independent Schools

Mathematics
TWO |
FOR
COMMON
ENTRANCE

apy
Serena Alexander
GALORE
PARK &#
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Common Entrance success...

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 Mathematics §
TWO A
| zo)
COMMON |
Aes

Serena Alexander

GALORE
PARK [#
AN HACHETTE UK COMPANY
About the author
Serena Alexander has taught mathematics since 1987, originally in both
maintained and independent senior schools. From 1990 she taught at St Paul's
School for Boys, where she was Head of mathematics at their Preparatory School,
Colet Court, before moving first to Newton Prep as Deputy Head and then to
Devonshire House as Head. She is now an educational consultant, with a focus
on mathematics, and an ISI reporting inspector and in addition she helps to run
regular mathematics conferences for prep school teachers.
Serena has a passion for maths and expects her pupils to feel the same way.
After a lesson or two with her, they normally do!
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ISBN: 978 1 4718 4677 9
© Serena Alexander 2015
First published in 2015 by
Galore Park Publishing Ltd,
An Hachette UK Company
Carmelite House
50 Victoria Embankment
London EC4Y 0DZ
www.galorepark.co.uk
‘ Impression number 109 87 65 4 3 2
Year 2019 2018 2017
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Typeset in India
Printed in Italy
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
Contents
Introduction vii

Chapter 1 Working with numbers

The decimal number system - a summary
Mental strategies
More estimating —
Anmnhr

Calculation strategies
Mixed operations
Rounding
Range of values
Activity: Dice games

Chapter 2 Back to Babylon

Factors and multiples
Prime numbers and prime factors
Square numbers and their roots
Cubes and their roots
Triangular numbers
Extension: More about using factors
Activity: The number game

Chapter 3 Written calculations

Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Multiplying and dividing
by multiples of 10
Multiplying and dividing by a decimal
Long multiplication
Long division
Problem solving
Using a calculator
Activity: Babylonian numbers

Chapter 4 Measurement and the metric system

Metric units
Calculating with quantities
Imperial units
Activity: Design a poster
 Chapter 5 Fractions 59
Simple fractions 59
Mixed numbers and improper fractions 62
Adding and subtracting fractions 63
A fraction of an amount - 67
Multiplying and dividing fractions 68
Solving problems with fractions 72
Activity: Egyptian fractions 74

Chapter 6 Probability 76
The probability scale 76
More probability words 77
Recording probabilities 79
Calculating the probability of a
second event 82
Possibility space diagrams 85
Activity: Design a board game | 91

Chapter 7 Algebra 1: Expressions and formulae 92

The rules of algebra 92
Powers of x 94
Algebra and index numbers 96
Combining multiplication and division 96
Index numbers and brackets 97
Substituting variables in expressions 99
Substitution 102
Formulae 104
Activity: A number trick 2

Chapter 8 More about numbers 114

Significant figures 114
Rounding 116
Large and small numbers 118
Standard index form 121
Powers and roots on the calculator 124
Activity: Calculator games 129

Chapter 9 Perimeter and area 131

The tangram 131
Tangrams and quadrilaterals 132
”“
wy Areas and perimeters of 2D shapes 134.
°
i)
Ww
More quadrilaterals 140
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2)
Circles 144
U Units of area 151
 Extension: Parts of a circle 153 ie)
Activity: Drawing spirals 157 Ss
5
Chapter 10 Percentages 159 2
Fractions, decimals and percentages 159
Finding a percentage of an amount 162
Finding a percentage 164
Percentage change 166
Percentages and money 167
Activity: Tormenting tessellations 72

Chapter 11 Ratio and enlargement 173

Ratio iy3
Ratios of fractions 175
Ratio as parts of a whole 176
Solving problems with ratio seri
Proportional division: The unitary method 178
Ratio and enlargement 180
Enlargement on a grid 182
Activity: Christmas lunch investigation 187

Chapter 12 Algebra 2: Equations and brackets 189

Multiplying out brackets 189
Brackets and minus signs 191
Factorising 193
Equations 194
Squares and square roots 196
Equations with brackets 197
Fractions and equations 198
Writing story puzzles with brackets 199

Chapter 13. Angles and polygons 203

Angles 203
Parallel lines and angles 206
Naming angles 208
Polygons 213
Calculating angles in polygons 218
Activity: Hexagon investigation 226

Chapter 14 Scale drawings and constructions 227

Scale drawings 227
Using scale 228
Constructions 230
Three-figure bearings 236
 Scale drawing and bearings 242
Activity: Black-eyed Jack’s treasure 248

Chapter 15 Straight-line graphs 249

Parts of a graph 249
The x and y-axes 250
Graphs parallel to the axes 251
Drawing shapes on grids 253
Graphs that are not parallel to the axes 254
Drawing the graph of an equation 251,
Activity: Real-life graphs 263

Chapter 16 Handling data 265

What do you know? 265
Frequency tables and frequency diagrams 269
Grouping data 272
Pie charts 274
Scatter graphs 280
Activity: A traffic survey 287

Chapter 17 Transformations 288

Reflections 288
Rotations 290
Translations 292
Mixed or combined transformations 295
Activity: The four-colour problem 303

Chapter 18 3D shapes 305

Units of volume and capacity 305
Surface area 305
Volume 308
Problem solving 312
Activity: Euler’s theorem 317

Chapter 19 Algebra 3: More equations 219

Forming and solving equations 319
Using algebra to solve problems 324

v Chapter 20 Sequences 331

S Recognising sequences 331
iS Equations for sequences 335
1) Activity: Pentagonal and hexagonal
numbers 342.

Glossary 344

Index 349
Introduction
This book is for pupils working towards their 13+ ISEB Common
Entrance. It is intended for pupils in Year 8 who will be taking either uol}o
Level 1 or Level 2 papers at the end of the year. It may also be
suitable for pupils in earlier years who will eventually be sitting either
Level 3 Common Entrance or Scholarship papers. It has been written
in line with the National Curriculum and the ISEB syllabus.
In certain chapters the work covered in Mathematics for Common
Entrance One is briefly revised before the topic is extended. Other
topics are new and have a full introduction. There are extension
exercises at the end of each chapter to encourage the more
enthusiastic.
There is an emphasis on sound number work and, where relevant,
efficient use of a calculator and sound calculator methods are covered.
In each exercise there are clear examples showing how pupils should
set out their work, in order to develop mathematical reasoning skills.
As in Mathematics for Common Entrance One, the word problems are
set in relevant contexts for 12-13 year olds: the mathematics of
pocket money increases, the cost of computer games and the pricing
of a school trip are all covered.
Activities, including puzzles and investigations provide ideas for
more open-ended work on statistics and practical work on geometry.
Some of these can be explored further by using a suitable computer
programme.
The National Curriculum for Mathematics reflects the importance of
spoken language in pupils’ development across the whole curriculum
- cognitively, socially and linguistically. These tasks are essential
in developing pupils’ mathematical vocabulary and presenting a
mathematical justification, argument or proof. Teachers should ensure
pupils build secure foundations by using discussion to diagnose
understanding and to correct any misconceptions.
 eS Notes on features in this book
POCO CHO SCE OEE E EO OS EOE E HEE EO HES ESO EEE EEE SEH TOT EO OSH TE DUO E OSE HES SOHO SSS SSH OOSSO HEH SOHSSOO SOD EEDON ESOS ecee

Words printed in blue and bold are keywords. All keywords are defined
in the Glossary at the end of the book.

Example
Worked examples are given throughout to aid understanding of each part of —
a topic.

Exercises are provided to give pupils plenty of opportunities to practise what

they have learned.

Some exercises contain questions that are more challenging. These extension
exercises are designed to stretch more able pupils.

puutnaly Exercise ;
Each chapter oa math 2a ee exercise, containing questions on all the
topics in the chapter.

Useful rules and reminders are scattered throughout the book.

The National Curriculum for Mathematics reflects the importance of spoken

language in pupils’ development across the whole curriculum— cognitively,
socially and linguistically. Activities to develop these skills are interspersed
between the chapters. These are essential for developing pupils’ mathematical
vocabulary and presenting a mathematical justification, argument or proof.

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 » Working with numbers

In the animal kingdom many species demonstrate the ability to

recognise numbers, especially the number of young they have. Many
birds have a good sense of number. If a nest contains four eggs, a
predator might take one away without the bird deserting the nest, but
when two are removed the bird generally abandons the rest. A bird
can distinguish two from three. This ability seems to be instinctive
and not learned.
Very early civilisations demonstrated the same ability to recognise
numbers but most did not have words for numbers larger than two.
Instead they used words such as flocks of sheep, heaps of grain, or
lots of people. There was little need for a numeric system until groups
of people formed clans, villages and settlements and began a system
of bartering and trade that in turn created a demand for currency.
In the days before pencil and paper, people used hand signals as an
official system.

adai uy
It is now generally accepted that the decimal numerals derive from
a form that was developed in India and transmitted via Arab culture
to Europe, undergoing a number of changes on the way. Several
different ways of writing numbers evolved in India before it was
possible for the existing decimal numerals to be combined with the
place-value principle of the Babylonians. This led to the number
system in use today.
 C
).The.decimal
number system. a. summary...
Place value
The value of any digit in a number depends on its place or position
within that number.
This number is three hundred and seventy-two million, five hundred -
and six thousand and nine.

CCRC ou al a
a[7]2{s[olelolole|
You would generally write this with a small space between the
hundreds and the thousands and another small space between the
thousands and the millions.
372506009
A proper fraction is a part of a whole. Decimal fractions are
separated from whole numbers by the decimal point.
This number is five thousand, four hundred and twelve and thirty-five
thousandths.

All these numbers are greater than nought or zero, but some numbers
are less than zero. These are negative numbers.
You can show positive and negative numbers on the number line.
Ts: m0 20 110

~100 ~50 0 50 100

POPC C CEES OOH OHH E HEE HEE OEE EOE SEED ESE ESOS E HE EEEHEO EEO EE EE EE DOSES OS EES EEE OESOUESESE SESE ESOS SEES EEEEEeeeS

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Sometimes, when you need to add, subtract, multiply or divide,
S you can do it in your head. Sometimes you need to use pencil and
>
= paper. As calculations become more complex, you may need to use a
<=
=
calculator.
>
S You may be tempted to use a calculator for every calculation you do
SS but you will not always have one available, for example, when you are
ite
shopping or on holiday. Make sure that you can complete calculations
S$ in your head and on paper.
7

(2)
The inverse ES
7)
Many people find it easier to add or multiply, rather than subtract S
ct
or divide. Remember that subtraction is the inverse of addition and alt
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division is the inverse of multiplication. =
pe}
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Think again about number bonds. When you know one, you know at Mich
a’)
least three more. iv)

As 138 + 75 = 213 then 75 + 138 = 213

and 213 — 75 = 138
and 213 — 138 =75
also 38 + 175 = 213
and 213 — 38 =175
and 213 — 175 = 38
AS 15.57 — 105 then. 7 *~15= 105
and 105+ 15=7
and 105 + 7=15
also 5 x 21=105 You can rearrange the factors:
and 105 + 21=5 AO 95 38 Sa oe

and 105+5=21

Examples
Given that 34 x 15 = 510, write down the value of:
(i) 510+ 15 (ii) 510 + 17 (iii) 3.4 x 0.15

(i) 510+ 15=34 Rearrange factors to give 34x 15=17x2x15

(ii) 510+
17=30 ee
(iii) 3.4 x 0.15 = 34+ 10 x 15 + 100
= 510+ 1000
= 0.510
= 0.51
aes, : You
Dae do not HAB
need toce
You could also use the rules for multiplying by decimals.
The total number of digits after the decimal points in the question is the same leaving it out does
as the total number of digits after the decimal point in the answer. not change the value
of the number, but
3.4 x 0.15 has three digits altogether after the decimal points so the answer you need to keep it in
will be 0.510 but you do not need to write the last 0 in your final answer. while you complete
Unless you are asked to give the answer to 3 significant figures or 3 decimal the calculation.
places in this case.
 1 Given that 167 + 45 = 212, write down the value of:

(a) 212-167 (b) 212

- 145 (c) 2.12
— 1.67
2 Given that 19 x 35 = 665, write down the value of:
(a) 665+ 19 (b) 665 + 35 (c) 19x 3.5
3 Given that 203 — 154 = 49, write down the value of:
(a) 203-49 (b) 149+ 54 (c) 2.03 —0.49
4 Given that 240 + 16 = 15, write down the value of:
(a) 240+ 15 (b) 15x 16 (c) 1.5
x 1.6
5 Given that 175 + 192 = 367, write down the value of:
(a) 367-192 (b) 367-75 (c) 3.67- 1.92
6 Given that 24 x 28 = 672, write down the value of:
(a) 672 +24 (b) 48x 14 (c) 2.4x0.28
7 Given that 508 — 196 = 312, write down the value of:
(a) 508
- 312 (b) 312+ 296 (c) 3.12
+ 1.96
8 Given that 144 + 45 = 3.2, write down the value of:
(a) 144+ 3.2 (b) 45 x 32 (c) 3.24.5
9 Given that 45 x 24 = 1080, write down the value of:
(a) 1080 + 45 (b) 108 + 24 (c) 7.21.5
10 Given that 1890 + 54 = 35, mate down the value of:
(a) 189+ 35 (b) 18x 105 (c) 6x 3.15

Estimating
Consider the calculation 419 x 27

First, estimate the answer by rounding 419 to the nearest hundred

and 27 to the nearest ten.
ie
o
Q 419 = 400 27 = 30
S
= Then: 419 x 27 ~ 400 x 30
S
=
ad = 12000
=
D
= There are three zeros altogether. You can think of this as:
=
= 4000 x 3 = 12000

As this is a whole number, you cannot leave out any of the zeros.

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 Example K¢
a)
=]
Estimate the value of 3195 x 350 3195 = 3000 but 350 = 400 as 350
ct
ee
3195 x 350 = 3000 x 400 is exactly halfway between 300 and 4)
ct
=.
400, so you round up. fe)
a
= 1200000 i)
ic
i)
7)

Now consider division.

Examples
(i) Estimate the answer to 579 + 19
579 + 19 = 600 + 20 Divide 600 first by 10 to get 60
~ 30 then by 2 to get 30

(ii) Estimate the answer to 4136 + ~ 485

4136 + 485 = 4000 + 500 Divide 4000 first by 100 to get 40
=f then by 5 to get 8

You could divide both the numbers in the calculation by ten or one
hundred. First cross off the zeros, making sure you cross off the same
number of zeros in each number. Then complete the resulting calculation.
400+ 28 =20 4006+ 508 =8

Estimate the answer to each calculation.

1 32x218 6 4372+ 246

2.5992 24 7 450
x 242
3 79x 450 8 650+ 79
4 729+17 9 1432
x 628
5 43x 623 10 6350+47

11 x 734
125 16 3612+99

12 1925 +534 17 48x 863

x 499
13 4200 18 587+ 26

14 4200+ 499 19 8432+ 428

15 636 x99 20 9999+ 475

Now use a calculator to work out the exact answers to check the accuracy of
your estimates. Were your estimates the same as your partner's?
 QSONISONISOONONON OOO OONOOOIOOIO © OOOO died

Sometimes it is not worth giving an exact answer to a calculation,

because the values are constantly changing. One example is in
questions about population sizes.

Example
If the population of London is 6 767 500 and the population of Belfast is 301600,
how many times larger is the population of London than that of Belfast?
The population of London is approximately 6 800 000 and of Belfast it is
approximately 300 000.
So the population of London is 6800000 + 300000 = 22.7 or 23 times larger
than that of Belfast.

Jersey. Given that the population of Jersey is 80212, estimate the population
of Coventry.
2 The population of the Isle of Wight is about one-sixth of the population of
Glasgow. Given that the population of Glasgow is 733 784, estimate the
population of the Isle of Wight.
3 Estimate the number of seconds in one year.
4 Given that there are 1760 yards in a mile, roughly how many yards are there
in 496 miles?
5 There are 23 boys in my form. To eat comfortably they each need a width of
65cm at the dining table. Estimate the minimum perimeter of a dining table
that will seat the whole class. Give some suitable dimensions, in metres, for
the length and width of the table.
6 Arecent survey showed that the average weekly pocket money in my class
of 24 was £1.78 (to the nearest penny). Estimate the total amount of pocket
money the class receives altogether.
7 The school photocopier uses 45 packets of 500 sheets of paper in one term.
io
is) There are 11 weeks in the term. The photocopier is used for five days every
Q week and there are nine working hours in a day. Estimate the number of
=
= sheets used in one hour.
~
<= 8 The school photographer is coming to take each pupil’s photograph. There
ad
> are 443 pupils in the school. It takes, on average, 3 minutes to photograph
i) each pupil. Estimate the number of hours that the photographer needs to
x=NM spend at the school.

= 9 My teacher is writing our school reports. She says that she has to write
reports for nine classes. There are, on average, 19 pupils in each class. She
says it takes her about 12 minutes to write each report. Estimate the
number of hours my teacher spends writing our reports.

()
10 | have just finished a really good book. There were 298 pages in the book 2)
and about 12 words a line on 30 lines on each page. | read the book ina =
(a)
total of 8 hours and 40 minutes. Estimate my reading speed in number of =
fe)
words per minute. =
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C) Calculation strategies
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Multiplication m
nn

There are some techniques that can help you when you need to multiply.

Using last digits

Sometimes looking at the last digit can be useful.

