation increases.
 In highly humid weather, evaporation decreases, as the air is highly-saturated
with water molecules.
 As evaporation takes place, the air immediately above the surface of the water
becomes saturated with water molecules.

Cooling effect
How Does Evaporation Cause Cooling?
 When a liquid evaporates it draws the energy from the liquid itself. Hence it
keeps cooling. The liquid draws on the energy lost from the surroundings
that in turn become cooler.
 One such usage can be seen in the forced cooling by air coolers during
summer.