Example
Multiply: 26 x 19
Firstly make a good estimate. 25 x 20 = 500 would be good in
this case.
Then multiply the last two digits together 6x9=54
Now you know that the product of 26 x 19 is approximately 500 and must end in a 4
There are two possibilities, 504 or 494, close to 500 (Those numbers ending in 4 either
_ side of your estimate 500)
Do a mental calculation to decide: 26 xX 19= 26 x 20-261
a = 520 - 26
= 494
If your estimate was less accurate, then you may need to look at other, less close, possible
answers, such as 514 or 484

1 Write down the last digit only of each product.

(a) 23x 45 (d) 36x27
(b) 34x98 (e) 47x22
(c) 21x65 (f) 99x 38
2 Only one of the three choices is correct. Work out which one it is. Then use
estimation and the last digits to state the reason why the other two are
incorrect.
(a) 31x99= (b) 29x 42=
(i) 3069 (i) 818
(ii) 2699 (ii) 1029
(iii) 2708 (iii) 1218
 (c) 31x 58= (e) 72x51=
(i) 1058 (i) 3616
(ii) 1798 (ii) 3492
(iii) 1218 (iii) 3672
(d) 78x 52= (f) 99x 39=
(i) 4056 (i) 2718
(ii) 456 (ii) 3861
(iii) 35016 (iii) 4081
3 Use your calculator to check the answers to the six multiplications above.
4 The class teacher has displayed some number tiles to show the answers
to some multiplications but the number tiles have fallen off the wall. Use
estimating and the last digit rule to make the calculations work.
(a) 37 x25= (The tiles are 2, 5, 9)
(b) 29x 78= (The tiles are 2, 2, 2, 6)
(c) 45x 87= (The tiles are 1, 3, 5, 9)
(d) 32x 49= (The tiles are 1, 5, 6, 8)
(e) 29x 58= (The tiles are 1, 2, 6, 8)
(fy 81 xol= (The tiles are 1, 4, 4, 9)

Multiplication by factors
Sometimes, when you are multiplying difficult numbers, it can be
useful to break the number into its factors and multiply by them.
A factor is a number that divides exactly into another number.
3 and 4 are factors of 12

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Division iy
Using factors c
fe)
Just as for multiplication, it can be useful to break the number into 5
its factors when you are dividing. This enables you to divide by smaller a
numbers. a
—
@
a,
Example &
Divide: 336 + 24
336 +24=336+4+6 24=4x6 Divide by 4 first as this is easier.
=84+6

=14

Use what you know about addition, subtraction, multiplication and division to sharpen
your mental arithmetic skills in this exercise. See how quickly you can complete
them all in your head without written working. Only write down the answer.
1 Copy and complete these additions.
faleio -s2= (g252
30= 5 2
(b) 36+43=___ (g) 18+73=___
(c) 28+71=__ (h) 57+36=____
(d) 24+53=__ >
(i) 294642
(e) 654+24=_ (j) 46+35=_
2 Now copy and complete these multiplications.
(a) 6x9=___ (f) 17x5=___
(b) 7 xSeek= (s) 3x 19S.__
ies ols (hh) i240 =
(d) 17x2=____ (i) 9x13 =.=
(e) 4%26=22"5 (je25 4, —
3 Now copy and complete these.
(a) 35+15=____ (f) 356-129=___
(b) Dhaai ane (g) 532+119=___
(c) 166+223=___ (h) 281-59=__
(d) 168-49=_____ (i) 364+259=_
(e) 123 + 337 =___ (j) 507-169=__
 4 Nowtry division: think of the inverse.
(a) M0s2
= ___ (f) 275+25=___
(b) 144+6=___ (g) 1354415 Steen
(c) 132+4=___ (h) 315+9=__
(d) Mi25a75=_ (i) 1050+25=____
(e) 375+5=__ (j) 1440+ 18=___
Here is a mixture of questions.
(a) 1564 76=__= (f) 402-123 =___—
(b) 457-268=___ (g) 19 x11=
(c)e25x9=2. “(h) 308+ 44=. =
(d) 1702-S'=____ (COs Aa
(e) 145+ 567=___ on Jinn OGi35825)

e Mixed operations
CoCo ooo CEOS EH CE ES OPCE SOOO SOTO OT OOO OTE SEE OS OES ESESOSET SOTTO TESTO LODSO SOS OOSTOHOSEH ESR TOH OOOH TOTES T SOO OES

You can add, subtract, multiply and divide, but there are times when
you need to do at least two of these in one calculation.
The rule is: ‘multiplication and division before addition and
subtraction’ and also: ‘complete any calculation in brackets first,
followed by any index numbers’.
You can use the mnemonic SMI to remember the order of
operations.
Brackets, Indices, Divide, Multiply, Add, Subtract.
Remember that indices are index numbers or powers.
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Exercise 1.6 fe)
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Remember the BIDMAS rule when calculating the answers to these questions. =
=|
ga
13+5x4 6 25-3x7
2 72+9-4x2 7 45+5-3x2

3 (3+5)x4 8 3x (4-1)?
4 3+15+3 9 (8+ 4)?+(5—2)2
5 374 2=2x3 10 (8—5)?x (5-2)

MP ROUMIN CMe AR Fe,

You know that it can often be convenient to use approximate
or rounded numbers in everyday situations. For example, when
discussing attendance at a rock festival, it is generally acceptable to
give an estimate of the number of people who attended.
It can also be useful to round decimal fractions. For example,
when a joiner is building furniture, it is unlikely that measurements
will be accurate to more than one place of decimals. Look at this
number line.
0.17 0.436 0.65
' Y !
0 Stee? GS 0A. 05- "U6 "07, 0s" o9

You can see that 0.17 lies between 0.1 and 0.2 but is nearer to 0.2
rive 2At0ried-p:) 060.17 ~ 0.2

Similarly, 0.436 lies between 0.4 and 0.5 but is nearer to 0.4
0.436 = 0.4 (to 1 d.p.)
Note that 0.65 lies exactly halfway between 0.6 and 0.7 so the rule is
to round up.
0.65 = 0.7 (to 1 d.p.)

The steps are the same as for whole numbers.

1 Find the digit in the place that you are rounding to.
2 Look at the digit to the right of it.
3 If it is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, round your digit up.
4 If it is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4, leave your digit as it is.
5 Remove all the digits after the rounded digit.
 Examples
(i) Round 45627 to the nearest: (a) tenthousand (b) hundred.
(a) 45627 = 50000 to the nearest ten thousand
The digit to the right of forty thousand is 5 so round up.
(b) 45627 = 45600 to the nearest hundred
The digit to the right of six hundred is 2 so round down.
(ii) Round 3.5139 to: (a) 3 decimal places (b) 1 decimal place.
(a) 3.5139 = 3.514 (to 3p)
The digit to the right of 3 thousandths is 9 so round up.
(b) 3.5139 = 3.5 (to 1d.p.)
The digit to the right of 5 tenths is 1 so round down.

1 Round each number to the nearest: (i) tenthousand (ii) hundred.

(a) 13569 (c) 2434709 (e) 29003
(b) 346512 (d) 95035 (f) 199999
2 Roundeach number to: (i) 1 decimal place (ii) 3 decimal places.
(a) 0.1754 (c) 5.0006 (e) 19.0919
(b) 24.0255 (d) 25.9137 (f) 13.29999
3 Round each number to the nearest: (i) million (ii) thousand.
(a) 14653412 (c) 6175919 (e) 9599900
(b) 19856095 (d) 17500055 (f) 6940890
4 Round each number to: (i) the nearest whole number (ii) 2 decimal places.
(a) 5.1923 (c) 13.7192 (e) 9.605
(b) 0.945 (d) 1.7359 (f) 2.1999
2
o What is the smallest whole number that can be written as 3 million to the nearest million?
Q
=
5 What is the largest whole number that can be written as 5000 to the nearest thousand?
S
= What is the smallest whole number that can be written as 199 to the nearest whole number?
2
= What is the largest number that can be written as 450 to the nearest 10?
=>)
= What is the smallest number that can be written as 9.09 to two decimal places?
aa uo
UW
oO
On

= 10 What is the largest number that can be written as 0.9 to one decimal place?

()
 mE” cine cicnisSimS/S 618©.
© (eielejele/win'y Glele'aleare(ele6(a/aieiely 614je\cie'e'e|nleie1e/4/4leie/e leieieieieieieiernleia
iereivieiei6 eieicteesieieaiere

You know that the inequality symbol < means less than and >
means more than.
You need also to know that: -
asuey
Sanje
jo
@ < is a combination of < and = and means less than or equal to
@ > is a combination of > and = and means greater than or equal to.
You can use these symbols to describe ranges of values.
Consider a whole number, n, such that n < 8
Then the value of n could be 7, 6, 5, 4,3...
Consider another whole number, n, such that n < 8
Then the value of n could be 8, 7, 6, 5, 4,3...
Consider another whole number, n, such that n > 5
Then the value of 7 could be 6, 7, 8, 9, ....
Consider another whole number, n, such that n > 5
Then the value of n could be 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ....
You can show the possible values on a number line.

frerciset8
_}
1 Write the range of whole numbers shown on each number line.

aaa oo yee yl ° |
se 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Baal. i. oa <5 aan wat bin woh|aas 2odl

tb) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 itm. mds sae Ss. ln
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 ay, Ze

Qi ee ee ae ee
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

tS ne oa Aa ee ee
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99

In questions 2-8, draw a suitable number line to show the range of values for a
number,7.

2 n>Sandn<8 6 n>15andn<18
3 n=9andn<12 7 n=95 andn < 98
4 n> 15andn
< 20 8 n<55andn=51
5 n<28andn=25

Extension §3aneat-w me)

In these questions write down the calculation correctly, using brackets if
necessary. Then complete the calculation, remembering the BIDMAS rule.
1 Take 4, add 7 and then multiply the answer by 6. What is your answer?
2. Take 36, divide it by 9 and subtract the answer from 15. What is your answer?

3 Take 36 divided by 9 from 28 divided by 4

4 What is the value of ten squared divided by 5 less six squared divided by four?
5 | have 9 conkers. | give 5 of them away and then | lose half of the rest. How
many conkers do | have left?
6 My mother is 34. If | halve her age and then take away 5, | have my age.
0 How old am |?
is)
Q
SS 7 |am 12. If | take the square of my age and then divide it by 2, | have my
= grandpa’s age. How old is grandpa?
a
2 8 My sister is 21. If you divide her age by 3 and then square the answer, you
> have my mother’s age. How old is my mother?
Dp
= 9 | have 2 hens. Fluffy laid six eggs a week for five weeks and Clucky laid eight
a
eggs a week for four weeks. Who laid more eggs and by how many?
= 10 | take the square of my little sister's age and divide it by my age, you get my
brothers age. If |am 12, how old are my brother and my sister? Work out
what possible ages my sister could be first.

“a
as
 va
Summary Exercise 1.10 ie)
=)
ga
fa)
1 Write the maine of A, B, aoa a this number line. f°)
=F
<
D y € B A =
i=
iw)
wn
ee are ae O80 18Sodcntwboonvieroy nyo etertbrynovton
~ 1000 ~500 0 500 1000 1500

Round these numbers to:

(i) the nearest ten
(ii) the nearest thousand.
(a) 45909 (b) 346435
Round these numbers to:
(i) the nearest whole number
(ii) two decimal places.
(a) 13.045 (b) 33.499
Given that 971 — 346 = 625, write down the value of:
(a) 971-625 (b) 325+ 646 (c) 6.25 + 3.46
Given that 28 x 65 = 1820, write down the value of:
(a) 1820+ 28 (b) 182+65 (c) 0.28 x 6.5
Estimate the answers.
(a) 547 x29 (c) 7700 +44
(b) 1635 x 541 (d) 4945 + 399

The class teacher is using some number tiles to show the answers to
some multiplications. Use estimating and the last digit rule to make the
calculations work.
(a) 17x 45= (The tiles are 5, 6, 7)

(b) 27x 48= (The tiles are 1, 2, 6, 9)

(c) 46x 39= (The tiles are 1, 4, 7, 9)
Copy and complete these calculations.
(a) 124+ 56=__ (e) 157+ 398=___
(b) 458-214=___ (f) 601- 187=__
(c) 35x 4=-__ (g)) 1213=—"=

(d) 160+ 5=____ (h) 448 + 56 =___

 9 Copy and complete these calculations.
(a) 5x7+63+7 (b) 5x(7+63)+7
10 Matron works out that of the 365 pupils in the school, the 158 boys each
need six different pairs of socks but the girls need only five different pairs of
socks. Does matron find that the boys have more socks than the girls or the
girls than the boys, and by how many?

Activity: Dice ome F

1 Upto 20
For any number of players
Roll three dice.
Use the three scores to make as many numbers as possible — no more than 20
though!
To make the numbers, you combine the three scores with +, -, x, + and brackets.
For example: if you rolled 3, 4 and 6:

3+4-6=1 3x (6-4)=6
3x(4+6)=2 4+6-—3=7
3+6-4=5 4 x (6 — 3) = 12 and so on.

2 Find the factors

For two players and two dice
The first player calls a number between 1 and 30
The second player rolls the two dice.
If either score or any combination of the scores make a factor of the number
called, then the second player wins; if not, the first player wins.
In this game if you throw a 1 and a 5, you can Say it is 15
The winner plays first in the next round.
@ Once a number has been called, you cannot call it again.
o
Q
€ The overall winner is the winner of the final (30th) round.
=
S In that last game you will see there are quite a lot of strategies to help you win
=
2 the game. Some numbers are bound to have a factor and others are not. Is it
= better to call these earlier or later?
Dd
=
x
=
3 Highest number
For two players
Each of you is going to make a four-digit number so outline four squares each.
Player 1 Player 2

peer) oh uae
asuey
jo
sanjeA

clever 1 rolls the die. He can choose to write the number rolled in one of his four
boxes or to pass it to player 2, and player 2 has to write it in her box.
Player 2 then rolls the die. Again, she can choose to write the number rolled in
one of her four boxes or to pass it to player 1, and player 1 has to write it in
his box.
Keep going until all the boxes are filled. The player with the largest four-digit
number wins. For the next round player 2 has the first roll of the die.
After playing the game a few times, discuss the strategies you have discovered
with your partner. See if you both agree.
 Back to Babylon

How many miles to Babylon? Three score miles and ten.

Can I get there by candlelight? Aye, and back again.
If your feet are nimble and light, You'll get there by candlelight.

= Tower of Babel, Babylon, Peter Brueghel

Why would anyone want to go to Babylon? In its heyday Babylon was

the centre of the civilised world, ruled over by King Nebuchadnezzar.
He built the glorious Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the wonders
of the ancient world.
For mathematicians, Babylonians are interesting because they used a
numerical system like our own, but based on the number 60 instead of 10
Why choose 60? Think again about some of the things that you know
about numbers - this will give you a clue.

@Eactols
an MUM Dles rem aetna ye echt
The numbers that divide exactly into another number are its factors.
For example: 3 and 6 are factors of 12
Numbers that are the result of multiplying a number (or factor) Pya
whole number are multiples of the number.
For example: 12 is a multiple of 6 and is also a multiple of 12, 4, 3,
2, and1
When you learnt your times tables, you were studying factors and =
mw
multiples. (a)
ELE
(e)
=

When whole numbers are involved: 74)

w
=)
@ multiples give the result of a multiplication (ee

=
@ factors are the result of a division. =
As
a=)
7X8=56 then 56 is a multiple of 7 and of 8 io)
n

Then 56+7=8 and 7 and 8 are factors of 56

The rules of divisibility

@ A number can be divided by 2 if it is even.
@ A number can be divided by 3 if the sum of its digits is a multiple
of 3
@ A number can be divided by 4 if the number formed by its last two
digits can be divided by 4
@ A number can be divided by 5 if it ends in 5 or 0
@ A number can be divided by 6 if it is even and its digit sum (sum of
its digits) is a multiple of 3
@ A number can be divided by 9 if its digit sum is a multiple of 9
@ A number can be divided by 10 if it ends in 0
There are rules of divisibility for 7, 8 and 11 but they are more
complicated. It is better just to be good at these times tables and to
be able to divide by 7, 8 and 11

Example
Is 6a factor of: (i) 1341 (ii) 2142?
(i) The digit sum of 1341 is: 14+3+44+1=9
9 is a multiple of 3, so 1341 is divisible by 3
But 1341 is odd, so 6 is not a factor of 1341
(ii) The digit sum of 2142 is: 2+1+4+2=9
9 is a multiple of 3, so 2142 is divisible by 3
2142 is even, so 6 is a factor of 2142
 Finding factors
If you need to find all the factors of a number, consider them in pairs.

Start with 1 and write down all the factor pairs, until you get the
Same pairs of factors in reverse order.

Example
Find all the factors of 45

The next factor pair is 9 x 5 which is the same as

5 x 9so stop the list here.
The factors of 45 are: 1, 3, 5,9, 15 and 45

(a) 216 (c) 425 (e) 12324

(b) 480 (d) 614
2 Which of these numbers are multiples of 9?
(a) 216 (c) 617 (e) 19368
(b) 891 (d) 6138
3 Which of these numbers have 7 as a factor?
(a) 7 (c) 77 (e) 91
(b) 27 (d) 717
4 Which of these numbers are multiples of 11?
(a) 88 (c) 292 (e) 2574
(b) 121 (d) 374
5 List all the factors of each number.
5 (a) 17 (c) 71 (e) 101
= (b) 37 (d) 83
~ 6 List all the factors of each number.
< (a) 1 (c) 64 (e) 144
a (b) 25 (d) 9
N
 7 List all the factors of each number. a
=
(a) 10 (c) 24 (e) 100 =|
o
(b) 16 =|
(d) 60 c
=|
8 What is special about 60? >
o
=
n
9 Look again at the numbers in question 5 and question 6. What do you notice? w
=|
a.
ae)
=.
=|
IS FON OICICOISTODO ICCC OT CTO GODS OOIIOOTICL HOOOC TOC USIOUOCNICUDTOSOOCO STC TO COCO OCC COTODNOAOCSCORCC
CR Cre tt o
a(a)
=>

A number that has exactly two factors, itself and 1, is a prime et

number. °
=
vn

Remember that 1 is not a prime number because it does not have two
factors.
The first five prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7 and 11
4 and 4=2'x
Now'12=3 x x3
2,s012=2x2
When you write 12 as 2 x 2 x 3, you are writing it as the product of
its prime factors. You would normally use index numbers to write
repeated factors.
Look at this number.
243 =3x3x3x3x3=3° This is the prime factorisation of 243
243 has only one prime factor, which is 3, but the factor 3 is repeated
to produce 243
The small raised 5 is an index number and it indicates how many ‘lots’
of 3 are multiplied together.
Therefore you can write 12 as 12 = 2? x 3. This is the prime
factorisation of 12
A number can be factorised into a product of prime numbers in only
one way. This is known as the unique factorisation property.
The method used above is useful for finding prime factors of smaller
numbers.
For larger numbers it is better to use successive division by prime
numbers. Always start with the smallest.
 Examples
(i) Write 1287 as the produce of its prime factors.
Start by finding its prime factors.

The digit sum is 18 and so 1287 can be divided by 3

The digit sum is 15 and so 429 can be divided by 3
143 cannot be divided by 5 or by 7 but can be divided by 11
13 is a prime number.

1287 =3x3x11x 13
Sea ay
(ii) Write 786 as the product of its prime factors.

786 is an even number and so can be divided by 2

The digit sum is 15 so 393 can be divided by 3
131 cannot be divided by 3 or 5 or 7 or 11 or 13, so it
must be prime.

786
= 2X 3x 131

1 List all the prime numbers from 1 to 50

2 Which of these are prime numbers?
(a) 87 (b) 91 (c) 107 (d) 207 (e) 231
3 Write each number as the product of its prime factors.
(a) 16 (b) 40 (c) 120 (d) 28 (e) 100
4 Each number is written as a product of prime factors in index form.
What are the numbers?
=
S (a) 2x 3? (c) 2?x32x5 (e) 23x 5*x 11
a
xs© (b) 22x 32 (d) 22x 32x 52
a
~
° 5 (i) Write the first five multiples of each number.
~1S)
© (a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 12
a
(ii) Write each of the given numbers as products of its prime factors.
What do you notice?

2
 6 Use successive division to write each number as the
product of its prime
factors.
(a) 252 (c) 798 (e) 6215
(b) 1155 (d) 11475
7 Write down the largest number that is a factor of:
(a) both 24 and 45 (b) both 40 and 56 (c) both 100 and 120
8 Write down the smallest number that is a multiple of:
(a) both 8 and 10 (b) both 16 and 20 (c) both 20 and 25

The answers to question 7 are the highest common factors (HCF) of awd
$10}9
pue
siaq
auld
the two numbers.
The answers to question 8 are the lowest common multiples (LCM) of
the two numbers.
You can deduce them simply for smaller numbers, but for larger
numbers it helps to look at the prime factors.

Examples
(i) Find the highest common factor of 315 and 210

315=9x35 Z10=
10 x 21

secs x SX 7 =2xXx3x5x7

You can see that 3 and 5 and 7 are factors of both numbers.
Therefore the HCF of 315 and 210 is 3x 5x 7=105
(ii) Find the lowest common multiple of 315 and 210

315=9x35 ZA =O et You must include

=3x3x5x7 = Pe 3 VIET all the prime factors

of one number, as
LCM of 315 and 210
= 3x (3x 5x 7)x2 well as any extra
=315%2 prime factors in the
other.
= 630

Another way of looking at HCFs and LCMs is to put all the factors of
the numbers into a Venn diagram.
Look carefully at where the factors have been written within 315
the different regions in the diagram.
The HCF is the product of the factors in the dark overlapping
area: 3X 5X 7=105
The LCM is the product of all the factors:
2x3x3x5x/7=
630
 1 Work out the highest common factor of each pair of numbers.
(a) 24 and 144 (d) 224 and 504
(b) 132 and 198 (e) 400 and 640
(c) 144 and 180 (f) 630 and 882
2 Work out the lowest common multiple of each pair of numbers.
(a) 12 and 45 (d) 224 and 504
(b) 60 and 144 (e) 400 and 640
(c) 60 and 72 (f) 630 and 882
3 Consider the numbers from 1 to 100
(a) What is the largest number that is a multiple of both 3 and 7?
(b) What is the smallest number that is a multiple of both 8 and 6?
(c) What is the largest number that has 3 as a factor?
(d) What is the largest number that has 6 as a factor?
(e) What is the largest number that has both the numbers 3 and 5 as factors?
(f) Which numbers have only two factors?
(g) Which numbers have an odd number of factors?
(h) Which is the largest number that is a factor of 360?
(i) How many numbers contain the digit 7?
_ (j) How many numbers contain the digit 0?

C). Square numbers and their rots. ccc

Think again about index numbers.
Shs ok ee

You can display 32 as a square array or pattern of dots, with three dots .
in each of three rows.
c You say 3° as ‘three squared’.
S
a
xs© Numbers that can be drawn as a square pattern of dots are square
~ numbers.
°
Ww
x
1S)
3? =3x3=9
us)
a
2
Then the square root of 9 is 3 7)
ae)
Cc
You write this as /9 = 3 pe)
=s
iw)
Notice the special sign for a square root. =)

5
oT
7.)
=
n
fe)
S
(ot
1 Draw a dot pattern to show each number. ot
2%

(a) 47=16 (b) 22=4 (c) 6*=36

©,
—
+
fe)
2 Without drawing dot patterns, work out the value of each number. ie)
ct
n

(a) 72 (b) 92 (c) 112

3 List all the square numbers from 1 to 100, in order.
4 Look at this sequence of numbers.
673, 8; 15, 24, 35, ...
(a) Continue the pattern for three more terms.
(b) Compare with your sequence of square numbers. What do you notice?
5 Look at this sequence of numbers.
SO tie 1G; 20, SOc ox:
(a) Continue the pattern for three more terms.
(b) Compare with your sequence of square numbers. What do you notice?
6 Use this rule to generate a number sequence.
Start with 0
Add 1 and write down your answer.
Add 3 to that number. Write down that answer.
Continue adding successive odd numbers until you have 10 numbers.
Describe these numbers.
You will look again at this pattern, when you have learnt some more about
algebra.
7 \magine a square of 49 dots. How many dots are there on one side of the
square?
This number is the square root of 49
8 Find the square root of each number.
(a) 16 (b) 4 (c) 36
 9 Evaluate each square root.

(a) Vi00 (d) Vas

(b) V1 (e) Vea
(c) V1 (f) 144
10 The Babylonians studied square numbers and used them in their
mathematics. In particular, they noticed there were special groups of three
squares, in which two of the squares added up to the third. Try to find two
such groups of three in your list of square numbers.
11 Now look at one of your groups of three squares. Write down the three
square roots associated with your squares. Draw two triangles in which the
sides are the same lengths, in centimetres, as the square roots. Measure the
largest angle in each. What do you notice?
This phenomenon has long been attributed to the Greek mathematician
Pythagoras because he brought the knowledge to Europe. However, it is
interesting to see that in fact the Babylonians got there first!

sGubesiand,.
their roOtsma ee Hee edn sreupe lo saree
Just as 3 x 3 = 3° is called ‘3 squared’, there is a special name for 33
You can display 3 x 3 x 3 = 3? as a cube with sides of three units.

The number 3 x 3 x 3 = 3? is three cubed. The small raised 3 is the

index number.

Sa Soma,

From this, you can see that 27 is a cube number.

Then the cube root of 27 is 3
You write this as 3/27 = 3
= The special sign for a cube root is like the sign for a square root, but
2 has a small 3 in front of it.
=
a)
~
fe)
x1S)
Ss
a)

2
 4

=
yy
=|
ga
1 Evaluate each number. i
®
(a) 2?
ea |

(b) 3° (c) 47 =)
=
2 Copy and complete this table, with values of n from 1 to 12 3
>
©
aa
n

3 Write down the cube root of each number.

(a) 8 (b) 125 (c) 1000

4 Evaluate these cube roots.

(a) 64 (c) ¥216 (e) ¥512

(b) 729 (d) 3/343
5 Write down two numbers that are both a square number and a cube number.
6 When you looked at the squares, you found some groups of three in which
two of them added up to the third. Can you do that with cubes?

Perhaps question 6 is something you might try on a rainy day. If you

do find two different cubes that add up to a third cube, then you
will make mathematical history! This is the starting point for a more
general theorem now known as Fermat’s last theorem.

Heian OulanMUpelsin
eeecccseeese 2 So aee
You know that you can represent square numbers as square patterns
of dots.
You can also arrange dots into triangles, either like this:

or like this:

The numbers represented by the dots are triangular (or triangle) numbers.
 Whichever way you arrange the dots, the numbers they represent make
the same number sequence.
ea

1+2=3

1+2+3=6

Try exploring the interesting properties of triangular numbers. You can

call them T numbers and write them down like this.
T,=1

T,=1+2+3=6

T,=1+2+3+4=10

1 Copy the sequence above and continue it until you have calculated the first
ten triangular numbers.
2 Write your ten triangular numbers out in a row, spaced well apart. Beneath
them, write the sum of each pair, like this.

1 5 6 10
4 9 ae . and so on.

- What do you notice about your pairs?

You could draw a picture, like this.
The black dots are the fourth triangular number, T,, which is 10
The white dots are the third triangular number, T,, which is 6
Notice that T, fits neatly with T, to make a square and that 10 + 6 = 16
which is 4?
3 Draw some more pairs of triangular numbers that fit together to make squares.

> Write down what you find, like this.

5
a
x3©
T, +7T,=1+3=4=2?

m9 T, + 7,=3+6=9=3?
°
ww
a4 4 Multiply each triangular number by 9 and add 1
1S)
ue)
4 Write it like this: 9xT,+1=9x1+1=10=T,
9xT,+1=
2
What do you notice?
5 Continue your list of triangular numbers as far as T.. m
x
et
@
Now make a list of the digits in the units column. =)
rath
ie)
What do you notice? 3

6 Find the digit sum of each triangular number and from this the digital root. <
i°)
=
o
What do you notice? $3)
ST
2)
=
To find the digital root of a number, add its digits and keep adding or

until you are left with a single digit. For example, for 45 the digit sum is c
a
9, so the digital root is 9, but for 66 the digital sum is 12, so add again to =)
ga
=n
get 3, which will be the digital root. se)
oO
er
2)
S)
7 Multiply each triangular number by 8 and add 1 nn

What do you notice?

Write it like this:
8 xT, + 1=8x1+1=9

8xT,+1=
8 In this diagram, two triangular numbers of the same size have been put
together to make a rectangle.
What can you say about the base and height of the rectangle?
Draw some more pairs of triangular numbers fitted together to make
rectangles. What do you notice about the base and height?
9 Multiply together the lengths of the sides, then divide your answer by 2
What do you notice?
10 Without drawing, use this fact to calculate the value of each of these
triangular numbers.
'€) a (b) T,, (c) Tio9

C)..Extension: More about. using factors...

Cee TOCCCOSOOESOOS SCS SOOOLOOOTOSO OSH ESCOOHOLOOSLLODICLONIEe

Using factors to multiply

If you were asked to multiply 125 x 23 you could use long
multiplication. However, some multiplication calculations are easier
you
than others. For example, you may not know your 23 times table but
should know your 8 and 3 times tables.
You also know that 8 x 3 = 24, and 24 -1= 23
.
You can use this information to work out the answer
 Example
Multiply: 125 x 23
125
x 23 = 125 x (24-1)
= 125 x (8 x 3-1)
=125x8x3-125x1
= 1000
x 3-125
= 3000
—-125
= 2875

This might look like a lot of work, but you can do some of the stages
in your head, so you only need to write down the complicated working.
Notice that 125 x 8 = 1000

It is worth remembering that the numbers 25 and 125 are factors

of 1000
You can also break the multiplier into factors.

Example
Multiply: 75 x 24
ix 24 —15x8x3 Multiply by 8 first as 75 x 8 = 600 this makes
=600 x3 the second multiplication easier.

= 1800

Using factors to find square roots and cube roots

The square numbers can be written as 1°, 22, 32, 42, ...
Thisisbecause
they are 1x1=1,2x2=4, 3X3=9,4x4=16...
Thus 4 is the square root of 16 (which is 4 x 4)
3 is the square root of 9 (3 x 3)
2 is the square root of 4 (2 x 2) ...
S
2 If you write square numbers (also called perfect squares) as products
=)
of their prime factors, you can find their square roots.
a)
2) Try it with an easy one.
~
x
1S) 36=2x2x3x3=(2
x 3) x (2x 3)
©
aa)
Thus the square root of 36 is 2x 3=6
z
 mm
x
You can write this as V36=
=/2%3x2x3 et
(4)
=)
2
Seo Mee CS ie)
2
=e =
2)
x
(4)
=a se¥)
\SoP
You_can use this method to find out if any number is a perfect square. te)
=
or
(=
You can use a similar method to find cube roots. ras
=)
ga
=h
Example be}
(a)
cr

Find the cube root of 3375 fe)

=
1")

33/5=3x3x3x5x5x5

= 33x53
3/3375 =3x5=15

Exercise 2.7
th ecm
Poomtece eee
1 rann rls up to 10

1x25=25 1x 125=125 1x 225=225

2x25=50 2x 125=250 2 x 225=450

ak 25S 25° S125 > bajeOY opsapodemeed

2 Copy and complete this multiplication.

24x19 =24x (20-1)
=24x20-24x1 19 is one less than 20, so multiply 24 by 20
and then take away one lot of 24
 3 Complete these multiplication calculations in the same way. yee carefully at
(a) 25x19 (c) 43x29 (e) 51x 225 each multiplier. You
may need to use
(b) 32x19 (d) 41x25 (f) 125 x 62 aHdifien father than
4 Now try these, by dividing the second number into two factors. subtraction.
(a) 25x24 (c) 55x27 (e) 215
x 18
(b) 35x 48 (d) 105 x 64 (f) 65x28
5 Write each number as the product of its prime factors and then find its
square root.
(a) 144 (c) 1296 (e) 1225
(b) 2025 (d) 900 (f) 1764
6 Write each number as the product of its prime factors and then find its cube
root.
(a) 1728 (c) 5832 (e) 13824
(b) 2744 (d) 42875 (f) 46656 You do not
7 Write the numbers in each multiplication as products of their prime factors Beetseae fist
and then find the square root of each product. di iplicatio i ee
write the numbers
(a) 28x28 (c) 12x27 (e) 525 x 189 as products of their
(b) 56x 14 (d) 72x50 (f) 22055 prime factors. _

8 Find the cube roots of these products in the same way.

(a) 18x12 (c) 98
x 28 (e) 147 x 42 x 12
(b) 56x 49 (d) 21x9x49 (f) 56x 63x21

Summary Exercise 2.8

1 Which of these numbers are multiples of 6? Write them down.
(a) 226 (c) 1434 (e) 231
(b) 234 (d) 132 (f) 9000
2 Write down which of the numbers in question 1 can be divided by:
(i) = ’ (ii) 9 (iii) 7
S
AS) 3 List all the factors of each number.
=CS (a) 64 (b) 24 (c) 300
faa)
2)
oo
4
U
i
isa)

N\

S
 Consider these numbers. mm
x
et
7 “CO 4 32 25 @m
=)
eae
From the numbers given above write down one that is: Oo
=)
(a) a prime number (d) a square number. K<
Oo
=
(b) a factor of 16 (e) the cube root of 64 fa)
pe)
Di
(c) a multiple of 8 (f) a triangular number. te)
=
ct
Write each number as the product of its prime factors. c
2
=
(a) 48 (b) 196 (c) 315 ga
=
pa)
Evaluate each expression. 2)
ct
Oo
at
(a) 22x 33 (b) 23x 52 (c) 22x3x5? wn

7 Find the highest common factor of both 144 and 196

Find the lowest common multiple of both 24 and 56
9 Draw the first four triangular numbers and calculate the value of the
seventh.
10 Calculate:
(a) 72x19 (c) the cube root of 200 x 9 x 15
(b) 15 x 36 (d) the square root of 3136

Activity: The number game ;

You should now know a lot about numbers. Before you move on, here are some
puzzle games for you to play. Warm up by trying to answer these questions. All
the answers are numbers less than 100.
1 | am thinking of a number. It is a prime number and it is even. What is my
number?
| am thinking of a number. It is a multiple of three and a factor of 12, but is
not 12 or 3. What is my number?
| am thinking of a number. It is a square number that is less than 50 and the
sum of its digits is 13. What is my number?
| am thinking of a number greater than 50 and it is a prime number.
Its last digit is 3, and the sum of the digits is 10. What is my number?

5 My number is a factor of 455 and 693, but is not 1. What is my number?

My number is the highest multiple of 3 and 4 that is less than 100. What is
my number?
My number is a triangular number that is divisible by 11. What is my
number?
 8 My number is a factor of 60, but is not a multiple of 5, or a square number,
or a prime number. What is my number? (There are two possible answers.)
9 My number is a prime number between 25 and 75, and the sum of its digits
is a Square number. What is my number?
10 My number is a square number and a triangle number. What is my number?
Now that you have warmed up, it is time to play the game.
You and your opponent both need some 1-100 squares. Here’s how to play.
1 Think of a number. Write it above your first 1 to 100 square. Your opponent
will do the same.
2 The youngest player asks the first question in the first game. After that, take
it in turns.
3 Nowask a question. As in the warm-up questions, you should ask a question
that will give you some information about your opponent's number. The
answer may only be ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Whatever the answer to your question, you
should be able to eliminate many of the numbers on your square.
Possible questions could be:
Is your number even? (If the answer is ‘yes’, cross out all odd numbers.)
Is it a multiple of 3? (If ‘yes’, cross out all numbers that are not multiples
of 3)
Is it prime? (If ‘no’, cross out all primes.)
Does it contain the digit 7? (If ‘yes’, cross out all numbers not containing the
digit 7)
4 Keep asking questions until you get the answer ‘no’. Then it is your
opponent's turn.
5 Your opponent can ask you questions until your answer is ‘no’, then it is your
turn again.
6 As you eliminate numbers, you should end up with a very small selection
remaining that have not been crossed out. When you reach this stage, your
final question(s) might be something like:
Is your number 37?
7 The winner is the first player to work out the opponent's number.

<
=
>
©
a)
e)
~
x
1S)
uy)
Oo

2
 . Written calculations

It is excellent to be able to calculate accurately in your head but you also

need to be able to work out the answers to harder calculations on paper.
By now, you should be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers,
including those with decimal fractions. Take a look at these worked
examples and then see how quickly you can complete the exercise.

PPO OIEION occ cs. dDet vip, ta0.vom, Tend. neiteean. 10).9
Example
Add: 4.109 + 274+ 14.75
| Julrfudeln|en|
Ae +1019. When you first write the numbers in
——— __ the frame there will probably be gaps
= See ! od Radel te _ in some of the columns and not all
a {lees 7. L510 | numbers may have decimal points.
Write the decimal points and Os in
before you start your addition.

Cy SUD TEG 161)Wee a ene eee eee are reene

Example The difference
What is the difference between 7.026 and 19? leer mapewerito'a
mal i : : ; subtraction.
T|lUet|h | th First, write the decimal point and the
r 5, Tey. 9, 1% |19 zeros after 19, to give 19.000 and
keep the size of the number correct.
bs |Feo
Always check your answer by doing
Js st Sa adie ie the inverse addition mentally:
11.974 + 7.026 = 19
 Multiplication
BISCO OOOOOT IGDDROIOOTOCONIORCTIONIOCOOOOIOOOOO OOOO OOOO OOO OOOO OOOO OOO aT E It Ade ddd dale ah

Example
Multiply: 5.27 x 8 Estimate: 5 x 8 = 40, you will need an extra column.
ese Ninel | ie |

House. t h

Syn jhe’sant |eyd

its

NES) PA Meath Rs)

oat aod Remember to put the carried numbers under the line.

Division is the one of the four operations that may not give an exact
answer. Consider 153 + 4
4 does not go exactly into 153. It gives a whole number, the
quotient, and another number is left over, the remainder.
153+4=38rl

The remainder can be written as a number, as above, or as fraction or

as a decimal.

A = 387 = 38,25

Example
Divide: 3147 + 4 Estimate: 3000 + 4= 750
Thi H tTlu waa 3+4=0F
3, carry 3

oe ie 8 | 6 nk 31+4=7r3 Write 7 in the answer line and carry 3

actos | Sqn ee 3 (de Banana te Write 8 in the answer line and carry 2
27+4=6r3
a)
= 3147+4=786r3.
S
Pe)
ps
_= 786 7 7863
=,
1S)
I
—

U
S
~
@
Sg
=
5
The other way of dealing with remainders is to write down a decimal
Y
point followed by extra zeros and keep dividing.
a
5
Example
Divide: 3147 + 4

Write a 0 in the tenths column and carry the 3

30+4=7r2

Write 7 in the answer line, add a 0 in the

hundredths column and carry the 2
= ——|— - 20+4=5

3147 + 4= 786.75 Write 5 in the answer line.

Sometimes you will be instructed to round your answer.

Example
Calculate 415 + 7. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
T ; T ;

H/T/]Uet|{h]

s|942| 8 [ral You must keep dividing until you have at least
2 decimal places before you can round to 1
decimal place.

415+7=59.3 (to1d.p,)

1 | Find the sum of four hundred and sixty-eight, two thousand and seventy-five
and sixteen.
2 Find the difference between four thousand, two hundred and forty and two
thousand, one hundred and seventy-six.
Complete these calculations. Show any remainders as decimals.
3 245+
12 460 + 956 9 3428+4
4 6004
-— 1258 10 2536x7
5 402.4+
0.45 + 36.7 147'352:%9
6 90.09
— 3.75 12290229
7 1417x8 13 428x8
8 3836+7 14 1.428+7
 15 6.098 x6 18 1305+4
16 1575+6 19 4.735x8
17, °3.218;%:5 20 9003+8
Before you write the answers to these problems, consider what you need to do
with the remainder — round up or round down?
21 214 children are supposed to go on a school trip in five buses. When the
buses leave they are all full. As many children as possible have gone and
there are equal numbers of children on each bus. Oh no! How many children
are left behind?
22 The school cook bakes 148 cakes and arranges as many of them as possible
neatly on six plates. Each plate has the same number of cakes. The cook eats
the rest. How many cakes does he eat?
23 In our school dining room there are six long tables and 250 chairs. Five of
the tables have the same number of chairs and one table has a few less. How
many chairs does the one table have around it?
24 There are 214 pupils in my school, in nine classes. There is the same number
of pupils in most of the classes, but the top two classes each have one fewer.
How many pupils are in the top two classes?

(_). Multiplying and dividing by multiples of 10

Cees reece ee Ge oO BP cose GEQocecsoscc sesso eee sess s Eee eg Joncseseesease Gocsossesessasecessesssesssssscsees

You have been practising multiplying by a number of units. You can A multiple is
use the same method to multiply by powers of 10 (tens, hundreds, the answer to a
multiplication. 2, 4, 6,
thousands...) and also multiples of powers of 10
8, ... are multiples of 2
When you are multiplying by a multiple of 10, you know that the
answer will be bigger than if you were just multiplying by 10. The
same idea apples when you multiply by a multiple of 100

Example
Multiply: 4.8 x 400 Estimate: 4.8 x 400 ~ 5 x 400
= 2000

4)
i
Xs)
rar]
oi
5
=

iS)
—x Write the Os from the 400 in the units and tenths
©
U columns, to show that you have multiplied by 100,
= and then multiply by 4
<5)
~
=
= 4.8 x 400= 1920 __—‘There is no need to write the .0 at the end of the answer.

3
When dividing by multiples of 10 you need to divide by ten, a hundred, <
a thousand or other multiple of 10 before setting up the frame. eS
o.
ue)
=,
Example =
ga
i
Divide: 14.2 + 500 =
ra
14.2 + 500= 14.2 + 100+5=0.142+5 =
aS
2:
5
Ga
T
<
o
Bou z Write another 0 at the end,to work out
the exact answer. a
o.
m
3
pal
14.2 + 500 = 0.0284

Complete these calculations.

1 24x20 6 46800
+ 600
2 2800+ 20 7 39x 300
3 32
x 400 8 495000
+ 5000
4 8560+80 9 126
x 50
5 45x60 10 41300+70

11 1.53
x 60 16 3.04+80

12 214+ 200 17 x 700

64.2

13 x 800
24.5 18 21.4+500

14 68.5+50 19 x 900
4.57

15 x 900
0.316 20 + 6000
4.05

PPOeeUeerere Wy” eres > Cee eae)

You have = see and dividing by whole numbers, but what

happens if there is a decimal in the multiplier or divisor?

Multiplying
Consider 4.6 x 0.2
You know that 0.2 as
= 10
=2+10
 Therefore 4.6 x 0.2 =4.6x2+10 Multiply by the number and then
ee a0 divide by the multiple of 10

= 0.92
Compare your answer to 46 x 2 = 92
4.6 He
x 0.2 is Tite of 46x 2 because 4.6= ih and 0.2 _ 46 api.6
This gives a simple rule for multiplying with decimals.

Example
Multiply: 3.2 x 0.05
Estimate: 3 x 0.05 =0.15
32 x 5= 160
3.2 x 0.05=0.160 Three digits after the decimal points in the question,
three digits after the decimal point in the answer.
=0.16 Donot write the last 0

Dividing
How many halves are there in 4?
The answer is 8

As 5= 0.5 we can write the calculation as 4 + 0.5 or os

Before we do the division we are going to multiply 0.5 by a power of
ten to make it a whole number. To keep the fraction equivalent we
must multiply 4 by the same power of ten:
Pence AX10
a ES Wary;
=40+5
Sy

Check your answer: 8 x 0.5 = 4

S Examples
= (i) Divide: 2.4 + 0.6 (ii) Divide: 60 + 0.005
=
& ane eis
2.4+06= 24 x 10
10 60 ie
+ 0,005 60. 1000
= ~S0_ x 1000
= 60000
1S)

S = 24 0.6x 10=6 5
Ne 6
= =4 = 12000
= é |
Check: 4 x 0.6 = 2.4 Check: 12000 x 0.005 = 60
is
 You can do simple division by decimals in your head but
always check
your answer.

Example
Divide: 4 + 0.2
4+0.2=40+2
=20 uo!je
8u07

Check: 0.2 x 20 = 4

Complete these calculations.

1 0.4x0.7 6 0.001
+ 0.07
4
2 3.2+08 7 1.21x0.05
3 08x05 8 210+03
4 24+0.3 S91-2%.3,5
> he OF 10 180+ 0.006
Use a frame if you cannot do these in your head.
Vibe d.55.%.1.2 16 4.5+0.005
12 1.05+0.6 17 0.056 x 0.05
13 0.00024 + 0.03 18 0.0036 + 0.9
14 0.063 + 0.09 19 9:105x 0:6
15 1.35 + 0.06 20 0.000 12 +0.6

C).Long multiplication sss

What happens when you want to multiply 152 x 23?
You can split the calculation like this.
152 x 23 = 152 x (3 + 20)
= 152x
3+ 152 x 20
Now you could put these numbers into frames and complete the
different parts of the calculation. There are three stages.
Stage (i) 152 x 3. Stage (ii) 152 x 20 Stage (iii) 152 x 3 + 152 x 20
In long multiplication, though, you combine all of these into one
calculation.
 Example
Multiply: 1876 x 49 Estimate: 2000 x 50 = 100000
Gis a You will need HTh and TTh columns.

= :

Se ica. i The carried numbers from he addition are in this row.

1876 x 49 =91924

Do these without using a calculator. Show all your working.

1 35x24 6 125x117
2 67 x36 7 1244
x 26
3 45x27 893325 x72
4 163x 54 S 5207 x69
5 248
x 48 10 8716x 78
For these questions, complete the long multiplication first and then write the
answer with the decimal point in the correct place.
Or 36x52 16 2.14x0.52
12 48x0.75 17 3.12
x0.14
13 6.5 x 0.084 18 2.08 x 0.35
14 12.2 x 3.4 19 1.07 x 0.036
15 45.2x 42 20 5.6 x 1.08

“
21 The school cook orders 36 boxes of crisps. There are 24 packets of crisps in a
= box. How many packets of crisps are there in all?
=a=)
as 22 The school has bought 42 new maths textbooks. There are 356 pages in each
=)
2)
book. How many pages are there altogether?
—
We)
U 23 32 pupils are going on the skiing trip to Switzerland. The cost is £625 per
°
Y child. What is the total cost?
~
od
24 How many seconds are there in 4 hours?

25 If there are 14 pounds in a stone, what is the total mass, in pounds, of a man
3 who weighs 14 stones 8 pounds?
 2s
fe)
=)
a
For long division, you use exactly the same principle as for short =
division, but with bigger numbers, and you work down the page. mp
ms
)
=|

Example
Divide: 5451 + 23

If you cannot work

out the multiplication
in your head write it
down neatly on the
right.

Use long division to complete these calculations. The first five have no
remainders, but the last five may have.
1 646+ 17 6 1870+ 24
2667 +23 7 3684
+ 36
3 6554/19 & 5995 +31
4 882+ 42 9 2972 +27
BS 1s 3/7 10 8730+ 39

For these you should eliminate the decimal in the divisor first, by multiplying by
a power of 10
11 7.65+0.17 16 0.567 + 0.45

12 878427 17 5 22493.6

13 0.406 + 0.29 18 0.729 + 0.54

14 84+0.35 195.772. 20.037

15 494+ 1.9 20 0.5922 + 0.047

 Now try some word problems.
21 Form 7X won the house-points competition and now have a box of 323
chocolates to share. There are 19 pupils in 7X. How many chocolates does
each pupil get?
22 48 pupils are going on an outing to the Isle of Wight. Altogether, they have
paid £1632. How much money has each pupil paid?
23 The 23 pupils in Form 7Z have to have an eye test. Each test takes the same
amount of time and altogether the tests take 299 minutes. How long does
each eye test take?
24 36 cans of cola cost £27. How much does one can of cola cost?

25 Aream of paper contains 500 sheets. For our geography project our teacher
shares out one ream equally among 24 of us. How many sheets do we get
each? How many sheets are left over?

POS OC OSES E SOOTHES HE SOEH SOHO SS CGE Pes ces esescesesesseses ssl eH HOS OOS SE SDOSOTOS TOO ES EE ES OSO ST SES TOES ESEEOS

You can now add, subtract, multiply and divide, both in your head and
by using pencil and paper. Answer the questions in the next exercise
in any way you wish, but take care to write down all your working.

Example
If 12 doughnuts cost £3, what is the cost of one doughnut?
If you do the calculation in your head, write:
£3.00 + 12 = £0.25 or 300p + 12 = 25p

If you work it out in a frame, write:

(%)
Make sure that you include the correct unit of measurement with the
© number. In this case, it is p for pence, as the cost of one
oO
re) doughnut is 25p.
—
Li)
=
U
One doughnut costs 25p
——

©
If the questionisa |
U sentence your answer
should beashort =
¢
55)
~
= phrase orsentence.
=
3
 Uv
=!
2)
=
om
1 I spend 96p on eight sticks of liquorice. What is the cost of one stick? 3
w

2 | spend £6 on 24 pencils. What is the cost of one pencil? 2

S:
=
3 There are 16 ounces in a pound and 14 pounds in a stone. How many ounces ihe)

are there in a stone?

Ash have 217 more house points than Beech. If Beech have 357, how many
house points do Ash have?
Taking part in the school Christmas production are 104 members of the
choir, 9 readers and 27 musicians. How many people are there in total?
On a school trip 255 pupils are accompanied by 17 teachers. All the teachers
have the same number of pupils in their groups. How many pupils are there
in each group?
For a science project | need six 4m lengths of string and eight 5m lengths of
string. How much string is that altogether?
Our whole class needs to buy 1332 m of string. If string comes in balls
holding 24m, how many balls do we need to buy?
At the school fair the cake stall sold 38 big cakes at £3 each and 75 little
cakes at 24p each. How much money did the stall make in total?
10 | reckon that | spend 75 minutes, five nights a week, on homework. In a
school year of 34 weeks how many minutes is that in all? How many hours
is that?
11 A recipe says that | need 1500 of flour to make 12 cakes. How many grams
do | need to make 1 cake? How many grams do | need to make 36 cakes?
12 There is a special prize for winning 300 house points. | reckon | can get 12
house points a week. How many weeks will it take me to get 300 house
points?
13 There are 1000g in a kilogram. | use 455g from a 2kg bag of sugar. How
much sugar is left in the bag?
14 (a) | am counting up the money from the tombola at the end of the school
fair. There are 24 £1 coins, seven £2 coins, six £5 notes, 14 £10 notes,
three £20 notes and one £50 note. How much money is there in total?
(b) | exchange all the money for as many £20 notes as possible. How many
£20 notes do | have now?
15 The school put aside £20000 for new computers. In the summer they
bought 24 computers at £699 each. How much money did they have left?
 eee © ere reer rererrrrrererrerr rer rere r rrr

For more complicated calculations it is important to do the parts

of the calculation in the correct order, especially if you are using a
calculator.

Example
42.84
Work out: 19.61—13.49°
First, estimate the answer.
42.84 42 _7
19.61—-13.49 6

Method 1: Using the memory button on your calculator

Enter GD ED GD Cp GD Ed GD Ed GD) CD ED avs press the GW button.
Put the answer (6.12) into the memory. Then clear the screen.
Usually there is a
Now enter kas) Ws) bi) ss Ks) and e& then and to get the or (YE9 button.
answer: 7
Method 2: Using brackets
Think of the calculation as being:
42.84 + (19.61 — 13.49)
Enter the characters in that order, using your brackets keys.

Mi) Mc) a i) i ic)Ma) i) i) ai) a :

i) Ma)Mi)Mas i! Mi)Ma) appease
calculator instruction
You should get the answer 7 manual if this does
This is usually the better method to use. not work.

(Extension Exercise 3.7

These questions involve a mixture of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. Use the rules of BIDMAS and solve them without using a calculator.
Write any non-exact answers as decimals, correct to 2 decimal places.
Ww
os 1 sorte 6 14+ (0.354
+ 1.646)
S
Ss
Ae 2 ee 7 28-3.6+09x6
=
=
©
.S)
2) eta 8 24x3- 144+ 36
<
D
bd
nd
|e 9 454+2.5x0.55+0.11
= 5 (1.46 +2.54)?+2 10 (3.8 + 4.2)? +(0.5 x 8)?
3 11 Now check your answers with your calculator.
Sumy
Sere3.
Summary Exercise 3.8
1 Calculate the answers to these, either in your head or in a frame. Remember
=
he

o
a
=
re)

to write down your working. a

5
=
(a) 173+312 (c) 56x3 @ct
2)
(b) 738-125 (d) 406 +7 =

Calculate the answers to these.

(a) 3600 x 200 (c) 120 x 110 000
(b) 42 000 + 600 (d) 56000 +70
Use frames to calculate carefully the answers to these questions. Estimate
the answer first.
(a) 4.878 + 56.7+0.17+517 (c) 1.377
(b) 7.003 - 6.715 (d) 4.25+5
Calculate the answers to these. You will need to write in extra zeros to
complete your division. If the answer is not exact, give it correct to 2 decimal
places.
(a) 1.4+5 (c) 1.7+7
(b) 2.3+8 (d) 17.1+6
Calculate the answers to these.
(a) 1.2x0.4 (c) 4.5+0.09
(b) 3.6 x 0.07 (d) 0.87+0.6
Calculate the answers.
(a) 145 x 23 (c) 1546 x 47
(b) 2352+ 42 (d) 665 + 38
The school cook bakes 367 potatoes and roasts 196 potatoes. How many
potatoes does he cook?
48 pupils are going to France. They all give Mr Muddle their spending money.
He collects €1680 in total. If all the pupils give him the same amount, how
much money does each pupil give him?
| have to work out how many words | have written for my history essay.
| estimate that I write 13 words on a line and that there are 48 lines on a
page. If | have covered one and a half pages, roughly how many words have
| written?
10 If 96 parents each pay £19.50 for a ticket to the school play, how much
money do they pay in total?
 Activity: Babylonian numbers |
It is easy to aati that because we still use Roman numerals, the Romans were
the earliest civilisation to use a number system, but this is not true. Many early
civilisations had their own different systems. One of the most sophisticated
and oldest was developed by the Babylonians about 5000 years ago. The first
mathematics can be traced to the ancient country of Babylon (which lies in
modern day Iraq), during the third millennium B.C.
The Babylonians recorded their mathematics on clay tablets. These were baked
dry by the sun and then preserved, which is why we can study them today.

Teer4Ee os
Like most early systems the numbers from one to nine were formed by a
succession of simple marks, easily made with a stick in the soft clay.

Note the way the numbers 1, 2 and 3 were one size stroke, 4, 5, 6 a little smaller
and 7, 8, 9 smaller again.

The tens were grouped with a different shape.

30 40 50

The Babylonians did not count in tens over 60 because their system was based
on sixty. Ours, on the other hand, is based on 10

The biggest difference between the Babylonian system and those of the Greek
and Roman civilisations was that it, like our own, used place value to show larger

f Te
Look at these numbers.

7)

UE UE
<&
Ae
~
ue)
—

=j
U
=—J

ia)
U
=
5)
ho)
—
a
3
 2 es
1 Copy each of these Babylonian numbers and write its value, as a decimal Cc
number, next to it. ap
=)
ga
o
fa)
cs
a)
=
®et
ie)
iat

Bee YYPcsPANY
The numbers you should have written down in question 1 were (not necessarily in this
order): 63, 14, 59, 83, 126, 4. If you did not get them all go and check your answers again.
2 Now get out your stick and clay tablet, and write these down in Babylonian
numbers. No sticks and tablets? It might be better to use pencil and paper!
(a) 6 (c) 56 (e) 75 (g) 127
(b) 26 (d) 64 (f) 92 (h) 142
Consider 142, the highest number you have looked at so far.
You should have drawn:

YY «yy
You have 2 x 60 + 20+ 2= 142

Look at the number:

WH Ye
4x60+
50+ 7=297

3 Now work out these even larger numbers.

yfROMY ANT
{az wa Ce
TH “gor
 The numbers you should have written down were (not necessarily in this order):
344, 1292, 359, 184, 3296, 179
If you did not get them all, check your answers again.
4 Now write these down in Babylonian numbers.
(a) 306 (c) 2364 (e) 3216 (g) 1204
(b) 2472 (d) 1317 (f) 2781 (h) 3599
For your last answer you should have drawn:

CH GS 59 x 60 + 59 = 3540 + 59 = 3599

The next number after this would be 3600 which is 60 x 60 or 602

To write 3681 you would have to work out:

1 x 3600 +1x60+21

and then write:

YY ay
“TEES
5 Nowtry these.

“TMT
‘Tae Ho "7 OY KS
WY)
S 6 Nowwrite these down in Babylonian numbers.
Ao)
=)
& (a) 3666 (b) 7297 (c) 4876 (d) 5999
—
=| These numbers are written in Cuneiform script. If you had. been to school 5000
—
w)
% years ago, this is how you would have learnt to write your numbers, using the 14
U
S different Cuneiform numerals. (Like many early civilisations there was no symbol
)
~ for O, they just left a blank.)
4
= 7 You can see that the Babylonians were very enthusiastic about the number 60
which they also used for their system of measurement. 5000 years later which
2 Babylonian measures do we still use?
 )Measurement and the
‘metric system
Britain, like many other countries, uses the metric system for most
units of measure, although long distances are still measured in miles,
the older imperial unit. Strange though it may seem, measures were
the subject of heated political debate in the nineteenth century. In
1874, William Rankine, a British engineer, wrote a poem, The Three
Foot Rule, which includes this verse:
Some talk of millimetres, and some of kilograms,
And some of decilitres, to measure beer and drams;
But I’m a British workman, too old to go to school,
So by pounds I'll eat, and by quarts I'll drink, and I'll work by my three-
foot rule.

The traditional measures used in Britain evolved over centuries.

Britain as a nation was involved heavily in trade and so the measures
it used became standard and, by the end of the eighteenth century,
were used by both Britain and America.
In France, on the other hand, there was no standardisation. It has
been estimated that France had about 800 different names for
measures at this time and, taking into account different values used
in different towns, around 250000 different-sized units.
In 1790 France was in the middle of a revolution but their National
Assembly was determined to make improvements. It was agreed that
a new measurement system based on a length from nature should
be adopted. The system should have decimal subdivisions, and all
measures such as area, volume and mass (rather than weight) should
be linked to the fundamental unit of length.
 Over the next century the European countries, and their colonies,
adopted the new units, but Britain and America resisted. It was only
in 2009 that shops in Britain were no longer required to give the
length, weight and volume of goods in both metric units and imperial
units although many still do.

SRUCTSTITT Spek ee
EAS ch ela
Length is measured in metres (m).
10mm = 1 centimetre (cm)
100 cm = 1 metre (m)
1000 millimetres (mm) = 1 metre (m)
1000 metres = 1 kilometre (km)
Mass is measured in grams (g).
1000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram
q (mg) a (9) Capacity is linked to volume, although capacity
1000 grams = 1 kilogram (kg) is more generally used for fluid measures, such as
1000 kg = 1 tonne (t) milk and oil, and volume for solid measures, such
as bricks.
Capacity or volume is measured in litres (|). Capacity is the amount a container can hold.
1000 cubic centimetres (cm?) = 1 litre (L) Volume is the amount taken up by a substance.
ee ' A jug may have capacity of one litre but contain
1000 millilitres (ml) = 1 litre (l)
milk of volume “ litre.
100 centilitres (cl) . = 1 litre (l)
To convert between a basic unit and its multiples or subunit you need
to divide or multiply by 10, 100 or 1000. It helps if you always write
€ down the basic conversion fact before you start. Make sure you read
vu
a the units in the question carefully; this will help you to avoid making
m careless mistakes.
a)
<=
~
se]
= Examples
Y
<= (i) Write 54cm in metres.
~
vv 100cm = 1m
‘=
%
~
=
1cm =0.01m Divide by 100 and multiply by 54
i)
3 54cm =0.54m | |
0)
i
=
7) (ii) Write 35 kg in grams.
©
is)
1kg = 1000g Multiply by 1000
=
Therefore 35kg = 35000g
w

@)
 is
Exercise 4.1 ©a
0
=
1 Write these eacthestin metres, ©
=:
=
(a) 25cm (b) 480mm (c) 5.3km ga
(d) 258cm
=
2 Write these masses in grams. my
van
(a) 25kg (b) 3750mg (c) 0.625kg (d) 3.6t =
©
3
3 Write these capacities in litres. S
yh
©
(a) 220ml (b) 3634ml (c) 2.8cl (d) 5ml a)

4 Write these lengths in centimetres (cm).

(a) 24mm (b) 2.7km (c) 35m (d) 0.07m
5 Write these masses in kilograms (kg).
(a) 350g (b) 4.5t (c) 25mg (d) 7.5g
6 Write these capacities in millilitres (ml).
(a) 1.41 (b) 0.351 (c) 45cl (d) 0.7cl
7 Write these in mm.
(a) 3.2cm (b) 4.5m (c) 0.7m (d) 0.4km
8 Write these in mg.
(a) 3.2g (b) 5.5¢ (c) 165¢ (d) 0.06kg
9 Write these in km.
(a) 3.5m (b) 4050m (c) 320000cm

When you calculate with quantities, always make sure that they are all
in the same units before you start. This means that you may need to
change some units.

Example Remember to start

Add: 1.2m + 23cm + 15mm. Give your answer in centimetres (cm). by writing down the |
basicconversion facts. |
1m=100cm 10mm
= 1cm
When allyour - oa
1.2m =120cm 15mm=1.5cm slates teinthe ‘
| 1.2m+23cm+ 15mm = 120cm+ 23cm+ 1.5cm
= 144.5cm
 5 Add: 5m + 672cm + 65mm. Give your answer in centimetres (cm).
2 Add: 3500g + 1.7kg + 375mg. Give your answer in grams (g).

3 Subtract: 0.678km — 4525 cm. Give your answer in metres (m).

4 Multiply: 375ml x 8. Give your answer in litres (I).
5 Divide: 2km + 8. Give your answer in metres (m).
6 Divide: 5.7t + 12. Give your answer in grams (g).
7 | need 12 lengths of rope. Each length must be 75cm long. How many
metres of rope should | buy?
8 Our class is making chocolate crispies for the summer fair. | don’t have any
cocoa, so | have to go and buy some. 12 crispies need 45 g of cocoa. How
much cocoa should | buy to make 240 crispies?
9 | need to buy 2.4kg of raisins, but raisins come in bags of 150g. How many
bags do | need to buy?
10 | have a plank that is 2.2m long. | cut it into five equal pieces with four cuts,
but | lose 1.5mm of wood with each cut. How long are my five pieces of
plank, in centimetres?
11. | am making concrete in my science lesson. | mix 4kg of sand with 1.2 kg of
cement and 600 g of water. | pour the concrete into four equal-sized moulds.
What is the mass of concrete in each mould?
12 | add 4 cupfuls of raspberry flavouring and 2 cupfuls of banana flavouring to
a 4-litre carton of milk. | pour the resulting milkshake into 10 glasses. If each
glass contains 475 ml, how much is in one cupful?

S
8)
SAT RTTSETIELCU Trg are eee meer a Cee ceatn
17 How did it all begin?
om
a
pe
The Greeks developed the foot as their fundamental unit of
er
Y length. Legend has it that this Greek unit was based on an actual
€ measurement of Hercules’ foot.
8)
a
~

is,
a
La]
~
=
i)
€
9)
i
>
vA)
Li)
cd)
=
w
_ People measured a yard of cloth as the distance between the end of
==
the outstretched arm and the chin. ®
4
The Romans measured their pace steps at about 25 feet. 1000 double a
c
paces formed a mile. 3=.
nn
It is useful to know the common imperial units in everyday use.

Length
12 inches (in) = 1 foot (ft)
3 ft = 1 yard (yd)
1760 yards = =1 mile (m)

Mass
16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb)
14 |b = 1 stone (st)
2240 pounds (lb) = 1 ton (t)

Capacity (volume)
2 pints (pt) = 1 quart (qt)
8 pints (pt) = 1 gallon (gal)

Give any non-exact answers as fractions.

1 Write these lengths in inches.
(a) 2 feet (b) Ift (c) 1 yard (d) 13ft
2 Write these lengths in feet.
(a) 2 yards (b) Zyd (c) Qin (d) 27in
3 Write these lengths in yards.
(a) 72in (b) 12 feet (c) 1ft (d) 3 mile
4 Write these distances in miles.
(a) 880yd (b) 110yd (c) 2640yd (d) 5280 feet
5 Write these in ounces.
(a) 4lb (b) 2.5lb (c) 3lb (d) 1 ton
6 Write these in pounds.
(a) 40z (b) 240z (c) 3 ton (d) 2s stone
 7 Write these in stones.

(a) 7b (b) 84lb (c) apton (d) 4480z

8 Write these capacities in pints.
(a) 2 quarts 1
gallon
(b) = (c) 5 gallons (d) I7 quart
9 Write these capacities in quarts.
(a) 1pt (b) 5 pints (c) 3 gallons (d) 5 gallon
10 Write these in gallons.
(a) 60 pints (b) 2 pints (c) 1 quart (d) 5 quart
11. | add 12 ounces of raisins to half a pound of flour. What is the total mass, in:
(a) ounces (b) pounds?
12 | add 9 inches to Ws feet and then add that to 1 yard. What is the total
length in:
(a) inches (b) feet?
13 | pour 4 pints ofjuice into 2 gallons of water and then add a quart of ginger
beer. What is the total volume in:
(a) pints (b) gallons?
14 1 gallon of water has a mass of 101b.
(a) What is the mass of 1 pint of water?
(b) How many gallons of water have a total mass of 1 ton?

Exercise 4.4
1 Find a tape measure that is marked in inches (in). Measure your height, your
girth (the distance around your body at navel height), the height of a door.
=oD
Now measure them again, using metric units.
i
m 2 Find some weighing scales that are marked in pounds (lb) and stones. Weigh
VY
es yourself. Now weigh yourself in kilograms (kg). Weigh some other things as
o well.
_

S
w 3 Finda pint glass and a litre container. Fill the pint glass and pour the
s
~ contents into the litre container.
aS)
= 4 From your experiments work out some rough equivalent comparisons of
S
ts
metric and imperial units, for example 1 foot ~ 30cm.
o
o€a
S
io
4)

=
w
_ Now see how your comparisons compare to the ones used in this book.
1 metre ~ 39 inches :
(or 3 feet and 3 inches) Multiply by 34 =
1 kilometre = 2 mile _ Multiply by 5 divide by 8 z
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds Add ab and multiply by 2
1 litre = 1.75 pints Multiply by 7 and divide by 4
1 foot = 0.3 metres Multiply by 3 and divide by 10
1 mile = 13 kilometres Multiply by 8 and divide by 5
1 pound = 0.45 kilograms Divide by 2 and subtract io
1 pint = 0.6 litres Multiply by 3 and divide by 5

1 Imperial units have been used in this story. Rewrite it, using metric units.
(a) Connie was going shopping for her mother. She walked two miles into
the village. Connie bought 2 lb of potatoes and 80z of mushrooms.
(b) Connie walked 100 yards down the road to the haberdashery shop.
There, she bought 3 yards of blue ribbon and 5 feet of knicker elastic.
(c) Connie was tired and the shopping was heavy and so she stopped at the
sweet shop and bought 4 ounces of wine gums.
2 Metric units have been used in this story. Rewrite it, using imperial units.
(a) Digby bicycled 4km to the shops where he bought a 2kg weight and 6
weights of 300g.
(b) Digby also bought 200m of fishing twine and 50cm of string.
(c) Digby was thirsty and so he also bought a 500-ml bottle of water.
3 Write some stories of your own and give them to a friend to rewrite.

Summary Exercise 4.6;

1 Copy and complete these statements.
(a) 13g=—___mg (cjeieknt— en
(b) 53mm= m (d) 0.072ml=— _l
2 (a) Add: 4.5m + 450cm + 36mm = cm

(b) Add: 4.2t + 56kg + 765g = ___kg

(c) Divide: 51+ 8= ml
(d) Multiply: 240mg x 5 = ___kg
 3 lam the dining-room monitor. | fill up all the cups on my table from a 2-titre
jug of water. If | can fill up 8 cups from one full jug, how much water goes in
each cup?
4 I make a cake with 1.2kg of flour, 450g of sugar, 450g of butter and
4500 mg of cocoa. What is the total mass of these ingredients?
5 To raise money for charity, | run 2.2km every day for five days. Harry runs
the same total distance as | do, but in four days. How many metres more
does Harry run each day than | do?
6 Copy and complete these conversions.
(a) Sib= oz (d) 1Sin= ft
(b) 3 quarts=___pt (e) 4 yards = in
(c) 2tons=___lb + =f iF gallons = pt

7 (a) Add: 3 gallons + 2 pints + 1 quart = _____ pints.

(b) Add: 240z+ 23 b+ stone = Ib.
8 (a) What is the metric equivalent of:
(i) 3b (ii) 5 pints (iii) 10 feet?
(b) What is the imperial equivalent of:
(i) 4kg (ii) 5 litres (iii) 240 km?

Activity: Design a poster

It is not always easy to remember the imperial-metric equivalents. Pictures
can help!
Choose length, mass or capacity.
=
a Divide a sheet of A3 into four quarters.
a)
~~
“
ae in each quarter draw a picture of a common object and write the appropriate
“

—
imperial and metric equivalent units next to it.
~
~~

v
=
v
ey
~

vo
°
a)

=
@
=
~
wv
~~
=)
©
2

4
 Fractions

Some early number systems were not based on 10 but on 60. It is

likely that 60 was used as a base because it has so many factors.
With a symbol-based number system, division was not simple, but
using fractions with a base of 60 was very common.
In Ancient Egypt, scribes created tables with calculations of fractions.
They used these tables as references, so that temple personnel could
carry out the fractional divisions on food and supplies.
ce ee i>

This is a wall painting of Egyptian scribes recording the harvest in the

18th dynasty 1543-1292 B.C. from the Tomb of Menna, Egypt.
You are becoming as used to calculating with fractions as the Ancient
Egyptians were. You are already familiar with equivalent fractions,
mixed numbers and simplifying. Here is a quick review of these and
some other terms.

Numerator and denominator

The number at the bottom of a fraction is the denominator. It tells
you how many parts the whole is divided into. The number on the top
is the numerator. It tells you how many of these parts you have.
numerator
denominator
 Equivalent fractions
Equivalent fractions are fractions that have the same value.

1 4
2 8
You can draw diagrams to show equivalent fractions, or you can work
them out numerically by multiplying or dividing the numerator and
denominator by the same number.

Example
Fill in the missing number to make these fractions equivalent.
5
8 24 8x3=24
—3. x3 Multiply the5 by3

Simplifying fractions
To simplify a fraction, you divide the numerator and denominator by
the same factor. You continue to do this until you have the smallest
possible numbers. |

Example
Simplify: yi

18 _ ag The highest common factor of 18 and 24

24 24, is 6, so divide both numbers by 6
= 3
4

You can see that 2 and 3 are also common factors of 18 and 24. You
may not always recognise the highest common factor (HCF) straight
“
°
away but there is no reason why you cannot cancel more than once.
1S Cp oe
~

nN
La
When there are no more common factors the fraction is in its lowest
5 terms or simplest form.
_ Writing one value as a fraction of another =
When you write one value as a fraction of another, always give the we
answer in its lowest terms. 2
pe)

Example
(@}

5
Write 25p as a fraction of £2 a
£2 = 200p Always change your quantities to the same
ee. ; units first.
The fraction is crea

Comparing and ordering fractions

To compare or order fractions, write them in terms of their Lowest
common denominator. This is the LCM of the denominators of all the
fractions.

Example
Write these fractions in order, smallest first.
5 3 ae 12 is the lowest common multiple of
6 4 12 6, 4 and 12 so it is the lowest common
Sesio. 35.9 denominator for these fractions.
6. 442 4 12 12

The correct order iiss 42’

- 34'65

When ordering or comparing fractions remember that:

< means less than - < 2 and > means greater than 2 we
12

1 Replace the stars to make these fractions equivalent. Note that the star
represents a different number in each case.

Salat tee (b) 5= 34 () 5-27

a
ae le
SN chee
2 Write each fraction in its lowest terms.

(a) 1° (b) 15 () &8 (d) 3414 £0

(e) 60.
3 Draw four 5cm by 6cm rectangles in your book. Use one of the rectangles to
illustrate each fraction.
(a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 2 ies
 4 Write the first quantity as a fraction of the second, giving your answer in its
simplest form.
(a) 50p as a fraction of a £1 (e) 35p asa fraction of £5
(b) 24 as a fraction of 60 (f) 36cmasa fraction of 1m
(c) 48 as a fraction of 360 (g) 125cmas a fraction of 4m
(d) 350g as a fraction of a (h) 750ml as a fraction of 2 litres
kilogram
5 Copy and complete these statements.
Elin
oi Seer 4nares
(a) 8 40 5S 40

(b) Which is larger, = or £2

5
6 Use the same method as in Q5. Write > or < between each pair of fractions.
(a) 33 and =5 (c) ¢5 and 5T (e) 45 and 3=

(b) 43 and =2 3
(d) esand =5 (f) =3 and s;

7 | poured myself a drink from a 2-litre bottle of cola. My glass holds 125 ml.
What fraction of the whole bottle is there in 1 glass?
8 | have saved up £15 towards a jacket costing £75. What fraction of the £75
have | saved?
9 | cut 12m of string from a ball that holds 45m. What fraction of the string
have | cut off?
10 We have driven 350km. The length of our total journey is 480 km. What
fraction of our journey have we still to go?

().Mixed numbers and improper fractions...

All the fractions you have looked at so far have been proper fractions
because they are less than 1 but you often use fractions with whole
numbers attached.

e@ I am twelve and a half years old.

@ It is quarter past two.
These are mixed numbers because they are a mixture of whole
numbers and fractions. You can turn mixed numbers into fractions,
iv)
° to get improper fractions.
2~
U They are called improper fractions because the numerator is bigger
©
i
vi
than the denominator and the fraction is ‘top heavy’.

5
 >
Examples (as
=
=)
a
(i) Write = as a mixed number. ie)
S
a.
= 42 25 +6=4 remainder 1
alt nn
i=
oe
ct
=
be})
(ii) Write 24 as an improper fraction. oO
Eb
=)
ga
Ag
3HEN us
4x24+1=9 =>
=
pe)
(a)
(Ep,
ie)
=)
wn

1 Write each mixed number as an improper fraction.

(a) 12 (e) 68 (i) 43

(b) 25 tay. () 554
(c) 435 (g) 62 (k) 65
(d) 63 (h) 58 (\) 82

2 Write these improper fractions as mixed numbers.

(a) 3 () 2 () 2
(b) (f) 3 (i) 38
() # (g) 2 (k) 2
(d) 38 (h) 32 (y 2

Adding fractions
You can add fractions only if they have the same denominator.
You can add 5 + 3 to get ‘ because the denominator (10) is the
same in both fractions.
However, you cannot add 5 + 5 directly because you cannot add
tenths to twelfths.
You have to write both fractions as equivalent fractions. It is sensible
always to use the lowest common denominator.
 In this example the lowest common multiple of 10 and 12 is 60, so
multiply the top and the bottom of each fraction to make
10 up to 60 (x 6) and 12 up to 60 (x 5)
3 By ZO eel Bae BO OC _ tee
10. -10«6 % 60 122 e560
Now you can complete the fraction addition.

Example
Add: oo7 eeMg
tee

Wee eee
100) 12ee60u 1x60
_ 18+25
60
_ 43
60

When you need to add mixed numbers, add the whole numbers first
and then the fractions.

Example
Add: 324211 The lowest common denominator of 8 and
Boe le 12 is 24
1 NICS 5 ee
33 +255 254 ti 24
_ £3+22
an 24

=5 ze You now have a mixed number with an

: improper fraction.
mos As
25 =ang ie
gee ads.ine,d to she.-20 oaks &

When adding fractions, remember to put the

answer in its simplest form. If the answer is an
improper fraction, such as — write it as a mixed
number: ane.
te

“
=
aS
Ss
1S)
4)
nN
a

a)
 >
Qa
telias
its
=
=
ga
25+ at cheer re}
1
4 Brio 8 a
a.
“wn
ts 3 5,3
eee Dae
Cc
oOo
at
ay
pial
25. -4
205 8 &ti0
DRS te)
‘@)
vag
=)
ga
ree
=+= “aha ee =
—h
oS
ae. 5 7728 be)
(a)
24 (ee
5 =+= 2 (eo)
15 9 Asay =]
nn

11 11+34 16 24422
3 i ahs
NE)
2-43 SV ete
12. i piees G43.

13 dE dode 18 32 +33

14 2
7£+2+2 are y
g° “15 19 bores

15
3
55 + 376
1 20 33 +34

Subtracting fractions
To subtract fractions, follow the same basic steps as for addition.
First, find the lowest common denominator, then work out the
equivalent fractions and finally complete the subtraction.

Example
Subtract: - - : The lowest common denominator for 3 and 5 is 15

Sue leo = 5
ae 3 15
pon A
Us

When you subtract one mixed number from another, try subtracting
the whole numbers first and then the fractions.
 Example
Subtract: 32 4 ; The lowest common denominator for 4 and 7 is 28

CE ee pL
ae
By Vp hee
nes
= 28

There will be times when a subtraction is not possible (5 - 9). Then

you must borrow from the next number on the left. Remember,
though, that you are not borrowing ten units - you will be borrowing
8 eighths, 12 twelfths or 16 sixteenths, depending on the fraction.

Example
Subtract:pe 3 wile
5 1 ee
Z

Bik aS ph -9
te You cannot subtract 9 from 4, so change.1 unit into
=i pe
I 12 twelfths. 4+ 12 = 16
12

i ee
sit oe
5 3-4 10 4-1

11 52-24 : 16 6-24
12 4ealg 17 4518
“nn
=
a2)
~
13 6p 35 18 72-32
te
ie ase 19 24-12
Wa) 15. 43=34 20 42-41
Sle aara 26 22-2 2
27 21-13 3
22 34-1
23 53-24 2g 41-28 z
29 2-3 :
24 25-115 (=
30 52-12 ZA
25 13-5

SOPOT OTHE HEHE REET SESE HEH ESOS ESTEE OT EE SEES EEO E SESS SEE ESEESESESES OSE SEHSESESEE SESE ESSE EEE SES EES ES HEES

Here are some everyday examples of fractions of an amount.

Half an hour is 30 minutes. You divide 60 minutes by 2 When you are
I : § finding a fraction of
Half a metre is 50cm. You divide 100cm by 2 an amount, you can
Three-quarters of an hour is 45 minutes. You divide 60 minutes by 4 replace ‘of’ with the
and then multiply the result by 3 to get the answer. Be SIEi

Example
Work out : of 25

2 of 25= x25
(Ot
rife

When you are working out more than one part you need to divide and
then multiply. It is often simplest to cancel by a common factor, as
with simplifying.

Example
Find ; of 1m. Give the answer in centimetres.

, of Im= : x 100cm _ Divide both 4 and 100 by 4 and then multiply 25 by 3

=—3>< 25cm
= 75cm
 1 Work out e of 16 5 Work out z of 81

2 Work out 3 of 35 6 Work out 2 of 74

3 Work out i!of 104 7 Work out a of 48

4 Work out 5 of 126 8 Work out 5 of 72

9 Work out of 1m. Give the answer in cm.

10 Work out of 1 hour. Give the answer in minutes.

11 Work out A of 1kg. Give the answer in grams.

12 Work out : of 3km. Give the answer in km and m.

13 Work out 3 of 420 17 Work out 3 of 612

14 Work out > of 240 18 Work out © of 216
15 Work out 3 of 130 19 Work out 4 of 208
16 Work out © of 126 20 Work out 2 of 306

C).Multiplying
and dividing fractions oo.
Multiplying fractions
In the last exercise, you multiplied a whole number by a fraction. You
can use the same principle to multiply a fraction by a fraction.

Example
Multiply: s x et
This example includes a difficult multiplication: 7 x 26
It is sensible to divide by any common factors before attempting the
multiplication. This leads to easier calculations.
z . zt 2 divides into 2 and into 26
“wn x
N ash
— NIN N cop) 1
13 7 divides into 7 and into 21
=ss
U ll oe Then you have 1 x 3 as the numerator
S 13
ae and 1 x 13 as the denominator.

is)
When you are working with mixed numbers, before you can cancel you rm
ie
must turn the mixed number into an improper fraction. oF.
ov
<<:
Example =,
ga
pe)
=
Multiply: 1 = x ae (ae
a.
3 1
First make the mixed numbers into improper
<.
12x21=
7 3
g x
1 a
a
fractions and then cancel. ya|
ga
=p
= ay |
my
(a)
oy
ie)
You can use the same principle to multiply three or more fractions together. =|
n

Example
Multiply: = x 10
= See7
8

Multiplying the fractions.

354%i Sp Esa
4 &xé 9 Wx2x 2x3

5 2x1 0 Ixdxdx
hxhx
11 axes 16 34x25

12 34x22 17 7ix 4s

13 14x13 18 92x85

14 A Eee 19 114x128

15 22 x3é 20 102 x35

 dtan) 2
21 14x22x12 PY SSO 1ST
24 11x34x11x54

22 1 1
25x35%x1, 1 25 1
Meee G Cad
See 3e

23 2 am1 aaa1
fae 26
When you turn a
Dividing with fractions fraction upside down
the resulting fraction
You know from your work on inverses that division is the opposite of
or integer is called
multiplication and therefore dividing by ; is the same as multiplying the reciprocal.
by 3 or 3 For example, the
4
Therefore the answer to 12 x ; is 4 because 12 x ; =12+3 reciprocal of - is
3
Now consider 12 x ‘ and the reciprocal of
1. wl ge
ert which is 4
First divide by 3 and then multiply by 2
From this, you can see
12x §=12+3x2or12+3 that the reciprocal of
4isres 7
This works for all fractions, so + 3 is the same as X :
Therefore to divide by a fraction, you multiply by the reciprocal.

Examples
(i) Divide: 4 + .

4+ Z= : x 2 The reciprocal of 2is :

Take care to turn
1
ee aX 5 only the fraction you
1 Ay are dividing by upside
=5 down. The first fraction
stays the same.
ii) Divide:
(ii) Divide: 2 +4
ee

422
+= x
x i
The reciprocal of 45
AE 9
WIN 2 1 3
3
2
1
NIA

(7)
=
Oo
Per
U
He
La

Wa)
Just as with multiplication, when dividing with mixed numbers, <
you must turn them into improper fractions. If your answer is an 5
improper fraction then you must turn it back into a mixed number in =
its lowest terms. Zz
Exampl e First turn the mixed =|
numbers into improper a
pide 40 fractions. Then multiply <
opal reali by the reciprocal. o:
;
pee ss : Do not try to turn
>o
gp R the mixed numbers >
Lies into improper 2
ee fractions and form
fi the reciprocal in one
= 2 stage. That leads to
mistakes.

Crercise57
13+
_) 6 mte
O Gees 7 35745
3 4+2 Se

te2 7ale 16 42212

12 2¢+12 vo.
13 22+12 18 45+15
N40 32 12 1opoe ale
15 42412 20 42+17
 Exercise 5.8: Mixed operations }

JeaDews Sree.
1 gtexs 6 7t3%3
2 Pe woe
2 (3) +3 7 (4+2)x4
Arn Ie
3 2+2+% ERAT

nd
= (3) eo
Write down all your working carefully and take care with the units.

Example
| travelled at 45 mph for 40 minutes. How far did | go?
40 minutes = : hour

Distance =45 x ‘
” 46 2

= x
Lay
= 30 miles

(Extension Exercise 5.J

1 | bought a packet 2 raffeet ive ane of them were stuck pee What
fraction were not stuck together?
2 Idrinkae
2 of a large bottle of cola and my friend drinks : of a bottle of the
same size. Who drinks more cola?
3 When | measure myself | find that | am 1.4 metres tall. |measure the
‘distance from my chin to my crown and find that the height of my head is
20cm. What fraction of my total height is made up by my head?
“ 4 | have a new ball of string that holds eight and a half metres. | use five and
<
{= five-sixths of a metre on my technology project. How much string is left on
Per
the ball?
%
Nw
Lu 5 Ina bag of sweets one-quarter of the sweets are red, two-fifths are green
and the rest are orange. What fraction of the sweets are orange?
5

@)
 %)
6 Prince Absolute has to travel a distance of 8 leagues. For Ze leagues of the =
=
journey he travels through forest and for 1 : leagues he travels through S
go,
52)u
desert. He travels the rest of the journey across plains. How many leagues 2)
does he travel across plains? Se

7 | buy 2 kg of tomatoes at £1.20 per kilogram and a cabbage weighing : kg :

n

at 80p per kilogram. How much money do | spend?

=.
et
>
==
8 | have a new ball of string that holds 43 m and | use - of it. How many yy
metres are left? oO
cf
fe)
9 | have a new ball of string that holds 85 m and | use = m of it. How many =i")
metres are left?
10 My lunch break lasts three-quarters of an hour. | spend a third of it playing
conkers. What fraction of an hour is that?

Exercise 5.10 -
Use theet oir eeecm eunmereney multiplication and division of
fractions, and remember BIDMAS when you answer these questions.
2_4 3,3 ris Wed oe
1 SeaE 2 7 3 7 10 4 ex WZ

ta = Bi eS
15 18 14 (en 3)

Zot 299 ere

5 926 Sif 7 3 9
2 43 8
9 “% 10 9

8 (a) The teacher asked the class to work out the sum of the series:
=
28 a = aeeh .. stopping when the sum was greater than ZS
What would the final answer be?

(b) George was not paying attention. The series he was summing was:
1 he rele
= a! oc
fe 2d 8
What was George’s final answer?

Exercise 5.11 ;
1 (a) What fraction of £5 is 75p?
(b) What fraction of 3 hours is 15 minutes?
2 Write < or > between the fractions in each pair.

(a) =
an
(b) 24 WIN
aie
ON
 3 Calculate ©

[3 ereii ESP Fa
3 5

4 Calculate

(a) 3-2 Palins) (b) 45-23

5 Find ' of 350

6 Find 2 of 3kg. Give your answer in grams.

7 Calculate
2.15
(a) 516 (b) ee
Ligoap

8 Calculate

9 | cut three-quarters of a metre of ribbon from a piece two and one-third

metres long. What fraction of the ribbon was left?

10 Calculate

fay (b) 1- {1+ i ~ 3))

Activi Ee lamaesledte)
ais
Egyptians were able to write any fraction as a sum of unit fractions where all the
unit fractions were different. A unit fraction is
one that has 1 as the |
For example: numerator, such as 7

How can you work out Egyptian fractions for any fraction, such as a a
Fibonacci devised a method that he called the ‘greedy’ fraction to work out
Egyptian fractions.

The greedy fraction

Imagine that your fraction is eating unit fractions. He is greedy and he starts with
the largest fraction that he can, which must be 3 or less.
nw
©
oO
fer
(S)
i)
a
La

Wa)
. ;
(7)

' You can see that af is less than

a half but more than
a quarter. =
) <
A Ue zB
gun chai 0
)
25 4 >
— 44-25 z
100
=
ete SP
100 a
Now you can see that 12 is just less than2
ral
5 50 lies between2
2 and 2 =fe}
an
ee er a?
soho picesot
a Peel
25) od 9 6
= 132-—75-50
300

Sa
300

= lies between “ and =

—

eee ee
= a by al
7 ee AN es ee
25 4 6 50
_ 132-75-50-6
300

Rais
300
ih 5 alt + i + ee + nia
er ipa eee
— and _
5 B, Sue
Use the greedy fraction method to find Egyptian fractions fori
Is there more than one solution? Check with your neighbours! Who fe found
the Egyptian fraction with the smallest number of unit fractions?
 |Probability

You know that some things will definitely happen and some things will
definitely not happen, but some other things might happen. It can be
useful to know how likely it is that these things could happen. After
all, if there is an 80% chance of rain tomorrow, you may decide not to
go to the park.

You often encounter probability, or chance, when you play certain

games. For example:

@ It is impossible to roll a total of 1 with two normal dice.

@ It is certain that I will roll a total of more than 1 with two
normal dice.

@ If I toss a coin there is an even chance that I will see heads or tails.
When you toss a coin or roll a die, this is an event. The results of an
event are its outcomes. Tossing a coin has two possible outcomes
(heads or tails), rolling a normal die with six faces has six possible
outcomes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6)

@ If an outcome is impossible, it has a probability of 0

e@ If an outcome is certain, it has a probability of 1
-@ If an outcome has an even chance, then it has a probability of 1 in x
fe)
al a
2 OF 5 (4)
Bo)
=
-@ The sum of all the probabilities of all the possible outcomes of an °
oO
event is 1 re)
=
=o
You can write a probability as: <
=2)
=
@ a fraction, such as 5 QO.
wn

@ a decimal, such as 0.5

@ a percentage, such as 50%
You can show probabilities on a probability scale, like this:
impossible possible even chance probable certain

0 1 i 3 1
2 4

or like this:
impossible possible even chance probable certain

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

er ee errr rer tr rrrteere Ty See eee

Here are some more things to remember, when you are discussing
probability. If you pick from a box of chocolates, this is unlikely to
be at random because you will pick your favourite flavour.
Rolling a die or taking a card out of a pack is called a random event
as you have no control over the outcome.
You talk about taking a card at random because you do not know
what card you will get.
When you toss a coin you will score either a head or a tail. These are
equally likely outcomes.
All three of these are fair tests because you cannot control the result.
This is why you might toss a coin at the start of a cricket match.
Suppose, though, that you had a pack of cards that had been prepared
with only the black suits - two sets of clubs and two sets of spades.
Maybe you have seen a coin that has two heads or two tails, rather
than one of each.
 It is possible you have heard of weighted or loaded dice, that are Die is the singular
more likely to show a six than any other number. These examples all af dice: Somes
show bias, because the outcomes are not all equally likely. This is why people say ‘one dice’
you will often see a pack of cards, a coin or a die described as fair. but that is incorrect.

1. Write down an outcome that:

(a) is impossible (d) is probable
(b) is possible (e) is certain.
(c) has an even chance of
happening
2 Now think of your own examples of:
(a) arandom event
(b) equally likely outcomes
(c) fair tests.
3 The weather forecast says that there is a 75% chance of a shower tomorrow.
(a) What would you not plan to do?
(b) What is the probability that there will not be a shower?
4 The weather forecast says that there is a 0.1 chance of a shower tomorrow.
(a) What would you plan to do?
(b) What is the probability that there will not be a shower?
5 The forecast says that on Tuesday there is a 1 in 2 chance of rain, on
Wednesday there is a 0.25 chance of rain but on Thursday they are 99%
certain that it will be a glorious day.
(a) Which would be the best day to spend outside?
(b) What is the chance of no rain on Tuesday: possible, even chance or
probable?
(c) What is the chance of no rain on Wednesday: possible, even chance or
probable?

£
S
si)
Q
SNn
a
Re
|
6 Copy the probability scale and mark on it the probability of each of the listed 2)
@
/ outcomes. The first one is done for you. a)
ce)
ex
=
impossible possible even chance probable certain =)
ga
Uv
=
12)
oO
re)
2
et,
1.)
n
A: | will throw a 1 with a normal die.
B: | will toss a coin and score ‘heads’.
C: | will watch television tonight.
D: There will be salad for lunch.
E: Humans will land on Mars in the next decade.
F: It will rain tomorrow.

Preerereerer eer rereey © Ie eee rere reese reese rere eee)

There are three types of outcome, as shown in question 6 of the

previous exercise:

@ those over which you have control (I will watch television.)

@ those about which you can make a sensible guess (Humans will land
on Mars.)
@ those for which you can calculate the theoretical probability. (I will
toss a coin and score ‘heads’.)
When you roll a die, all the outcomes are equally likely. This means
that each possible outcome has a probability of 7

Therefore, if you were rolling a die, you could write:

probability of rolling a three P(3) = :
You can also see that:
probability of not rolling a three P(not 3) = 1— ;
5
6
When there is more than one possible outcome, you can determine the
probability of any desired outcome as:
number of favourable outcomes
total number of possibilities
 Example
A number is chosen at random from the first 10 positive integers.
What is the probability of that number:
(a) being square
(b) not being square?
The first 10 positive integers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8,9, 10 Always start by listing all
The square numbers are 1, 4, 9 the possibilities.

P(square) = 2 First find the probability of

ie choosing a square number,
P(not square) = 1—- 2 et SE the answer
rom
= J
10

Games of chance
Because so many games depend on chance as well as skill, questions
about probability are often based on examples involving cards and
dice. Here are the basic facts you need to know about a pack of cards.

@ A pack of cards has four suits (spades, hearts, diamonds and clubs)
and each suit has 13 cards.
@ In each suit there is an ace, the numbers 2 to 10, a jack (or knave)
a queen and king.
@ The knave, queen and king are royal cards.
= @ Diamonds and hearts are red, spades and clubs are black.
Ss
Q
oy It is worth taking a look at a pack of cards, if you have not already
\e)
Ss
done so.
a

\O
 r=)
@o
(a)
°
eae
ae
ie
=
=n
Suppose you throw a normal die. Write down the probability of throwing: =)
va
(a) an even number (d) at least 2 mo)
=
te)
oT
(b) a3 (e) a number that is less than 5 pe3)
<2
(c) asquare number es,
i)
n
Suppose you choose one card at random from a normal pack. Write down the
probability of choosing:
(a) aclub (d) ared ace
(b) aking (e) a black card.
(c) aroyal card (f) acard that is not an ace.
Suppose you choose a letter at random from the letters of the word
‘MATHEMATICS’. What is the probability of:
(a) choosing a vowel (b) not choosing a vowel?
| have a die with eight faces numbered from 1 to 8. Write down the probability
of throwing: A composite
number is a number
(a) a6 (d) a square number that has more than
(b) an even number (e) a multiple of 3 two factors, such as
4, 6, 9, 36
(c) a prime number (f) acomposite number.
Look at this five-sided spinner. Write down the probability of spinning:
(a) 1 (c) an odd number
(b) 2 (d) an even number.

Look at this five-sided spinner. Notice that some numbers are red. Write down
the probability of spinning:
(a) ared2
(b) ared number
(c) ared odd number
A number is chosen at random from the first 20 positive integers. Write down
the probability of that number:
(a) being odd (e) not being a cube number
(b) being prime (f) not being a factor of 360
(c) not being prime (g) not being a triangular number.
(d) not being a multiple of 3
 8 An eight-sided spinner is numbered from 1 to 8. Write down the probability of spinning
a number that is:
(a) a prime number (d) not more than 4
(b) not a prime number (e) at least 7
(c) not less than 6 (f) less than 9
9 | have a bag of 20 coloured sweets. Four of them are red, three are brown, seven are orange
and the rest are yellow. | take one out of the bag at random. Write down the probability that |
pick a sweet that is:
(a) red (d) not orange or yellow
(b) yellow (e) not a colour of the rainbow.
(c) not red

C ).Calculating the probability of a second event

rrr ry © Pe) eee ee rer eee re eer eee ere eer ee eee ee eee ey

What happens if I pick a sweet from a bag, and then I eat it? There are fewer
sweets in the bag (by one) and fewer of the colour that I took (also by one).

Example
| have a bag of 20 coloured sweets. Four of them are red, three are brown, seven are orange
and the rest are yellow. | take an orange sweet and then eat it. If |take another sweet out at
random, what is the probability that it will be orange?
Number of orange sweets left is 6
Number of sweets now in the bag is19 Remember to take 1 from the total, as well
P(orange) = x as from the number of orange sweets.

If you look back over these examples, you can see why it is better to use fractions
to describe probability!

Combined events
When you are considering a combined event, you need to consider two options.

Example
| take a card at random from a normal pack. What is the probability that it is a red four or a
black five? ;
= Number of red fours is 2 Number of black fives is 2
5S
A)
9 P(red 4 or black 5) = =
iS)
~
a alg
13
No)
 ||
} Being certain
t ©)
ok
(a)
| Understanding theoretical probability can help you to calculate how ae
se)
_ many times you should do something to be certain of a definite 2h
=)
- outcome. ga
et
=F
It is important to remember that, however many times you repeat an )
a2)
experiment, you cannot be sure to get any particular outcome; for x
le)
example, you could roll a die one hundred times and still not score oe
je)
co”
_a 6. However, when you take a sweet from a bag without putting it =e
back, then you can work out how many sweets you must take out to <
te)
be sure of getting one of a particular colour. —
be})
nn
0)
fa)
Example fe)
S
Note the difference (aX
| have a bag of 20 coloured sweets. Four of them are red, three are brown, seven iw
are orange and the rest are yellow. How many sweets must | take out of the between the <
@
bag at random to be sure of getting an orange one? theoretical probability =
ct
of picking an orange
Number of non-orange sweets = 20 — 7 sweet and the
= AS certainty of picking
an orange sweet.
| must take 13 + 1 = 14 sweets out of the bag to be sure of getting an orange one.

1 Ihave a bag of 20 coloured sweets. Four of them are red, three are green,
seven are orange and the rest are yellow. | eat a yellow one. | take another
sweet out of the bag at random.
(a) Give the probability of my taking:
(i) a yellow sweet
(ii) a green sweet.
(b) How many sweets must |take, at random, to be certain of getting a
green one?

2 | have a drawer full of 26 socks. Nine of them are grey, 11 of them are black
and the rest are white.
(a) | take 1 sock out of the drawer at random. Write down the probability
that it is:
(i) white (ii) black (iii) grey or white.

(b) In fact the first sock that | take out is white. | do not replace the sock.
Write down the probability that the next sock |take is:
(i) white (ii) grey (iii) black or white.
a pair
(c) How many socks must | take out of the drawer to be sure of getting
of the same colour?
 3 For the school tombola we are told that the winning tickets will be those that
end with a 0 or 5. There are 500 tickets and 100 prizes.
(a) If! buy a ticket, what is the probability that | will win a prize?
(b) How many tickets must | buy in order to be sure of winning a prize?
(c) After 1 hour, 350 people have bought tickets and 40 prizes have been
won. What is the probability of winning a prize now?
4 Acard is selected at random from a normal pack. What is the probability that
it is:
(a) anace oraten
(b) ared royal card
(c) a black card less than five?
5 lam playing a game of cards. | have been dealt an ace, a king and a queen and
my friend has been dealt an ace, a knave and a 10
(a) What is the probability that the next card | am dealt is a knave?
(b) | am dealt a 10. What is the probability that the next card my friend is
dealt is also a 10?
6 In our maths lesson, we are playing a game with a die. The teacher rolls the die
and scores a 5. She rolls the die a second time.
(a) Write down the probability that she:
(i) scoresa4
(ii) scoresa5
(iii) makes a total with the first die of more than 5
(iv) makes a total with the first die of 8
(b) Which of these answers would be different if the teacher had rolled a
3 the first time? Suppose she had rolled a 1?
(c) How many times should she roll the die to be sure of getting another 52
7 | packed four tins of soup and three tins of rice pudding to take on a camping
trip but left them outside in the rain and all the labels washed off.
(a) What is the probability that the first tin that | open is rice pudding?
(b) How many tins must | open to be sure of having rice pudding?

=
5S
©
Q
S)MN
a

Ne)
|
|8 Ina packet of jelly beans there are five lemon beans, three orange beans, six uU
fe}
lime beans, one vanilla bean and four strawberry beans. a,
oO
(a) If 1 pick a bean at random what is the probability that it is: =
K
(i) vanilla (ii) not lime (iii) orange or ia
lemon? 5
(a>)

(b) | picked a strawberry bean and ate it. What is the probability that the next =
bean | pick is: ga
fe})
(i) strawberry (ii) not lime (iii) orange or 3
lemon?

C ).Possibility space diagrams. oo. cssssssenenenee

When you toss a coin it will show either heads or tails. If you toss
two coins, the first coin could show heads or tails and the second coin
could also show heads or tails. This means that you could have any
one of four possible combinations:
(head, head) (head, tail) (tail, head) (tail, tail)
To make it easier to see all the possible outcomes, you can list all of
them in a table called a possibility space diagram.

Example
What is the probability of scoring two heads when you toss two coins together?

First coin

Second coin

The notation
From the table, you can see that there are four possible outcomes, but only P(H, H) means the
one of them gives two heads. probability of scoring
P(H, H) = 4 2ad and
a head and aa head.
ea
 Bercse6a_}
1 Copy and complete this possibility space to show the possible outcomes when
throwing two dice.

First die

Second die

Now work out the probability that, when you throw two dice, you will score:
(a) a double 6 (e) more than 6
(b) any double (f) at least 5
(c) atotal of 7 (g) a4 oneither die. |
(d) a total of 4
2 The game Catch the mouse uses two dice. One is a normal die with numbers
from 1 to 6 and the other has coloured spots on the six faces: three blue spots,
two red spots and one yellow spot. Copy and complete this possibility space
to show the possible outcomes when you throw the two dice together.

Coloured die

Numbered die

Work out the probability that you will score:

(a) a blue spot anda 3
(b) a yellow spot and a 3
© (c) ared spot
S
bi)
9 (d) a6
iSnN
a
Ne
|
;
-

oe
+3 The game Tell me uses a five-sided spinner with letters on it and a four-sided 2)
spinner with colours on it. n
“Al
Sh
=
<
nn
mo)
be)
a)
@
oS
is)
ga
=

3
n

Draw a possibility space diagram showing all the possible outcomes when
both spinners are spun. Write down the probability of spinning:
(a) red
(b) blue and D
4 (a) Draw a possibility space diagram showing all the possible outcomes when
you throw one normal die and another die that is numbered 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4

(b) Use your possibility space to find the probability that you will score:
(i) adouble 2 (iv) a total of 6
(ii) any double (v) at least 8
(iii) a double 6 (vi) over 8

Extension ISGraty-a ee)

We have looked at events in which all outcomes had an equal chance
of occurring. The two pentagonal spinners in Exercise 6.2 have 5 possible
outcomes. On each spinner, two of the five outcomes are 2 and two
outcomes are 3. Now look at this spinning wheel. With this wheel,
two outcomes are £5 and two outcomes are £1
Although the wheel is divided into six sections, the sections are not all of
equal size. This means that there is not an equal chance of picking each
section.
Although two of the six sections might win £1, the probability of winning £1
is higher than S (or a Looking again at the spinner, you should see that,
effectively, it is divided into eight equal sections and that two pairs of these
sections are joined together. Looking at where the £1 labels are, you can see
that the probability of winning £1 is 425
 1 Inthe circular spinner, the wheel is divided into eight equal sections, but then
two pairs of sections are joined together.

becomes:

a) Give the P probability ¥ of winning:

(i) £10 (ii) £5 (iii) more than a £1
(b) If it costs £2 to have a spin of the wheel, what is the probability of
winning more than you pay?
2 Look at these spinners.

_ (a) For spinner A, write down the probability of scoring:

(i) 1
(ii) 2
(iii) an odd number.
(b) For spinner B, write down the probability of scoring:
(i) 1
(ii) 2
(iii) an odd number.
(c) | have to spin a total of 4 to win a game. Would | be better off spinning A
= ] twice, spinning B twice or spinning A and B together?
=
S Explain your answer.
ry
QS
)=
ry

3)
 3 Ina game called Old Macdonald | have to throw a plastic lamb.
The way the
ene
ee
eth
et lamb lands decides what move | can make next. | throw the lamb 100
times.
My results are recorded in this table,

Position Move Tally Frequency

Nose down HHT III

Tail down uit sweJ
Ajtj
aded

Total es eabematdnes sid

3 (a) If! were to throw the lamb once more, write down the probability, based
on the results above, that it lands:
(i) on four legs (iii) not on a side
(ii) on its left or right side (iv) either tail down or nose
down.
(b If |were to throw the lamb another 100 times, would | get the same
—

results? Explain your answer.

(c At the same time as throwing the lamb, | throw a normal die. The die
—

tells me how many squares to move. Draw up a possibility space diagram

showing all the possible combinations of throwing the lamb and the die
together.
(d oe My friend Jake says that the probability of moving forward three squares
is = Is he right? Explain your answer. If he is wrong, what do you think
the correct probability is?

Summary Exercise 6.6

1 Draw pobebiity rele Show the probability of these events on the scale.
(a) There will be a cloud in the sky tomorrow.
(b) It will rain tomorrow.
(c) England will win the next football World Cup.
(d) Next year will be a leap year.
(e) | will brush my hair before | go to bed.
2 A letter is chosen from the word PROBABILITY. Write down the probability
that it is:
(a) a vowel (c) the letter P
(b) a consonant (d) a letter with rotational
symmetry.
 3 Acard is taken at random from a normal pack of cards. Write down the
probability that it will be:

(a) aknave (d) a black king or a red 9

(b) more than 8 (e) a heart

(c) ared royal card (f) aknave or a heart.

4 Anormal die is rolled. Write down the probability that the score will be:

(a) 5 (b) at least 4 (c) a factor of 36

5 | toss a coin and roll a die at the same time. Copy and complete this
possibility space diagram to show the possible combinations.

Write down the probability of throwing:

(a) ahead and an odd number
(b) a tail and a number greater than 4
(c) a prime number and either a head or tail
(d) a tail and a number greater than 6
6 I roll two dice together. Both are cubes but their numbering is rather different.
Here are the nets of the cubes, showing the number of dots on each face.

(a) Copy and complete this possibility space diagram showing the possible
outcomes when both dice are rolled.

First die

©
Q
ss) Second die
Q
2)
S
a.

6
 (b) What is the probability of rolling a double?
(c) What is the probability of rolling a total of 4?
(d) What is the probability of getting at least 5?
(e) What possible totals could you throw?
(f) Which is the most likely score?
7 | bought a bag of mixed Munchy bars. There were four nutty bars, three
chocolate chip bars, five crispy bars and two coconut bars. | took one bar at
random. Write down the probability that it was: suei
aded
Ajiji
(a) coconut (b) nutty.
My little sister ate one coconut bar and one chocolate chip bar. Now, write
down the probability that, if |take one bar at random, | will pick:

(c) coconut (d) nutty.

Activity: Design a board game |

Think how you could design your own board game. Before you start, you could
do some research into games. Perhaps everyone in the class could bring in an
unusual game for you all to talk about.
1 What makes a good game? List all the games you enjoy. Note whether they
are games of chance or games of skill, or a mixture of both.
2 For games that involve chance, write down what these elements of chance
are. There may be more than one. For some games the element of chance
depends on what your opponent does.
3 Decide what works best. Now create a game in which you could use two or
more elements of chance. It might involve throwing one or two dice to allow
you to move, and picking up some cards from time to time. You will need to
put your game into a context. Here are a few ideas:
e@ purely mathematical on a grid of squares or hexagons
@ a general knowledge game, where the question you get depends on where
you land
@ arace game, similar to Ludo or Snakes and ladders
@ agame based on a popular book or film.
@ agame with letters.
4 When you have planned your game, draw the game board accurately.
5 Write down the rules.

6 This is the clever bit! Assuming your game involves chance, what advice can
you give someone about how to win the game? Does it matter who goes
first? What choices could you make? Could you change the rules a little so
that there is some skill as well as chance?
7 When you are happy with your game, play it. If you enjoy it, then you could
try to market it — now that will involve some exciting mathematics!
 Algebra 1: Expressions
yand formulae
The word algebra derives from the Arabic al-jabr, meaning literally ‘the
reunion of broken parts. It gained widespread use through the title of a
book ilm al-jabr wa‘l-mukabala - the science of restoring what is missing
and equating like with like - written by the mathematician Abu Ja’far
Muhammad (c.800-847). He subsequently became known as al-Khwarazmi,
the man of Kwarazm (now Khiva in Uzbekistan). He introduced the
technique of writing calculations down instead of using an abacus.

Statue of the mathematician al-Khwarazmi the man of Kwarazm, Uzbekistan

The Arabs brought algebra from ancient Babylon, Egypt and India and
finally to Europe via Italy. The first treatise on algebra was written by
Diophantus of Alexandria in the third century A.D.

( ).The.rules of algebra
eee OO CORR e COO Oe Oe OOO e REDO COSC ECHOES OCOD CEE ESCO OSCE DO ORO EEOC OOO erence eeeleeceneesecececcce

In Maths for Common Entrance One you learnt some simple rules of
algebra and used them to solve equations. Here is a brief summary of
what you should know.

e@ In algebra, you use symbols or letters to represent numbers. These

are known as variables.
@ You can use any letters to represent unknowns, and in textbooks
they are written as italic letters. For example, if you use x as an
unknown, you write it as a curly x, not the x that means multiply.
@ You can add and subtract terms made up of the same letters, or
numbers, but you cannot add unlike letters or letters to numbers.
at+ataz=3a but a+b=a+b and cannot be simplified.
@ A term may be a number or an algebraic unknown, such as
3, 12, a, xy or z?
@ Terms that involve exactly the same letters are called like terms.
So a, 2a and 5a are like terms, as are x, 3x and 5x, and 2xy, 4xy,
7xy. You can add or subtract like terms. This is called gathering or
collecting like terms.
@ When you simplify expressions, you do not use multiplication signs, eiga
Jo
ayy
sayn
or division signs.
e3xx=3x butl1xx=x
@x+3= .

@ You use a fraction rather than a decimal to describe a variable:

0.2x = = You never write 1x
5 or Ox
@ An expression is a combination of terms, such as 3x + 4y
@ You cannot solve an expression but you may be able to simplify it.
@ An equation contains an equals sign: 2 +x =6
@ You can solve equations.
@ You should always align equals signs vertically in your working.

Example
Simplify each expression.
(i) atat+at+a (ii) 3xb (iii)
6d +2 To simplify means
to write more simply.
(i) ata+at+a=4a (ii) 3xb=3b (iii)
6d + 2 = 3d

In each of the examples, there was just one unknown but the same
rules apply when you have two or more unknowns.

Example
Simplify each expression.
(i) 3a+4b-2a+3b (ii) 3ax 4b (iii) 12x
+2y

(i) 34+4b-2a+3b=a+7b
You can simplify
(ii) 3a
x 4b = 12ab or cancel fractions
(iii) 12x +2y= ae written in algebra,
just like fractions with
2 6x numbers.
ay
 Exercise 7.1 erp
i

Use the rules of algebra to simplify each expression.

1 atat+a 6 0.1a
Reeae3 ft 0.2 4a
3 m+m+m-m 8 1x
4 p+p+qt+q OF a+ 54045

5 4xy+3xy 108¢—:c=c—€

11 2ax3b 16 4a+3b+2a-—b
12 2p+3q-4p+q li Sn 5— 7+ 4

13 m+2n—3n+m 18 15m+5n
14 4xx0.5y 19 2px5q
TS) 8x =2y 20 8a+2b-2a-2b

Powers ofx
SESS O OOOH OHHH ETO OES O EEO TEH SES TED OSS S OTS OO STE EES ESESSEH OOOO STESOEHOS SHOES E EOS EO SEH OEEEESESESEOEEEEEESS

You know that you can use an index number to write the result of
multiplying any number by itself a number of times.
3x3=32

The same is true for an algebraic variable.

XXXXX=xX 3 XKXXKXXXX=X 4

Look at these squares.

5) 1
oh
=} 1 3 x aA
= a] |

2
= x
ba
Uv 3
S
&
vn How can you calculate their areas?
[—
2iy) The area of the first squares 1x1=1°=1
Ww
iB)
q The area of the second square: 2 x 2=22=4
x<
Lj
a
The area of the third square: 3 x3 ees
A)
Q
i
The area of the fourth square: x x x = x?
<5)
Sr You cannot simplify x? any further.
<=
It is very important not to confuse x? with 3 x x =3xorxt+x+x= 3x
i
Make sure you understand why before you move on.

we
If you are not sure, then imagine the calculation when x = 2
xXxXx=233 2X2x2=23=8

3Xx=3x 3X2=24+2+2=6
X
SIB
JO

Can you see how important it is to understand this correctly?

You can gather like terms that include index numbers, just as you would
gather other like terms. but you may need another stage of working.

Example
Simplify: 2x xxx xy+xxxxy
a’

2XxXXXXVtxXxXy=2x2y
+ x2y There are two x*y terms here, so add 2x2y to the
= xy single x*y

Exercise 7.2
y

ache = eon
1 (a) xxx (c) 2xx
(b) x+x (d) 2x2xx

2 (a) x+x+x (Cc) rr

(b) 3xx (d) 3xxx3

3 (a) 4xx (C) S242.

(b) xxxxxxx

4 (a) axx (c) axaxx

(b) axxxx (d) axxxaxx

5 (a) bxb (c) 2xaxb

(b) 2xbxb (d) axbxaxb

6 (a) xxy+x (c) xxy+xxy

(b) xxy+xxx (d) xxx+2xxxx

7 (a) 2xaxb+axa (b) 2xaxat+axa

8 (a) 2xaxb+axbxb (b) 2xaxb+3xaxb

9 (a) Se rk (b) 2xsxtxt-sxtxt

10 (a) 3xxxyxx-xXxxxy (b) 3xxxyxx-xxyXy

 C
).Algebra
and index MUMber$ oo csccccsesenesnesee
Sometimes you need to combine expressions in algebra, for example:
Dest = 2 x ur xs XX XX
= 6x"

It is important not to confuse adding and multiplying.

° ah + a’h + a*b = 3a*b
© a*h x a®b x a®b = a®b3

Exercise 7.3
ze

simplify each expression, if possible.

i axXaaxa 6 4x*y + x*y + 3x2y
2 3ax 2a* x a3 7 4xy+x*y
— xy
3 3b+b*+2b° 8 4xy+x*y—
xy?
4 2b°+b?+3b?7 9 3ac x a*b x 4be
5 2ab x a*b x 3ab? 10 2bc+a*b+ 4ac

You can simplify or cancel an algebraic fraction in the same way

as you do a numerical fraction. Look for common factors in the
numerator and denominator of an algebraic fraction, just as you
do in ordinary fractions. Then cancel by dividing numerator and
<5)
—
ue) denominator by the same number or letter.
=)
=
—
5 Example
a2)
° Simplify: 3xy? + 6xy
ua)
“vn 3 2
=
-2
ary?
+ xy = oS
A
n
<5) y Bx 4x xy It isa good idea to write the expression out
ax< he Ke in full before cancelling. That helps you to
Lj
~
avoid making mistakes.
Me) NI<
i
Q
3)
ay)
=

fl
Simplify each of these fractions.
Check that your answer is in the simplest form possible, each time.

ieee2 6 Sab
12a

2 Sab 7 6ab
2 3b

3 6ab 6ab S@)9

sJaq
pue
xapu
12 ea
4 6ab 9 6ab
a 6ab

5 Sab 10 Gab
b 15ab

M1) 3xy+6 16 20xy+ 4y

12 12p*
+ 6p 17 24ab+ 12b
13 4n?+6n 18 3x°+x
14 3ab+6b 19 3x*+x-
15 4mn+6n 20 8ab
+ 2b?

Index numbers and brackets

POPP CO RCS ESET ESE HEE HEE E SEES EEE E ESS EES OSESEHESSESESEEE ESSE OES SSEEH SES OEE HESS EES EESOETOH ESOS E SEO EEOEES

Sometimes it can be difficult to see exactly what the index number is

referring to. Always look carefully to see if there are any brackets.
What is the difference between 2a’ and (2a)*?

@ 2a°=2xaxa
@ (2a)? = (2a) x (2a)
ar 2 0 Xe Od
=4xX%axa or 4a’
Sometimes, the index number is also indexed.
If you are confused, remember that the index number represents at
least one multiplication.
 Examples:
Kir (38)? = (37)
x(3*)
=3x3x3x3
= 34

(ii) (6°)? = (b*) x (b?) x (b’)

=bxXbDxbxbxbxb
= p§

E xercise 7.5 ane

la)
s
Basel

Simplify each expression, if possible, and check that your answer is in its simplest
form.
1 3? 6 (4x)?
2 3x2? 7 (x2)?
B18 2)2 8 3x 2b
4 (3b)? 9 3(25)3
5 3xa 10 2(3b)3
Now that you can simplify an expression by adding, subtracting,
multiplying and dividing, try this mixed exercise.

Exercise 7.6
simplify each expression, if possible, and check that your answer is in its simplest
form.
iB)
a 1 2x+5x 6 ctx + 2c%x — 3c?x
=

=
2 axaxa 7 a?x3a
ba
A) 3 3ax— ax 8 3yx2y
=
Li)
”“
<& 4 Oxy g ab
—Wn 3 a
Yn
8) 5. (2b)? 10
a
x<
ly
—
©
em)
sb)
a7)
=
11
2b)* n
(26) 16 3x+2y-5x-y =

12 ae 17 7-—3x+4-6x
a
et
e

13, 3ax3a
3a x3 18 S30
5-5
va
5
:
14 3a+
ab —2ab 19 3ax
2b x 3bc >
ce
SO
/ 6b
=
15 3x (3b)? 20 34x 2bxc
2ab =
2
me)

(_).Substituting
variables inexpressions... B
.
When you know the value of a variable, such as x, you can substitute =)
74)

for the variable to find the value of the expression.

Algebraic variables may have positive or negative values.
Therefore, before you look any further at substitution, here is a review
of arithmetic with negative numbers.

Negative numbers
Do you remember these rules about negative numbers?
 :
Exercise 7.7
‘

Use the rules about negative numbers to answer these questions.

1) -6= 4 6 6+(-2)
2.6=9 7 3-(5)
3 -8-(*6) 8 6+(-6)
4-5 4-3) Siz te3)
5 -9-(-4) 10 8-5

11 -9-6 16 -2+(-7)
128e=12 17-7 —('8)
13 -13+(-5) 18 -7+9
14 -7+(-14) 19 -3-8
15 13-(-9) 20 -(-3)-(*8)

Multiplying and dividing with negative numbers

If2+2+2+2 is the same as4x2=8
Pen necjet ec) (2) (2) =4x (2) = "8
What about (~4) x (2)?
You know that adding ~4 gives the same answer as subtracting *4
SOR Ta) <2) =~ (*4) x (42)
mA'3)
58) =*8or8
As
>
From this you can see that multiplying any number by a negative
:
bes
number changes its sign.
ae)
= 4x 2= 8 Axe 8 “G) x e=6
Le)
“n

Ssan As division is the inverse of multiplication then it follows that:

=

Y “8+(-2)=4 and —8+4=-2

qa
x<
Lay This is a useful rule to remember:
=
2 negative Xx or + positive gives negative
Q

3<=
ic)
negative x or + negative gives positive
Thus 4x (~2)="8 (A) x2 =78 ( 4)acGey ae
re
B+(2)=4 (8) +2=4 (8) + (2) =4
 Note the use of brackets. It is not good practice to have two signs %)
such as x S
and — next to each other, so you can use brackets to make it clear that the raised oT
wn
=
negative (~) is attached to the number and the x, +,— or + is the operator. et
=
ct
=)
ga
<
Using negative numbers with a calculator a
=
oo calculator you should find a ‘change sign’ button like this o
SE
OY (Gey. ©i)
i
@
@ The button changes the sign of the number you have just x
a°)m=}
entered, or the number on the screen. @
nn
oy
@ You can press the ‘negative’ button before a number is entered, )
=
to make it negative. 174)

To check the calculations below, you need to follow one of these four
key sequences, depending on the type of calculator you have.

és eS
Sequence 1: (*4) x (*2) ew
x ies 8 cas Ws a) Ms)©
Sequence 2: (~4) x 2 4
ea! bs oS

Sequence 3: 4 x (-2) aE i! 8

Sequence 4: (~4) x (-2) GB:

Now repeat the examples above, with + instead of x, and check your answers.

Exercise 7.8
Complete each calculation and then use a calculator to check your answer.
1 4x3 6 (18)
+(6)
2 (-24)+8 7 3x8

3 (-4)x(8) 8 (-72)+9
4 (25) +(-5) 9 (*4)x(5)
5 (-3)x(-5) 10 (64) +8

11 (-6)x(-9) 16 105+ (-5)

12 (-24)+(*4) 17 (17) x3
13 6x (-4) 18 (-108)+(-12)
14 (*72)
+(-6) 19 (+15)
x (8)

15 (-15) x5 20 104
+(8)
Now you are ready for some mixed examples.
 E X ercise 7.9
a

Complete each calculation and then use a calculator to check your answer
Remember the BIDMAS rule.
We <(2) 6 35+(-5)
2 -4+7 7 ~4-(-7)
3 -3-6 8 -3+9
4 14+(-2) 9 (-3)
x(-6)
5 (-3)-(-4) 10 5+(-10)

11 16-8-4 16 (-12)
+ (6) x (-3)
12 (-24)+8-(-3) 17 (-2) + (6) —(-3)
13 36+(9)
x(2) 18 18+2x(-3)
14 (+5) —(-5)
+(-10) 19057) 962)
15 12x(3)+4 20 5+(-7)-(°3)

Given a statement such as:

the area of a rectangle of base b and height h is bh
or a formula, such as:
A=bh
you can substitute values of b and h into the expression bh to find
the value of the area, A.
&
<8)

=} Just as in football, the letters come out and the substituted numbers
= take their place.
—
5
Ae)
°
These are the simple steps for substitution.
bi)
“4

1 Write down the expression.

S
<=

WY
Wy
YM 2 Substitute the numbers for the letters.
a
bad 3 Calculate.
Lay
—
4 Write down the answer with correct units.
Q
Ne
a)
is)

<=

7
 Example
Given that x = 3, find the value of:
(i) x+2 (ii) x-1 (iii) 2x+4
uol3
(i) x+2=3+2 (iii) 2x+4=(2x3)+4 Note the use of brackets in
_5 Eta this example, this gives you
; cere time to think about BIDMAS.
(ii) x-1=3-1 =10
=2

If the variable has a negative value, take care to remember the

rules you learnt earlier about negative numbers and always do any
calculations in brackets first.

Example
Given that a = 3 and b= "5, find the value of a(b + a)
a(b+a) =3(-5+3) Expression, substitute
=.3 ¥(-2) Calculate
=6 Answer

xercise 7.10
1 Find the value of each expression, given that a = 4
(a) a-2 (c) 6+a
(b) 2a (d) 3a-5
2 Find the value of each expression, given that b = ~3
(a) 25 (c) 22
(b) 4? (d) (26)?
3 Find the value of each expression, given that x = 5
(a) 2x-2 (c) x7+1
(b) x? (d) 3x+5
4 Find the value of each expression, given that y = 0

(a) 2y (c) y+4

(b) (d) 15 —3y
 5 Find the value of each expression, given that a= 1 and b=2
(a) a+b (c) 2a+3b
(b) b-a (d) ab
6 Find the value of each expression, given that x = 2 and y=~4

(a) x-y (c) xy

(b) x+y (4) 2
7 Find the value of each expression, given that a = 3 and b="2

(a) a+b (c) 2a+3b

(b) a*+b* (d) ab
8 Find the value of each expression, given that x =5 and y= "3
(a) 2x-y (c) a-—
(b) 2 (d) 3x+5y

9 Find the value of each expression, given that x = 4 and y=~4

(a) x(y+x)
(b) 2x(3y —x)
(c) (2x+y)-(x-y)
10 Find the value of each expression, given that a=~3,b=Oandc=4
(a) b(a+c)
(b) 2a(3a +c)
(c) (2b+ 3c) - (2a+c)
11 Find the value of each expression, given that x = 4.5, y = 0.2 and z= 3.1

a
5)
(a) xy (b) 2xz (c) x(2y +z)
rm]
12 Find the value of each expression, given that r = 30, s = 10 and t=-5
= rs rt tir+s)
had -
12)
S
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wv
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5) Now that you can substitute values into expressions, you are ready
aq
x< to think about formulae. A formula is a mathematical relationship
ly
a
between variables. A formula, like an equation, contains an equals
S
i
sign. A formula usually has one variable on one side of the equals sign
Q
Y and an expression on the other.
“Sh
= In other words, a formula gives you a rule or expression for calculating
the value of a quantity such as an area or perimeter, in terms of other
If variables, such as length.
Area: A=bh
Perimeter: P=2b+2h

Mean average: mean = total of all the values ae]

number of values

Example
Find the perimeter of a rectangle of base 7cm and height 5cm.
P=2b+2h Formula
= (2x 7) +(2x 5) Substitute
= 14+ 10 Calculate
= 24cm Answer with correct units

Exercise 7.11
Substitute the given values into each into formula.
1 Consider the formula P = 2b + 2h
(a) Find the value of P when b= 2 andh=6
(b) Find the value of P when db = 100 and h = 50
(c) Find the value of P when b=0.6 and h= 1.4
(d) Find the value of b when P= 10 and h =3
(e) Find the value of h when P= 120 and b= 45

2 Consider the formula A= bh

(a) Find the value of Awhen b= 4 andh=5
(b) Find the value of Awhen b = 100 and h = 80
(c) Find the value of Awhen b=0.4 andh=1.5
(d) Find the value of b when 4 = 10 andh=4
(e) Find the value of / when 4 = 150 and b = 30

3 Consider the formula 4 = ee

(a) Find the value of 4when a=4,b=5 andh=8

(b) Find the value of Awhen a= 20,b = 50 and h= 40
(c) Find the value of Awhen a=0.3,b=0.55 andh=1.8
(d) Find the value of a when A = 20, h= 10 andb=3
(e) Find the value of b when 4 = 150, a = 30 andh=5
 4 Consider the formula X = v? — v2
(a) Find the value of Y when v= 10 andu="8
(b) Find the value of X when v = 0.4 and u=0.4
(c) Find the value of v when X= 9 and u=4
(d) Find the value of uwwhen X= 25 and v= 13

Writing formulae
You have seen that a formula can include more than one variable. This
is useful if you need to write a formula to represent a story puzzle.

Example |
| had £a and my uncle gave me £4 for my birthday.
Find the value of P, the number of pounds | have now.
P=a+b

Exercise 7.12
a en
ial

1 My brother's age is x years and my age is y years. Write a formula for S, the
sum of our ages.
2 My mother has a piece of string s metres long. She cuts off ¢ metres and
gives it to me. She is left with ZL metres of string. Write a formula for L.
3 There are m families in our road and each family has n children. Write a
formula for C, the total number of children living in the road.
4 In my class of 24 pupils, g boys wear glasses all the time and s boys wear
glasses some of the time. b boys do not need to wear glasses at all. Write a
Y
—
as) formula for 5.
=}
= 5 (a) What is the total cost, c pence, of y ice creams at x pence each?
S
—~ (b) What is the total cost, C pounds, of y ice creams at x pence each?
aS)
=S
A) 6 My height increased by a centimetres last year and b centimetres this year.
n
© | am now 1.6 metres tall. Two years ago | was 7'm tall. Write a formula for T.
oe
an 7 | buy m magazines costing p pence each. Write a formula for F, where F is
5)
‘the change that | get from £5
ae
x<
Ly 8 The total cost of a school trip is £150 for the coach hire plus £4.50 per pupil.
~
< (a) Write a formula for C,, the total cost, of taking P pupils.
Q
58) (b) Write a formula for C,, the cost per pupil (including the coach), of taking
=)
<= P pupils.

7
 mn
9 Ina class of 24,p pupils have two pets, g pupils have one pet and the rest
ie)
=
have no pets.
3
(a) Write a formula for P, the total number of pets the pupils in the class ah
m@
@)
have altogether.

(b) What would the formula be if p pupils had no pets, ¢ pupils had one pet
and the rest had two pets?
10 Aman was going to St Ives with his x wives. Each wife had y cats and each cat
had z kittens, so that 7 in total were going to St Ives. Write a formula for 7.

Exercise 7.13: Shape formulae }

Sometimes you need to find unknown lengths in a shape. You can often do this
by writing a formula.
 3 Write a formula for:
(a) A, the area
(b) P, the perimeter of this rectangle.

4 Write a formula for:

(a) A, the area
(b) P, the perimeter of this shape.

eb)
i)
=]
—

==
S
bed
v
S
4)
4)
&
ae
wy
“

Ned
qo
x
ui
~
©
x)
5)
=)
<x
7
5 Write a formula for:

(a) A, the area

(b) P, the perimeter of this shape. ae}NU

6 Write a formula for:

(a) A, the area
(b) P, the perimeter of this shape.

7 Write a formula for:

(a) A, the area
(b) P, the perimeter of this shape.

8 Drawa shape of your own that has an area of 20ab

Write a formula for its perimeter.
9 Draw a shape of your own that has a perimeter of 8a + 10b
Write a formula for its area.
 Harder substitution
You must take great care when substituting into expressions with
fractions.

Example
Find the value of = given that x= a = ;and z= 2

ety jl 2\a 3 Do not stack the fractions but use a + sign instead.
i 2s ao)

=(344) = Add the two fractions that were in the top line, bring
Sa) 1G the division down.
me 8 Now multiply by the reciprocal of the divisor
o> and cancel.
eas
5

27, Finally express the answer in its lowest terms, as a

5 mixed number if necessary.

2 2

(a) x+y+z (d) a

(b) 22+ (x+y) (e) 2(2x +y)

8w () P+y-2
2
(jnXZ
<
g 2 Find the value of each expression, given that a = 2 b= 2 andc= 4
a 2
be

iS)
2o ae (e) 942
bt+c
a ; 2be
(c) a ~2 : (f) 2ab—-bce
yj

g
Q
v
=)
<=

N
 Now try substituting with decimals. Remember, it is important to show oO
every stage of your working. =|
3 Find the value of each expression, given that s = 2.5, t= 0.4, w=0.7 and a
v=0.9 i
(a) »
a) vow ; (d)uty
(b) u2+ sz (e}a. 2).
; Ve
2 i
C Waisatt s(v—u)

Summary Exercise 7.15 °

1 Simplify each expression.
(a) m+m+m+m—m (b) 4a + 3b-2a-4b
2 Simplify each expression.
(a) b* + 2b? — 5? (b) b* x 2b? xb
3 Simplify each expression.
2
3ab Je
(a) a (c) Dp

(b) axy
22 (4)Bn?
=
4 Simplify each expression.

(a)(3a)? (b)
3x(20)
5 Calculate the answers.

(a) 9-4 (d) (-2)x(-4) (e) +(-4)

(-4)
(b) 8-3 (e) 36+ (4) (h) 6 x (-4)

(c) “4+(3) (f) (8) x (*3) (i) (2)-(4)

6 (a) Find the value of each expression, given that x = 5
(i) 2x (iii) 2x?

(ii)x2 (iv)(2x)?
(b) Find the value of each expression, given that x =~3
(i) 2x (iii) 2x?

(ii)x2 (iv)(2x)?
7 Find the value of each expression, given that a = 2 andb="6
(a) a+b (c) 2ab

(b) a-b qe
 8 Consider the formula P = 2a(a — b)
(a) Find the value of P when a=10 and b=5
(b) Find the value of P when a=0.6 and b= "0.4
(c) Find the value of b when P = 2.8 and a= 1.4
9 Write a formula for N, the total number of legs on / hens and c cows.

10 All three sides of an equilateral triangle have length acm.

(a) Write a formula for P, the perimeter of the triangle, in centimetres.
(b) Write a formula for QO, the perimeter of the triangle, in metres.

Activity: A number tri

Here is a trick you can perform on your friends. It will appear to show them that
you are a mathematical genius.
Before you can do the actual trick, you must learn a clever bit of wizardry — how
to multiply a number by 11 quickly.
Look at these products.
Y
a 24x 11= 264
=
&
5
—
35.X 11
= 385
ae)
S
Lie) 46 x 11
= 506
wn
as
2WH The first and last digits in the answer are the same as the tens and units digits in
nH the number being multiplied by 11
5)
qo
x The middle digit is the sum of the T and U digits in the number being multiplied
lay
~
by 11
i)
ee
ea)
Add 1 to the T digit if the sum is 10 or more.
Y
aS)
=

if

2)
123 111353 2+3=5and1+2=3
325% 11=3575 2+5=7and3+2=5

678 x 11 = 7458 7+8=15,6+7+1= 14, carry the 1 and add it ae]NW

to the6

To multiply a three-digit number by 11, add the T and U digits to get the third
digit and the H and T digits to get the second. Take care, though, when the digits
add up to more than 9
Try some yourself and then you are ready for the trick.
Stage 1: Ask your friend to choose any two numbers that he or she likes, but
suggest that they should not be too big because he or she will have to
do some calculations with them.
(For example 16 and 23)
Stage 2: Ask your friend to write them down, one above the other, and then add
them up.
1 16
2 23
3 16+ 23=39
Stage 3: Now ask your friend to add the 2nd number he or she chose to the
answer in stage 2

4 39+23=62
Stage 4: Now he or she has to add that answer to the previous answer. Keep
adding the answer just calculated to the number before it and put the
new sum underneath. He should stop when he has 10 numbers written
down (this should include the two numbers first chosen).
5 62+39=101
6 101+62= 163
Stage 5: Ask him or her to tell you the seventh number in the column of 10 (in
this case 101 + 163 = 264) but do not look at any of the others. Tell
your friend to add up all the ten numbers. Before he can work it out you
can tell him that the answer is 2904. How do you do it?
The sum of all ten numbers is just eleven times the seventh number
from the bottom. Go on, try it a few times and convince yourself.

Why does it work?

You can use algebra to find out how it works.
Start with 4 and B as the two numbers that your friend chooses.
What does your friend write next? Just A + B in algebraic form.
and you
Keep going through each stage, then add up your ten algebraic terms
should see how it works!
 More about numbers

A pack of 8 chicken legs costs £5.35. What is the price of one chicken leg?

Cost of 1 chicken leg =£5.35+8

= £0.66875
You cannot record or use money to an accuracy of £0.66875 so you
must round the price to the nearest penny, or to two decimal places.
This is £0.67
In this chapter you will look at other ways of rounding numbers.

OPO PEED ee rrecesereav eres se KEP reser reer ese esses ese ESE Eee eeOeEEOU EOE OOOO EEO OEE DEOeEeeeeereesecees

Suppose Noah buys a plank of wood 2m long and cuts it into seven
equal lengths. How long is each piece?
Length of one piece =2m+7
= 0.285714 285m
= 28.57143 cm
Noah only needs to give the length to an accuracy of three figures,
either 0.286m or 28.6cm or 286mm, because he cannot measure to
any greater accuracy than that.
Notice that whatever the units: mm, cm or m, you have the same
three digits. The lengths are all rounded to three significant figures.
What exactly is a significant figure? A significant figure is a digit 2
ga
that is part of a number and that tells you how many units, tens, =.
=)
hundreds, ... there are in the number. ra
o
=er
Zeros are special. In a number such as 0.0024, where zeros come =
before the first non-zero digit, they are not significant. They hold the ga
ca |
places of units, tenths and hundredths, and tell you the values of the ©72)
other digits. For numbers such as 2056 or 0.205 the Os that come
after the first non-zero digit are significant.
Look at 203455

2 is the first significant figure - it shows that the number has 2

hundred thousands
0 is the second significant figure - it shows that the number has no
ten thousands
3 is the third significant figure - it shows that the number has 3
thousands.
Now look at 0.000452
4 is the first significant figure: it shows that the number has 0.0004
or 4 ten thousandths.
5 is the second significant figure and 2 is the third.
None of the zeros before the 4 is significant as they are only there to
keep the 4 in the correct place.

Exercise 8.1
1 Write down the value of the first significant figure in each of these numbers.

(a) 542 (c) 34.052

(b) 0.034 (d) 0.00345

2 Write down the value of the second significant figure in each of these
numbers.
(a) 3456 (c) 34.052

(b) 0.032478 (d) 0.00978

3 Write down the value of the third significant figure in each of these numbers.
(a) 2354 (c) 590034

(b) 3.0045 (d) 0.098876

numbers.
4 Write down the value of the fourth significant figure in each of these
(a) 23876 (c) 340405

(b) 0.065725 (d) 0.000 56787

 The rules for rounding to a given number of significant figures are
similar to those for rounding to the nearest ten or to the nearest two
decimal places.
Look at the number 235 674 in the next example. Imagine a line
drawn after the required significant figure. If the number to the right
of this imaginary line is 5 or more, round the number to the left of
the imaginary line up; if it is 4 or less, it stays the same.

Example
(i) Round 235674 to 3 significant figures.
235|674 = 236000 (to 3 s.f.) The third significant figure is 5, When you round,
the fourth significant figure you must describe
is 6 so round up. how you have
(ii) Round 0.004523 16 to 3 significant figures. rounded, for example,
‘to 3 s.f.’ after your
0.004 52|3 16 = 0.004 52 (to 3 s.f.) The third significant figure is 2, rounded numbers
the fourth significant figure is 3, because 2356744
so the third significant figure is 236000
unchanged.

Exercise 8.2 -
_ ny SIM em

1 Round each of these numbers to one significant figure.

(a) 245 (b) 304567 (c) 0.0465 (d) 0.309
2 Round each of these numbers to two significant figures.
(a) 3065 (b) 946 (c) 0.0755 (d) .0.309
3 Round each of these numbers to three significant figures.
(a) 25099 (b) 3494 (c) 0.005893 (d) 0.46027
4 Round each of these numbers to four significant figures.

Pa (a) 34599 (b) 120519 (c) 0.035465 (d) 0.339452

o
Re)
5 Round each of these numbers to 3 significant figures.
=
=
= (a) 1.99999 (b) 24.999 (c) 0.99999 (d) 99.999
=
~

° 6 Round each of these numbers to 3 significant figures,

eS
o (a) 0.050906 (b) 305099 (c) 0.1004905 (d) 55.0709
ne
S
=
ice)
Significant figures versus decimal places 2)
e)
<
It is important that you know the difference between significant figures and >|
eS
decimal places. Make sure you understand this difference before you move on. 5
ga
24.5 is written correct to 1 decimal place and to 3 significant figures.
0.005 is written correct to 3 decimal places but to 1 significant figure.

E xercise 8.3
1 Look at these numbers.

(i) 516 (ii) 3.9 (iii) 34.785 (iv) 6.16

(a) Write down the number of decimal places to which each is written.
(b) Write down the number of significant figures to which each is written.
2 Look at these numbers.
(i) 0.567 (ii) 0.38 (iii) 0.001789 (iv) 0.000 156
(a) Write down the number of decimal places to which each is written.
(b) Write down the number of significant figures to which each is written.
3 Look at these numbers.
(i) 51006 (ii) 3.0906 (iii) 34.005 (iv) 6.10064
(a) Write down the number of decimal places to which each is written.

(b) Write down the number of significant figures to which each is written.
4 Look at these numbers.
(i) 51000 (ii) 0.0720 (iii) 34.000 (iv) 7.000040

(a) Write down the number of decimal places to which each is written.
(b) Write down the number of significant figures to which each is written.
5 The previous question included numbers with zeros as their last digits.
(a) Give an example of a number that could be rounded to 2.40 to 3 significant
figures.
(b) Give an example of a number that could be rounded to 2.070 to 3 decimal
places.
 C). barge and small numbers.
eeeee ey © eee eres ere ere erere rr rer rere rere rere scssscssnensnenenee
Most problems you need to solve have quite ordinary
numbers but as humans explore the world of science,
geography and astronomy they often come across
very large numbers and very small numbers.
Consider these facts about the Earth.
The Earth is the fifth largest of the planets and is on average
about 149 700000km from the Sun.
The total mass of the Earth is about
6 694000 000 000 000 000 000 tonnes (6694 million million million
tonnes).
The population of China was approximately 1400000000 in 2014
The relative density of hydrogen is about 0.000089 9
The distance between atoms in copper is about 0.000000 000 34m.
Look at your calculator. You should notice that the display can only
show 8 or 10 digits. This makes it very difficult to do any calculations
with very large and very small numbers such as those listed above.
You need to be able to write them in a shorter form, so that you can
use your calculator.
Writing these numbers in a shorter form makes it easier not only to
calculate with them but also to compare their relative sizes. It is also
quicker to write them in the shorter form.

Decimals as powers of ten

You know that you can write the column headings of large numbers,
thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands and so on, as powers of
ten.
Hundred thousand = 100000 = 10x 10x10x10x10 =10°
Ten thousand =10000 =10x10x10x10 =i (8
Ten could be |
ra
oD One thousand = 1000 ~=10 = 10 x10 = 10° written as 10' but
Q . you do not generally
SS One hundred = 100 Oto = 102 write the sg °
e Ten = 40 number 1
ES)
~

3
Q© But what happens as the numbers get smaller?
Ns
S
=
0
 _
Looking at the sequence of the index numbers, 4, 3, 2, 1, the next fe}
Se
must be 0 ga
()
ie)
This gives you the definition of a number to the power 0 S
a
n
n° = 1 when n stands for ‘any number. 3
ah
ant —1=10° =)
(=
3
Moving to the right, after units come tenths. T
io)
ms
1 tenth =upel
Y))
9 or 0-1
How can you write * as a power of ten?
Remember the sequence of index numbers:
eee al Ol; ose
So it follows that the next power must be ~1, then ~2 and so on.
This leads to the definition of a negative index number:
ts sy 1 o
ee n
hee n
= n

Then you can continue the column headings as:

One tenth _= 01 megaiae Sant
= 10

One hundredth ==0.01 fees

=7 95 nah=e
2 to?
0

One thousandth =
=0.001 =7Pee
999 =eel
793 eeler 3 Fer
Oe
As a quick check, notice that the number of Os in 1000 is 3 and that
reminds you that the index number is 3
Similarly, the number of Os in 0.001 and in TT is 3 and that
reminds you that the index number is ~3

Example
Write these numbers as powers of 10
(i) 10000 (ii) 0.000001
(i) 10000 = 10* Four Os and no decimals so the index is 4
(ii) 0.000001= 10° Six zeros and a decimal so the index is ~6
 Exercise 8.4
Write cea Sicine aman as a power of ten.
1 100000 5 100000000 9 1000000000
ee 100 6 0.000000001 10 0.00001
3 0.01 7 10000 11. O31
4 0.0001 8 0.001 121

Writing large and small numbers

Now you can use these powers of 10 written with index numbers to
write large and small numbers as a single figure multiplied by a power
of 10

Example
Write each of these numbers as a single figure multiplied by a power of 10
(i) 4000 (ii) 0.007
(i) 4000 = 4x 1000

=4x 10°
(ii) 0.007 = 7 x 0.001
= Oe

| Exercise 8. >
Write eetsertnee ames as a single figure multiplied by a power of 10
1 200000 7 0.000009 Remember to put
2 0.000002 the spacesinthe
8 0.00002
correct position after |
3 03 9 200 or before each group
a 4 0.005 of three digits, when a3
ic)) 10 0.0000000000008
Q there are five or m |
= 5 0.000000006 11 5000 digits on either side MY
S
= 6 400000000 of the decimal point. |
5
ed 12 30000
°
S
ro
w
S
+a

=
0
Writing numbers in full 7a)
(ae
be}
You can also write the abbreviated numbers out in full. S
(ay,
ie)
oa
Qo.

Example =}
[ay
j ; Remember to i)
rite these numbers out iin full.
Writ ancliida the O when x
—h

2)
(i) 3x 104 (ii) 7x 10° writing decimals =
a smaller than 1 S
(i) 3x 10* =3~x 10000 104 is 1 followed by four Os.
ie For example, 0.35,
= 30000 not just .35 because
(ii) 7x 105=7x 0.00001 105is five Os and a decimal point. it is easy to miss the
Seat ecimal point

Exercise 8.6
Write these numbers out in full.

fey x 10° 5 9x10° 9 8x10°

2 8x 10° 6 3x10 10 4x10?

a 9%
10 | fPag ee (U2 116x105

4 5x 10° By <x10’ 12/2107

ER4(6101 sa ae
AULT
SEV
The way of writing numbers as a number multiplied by a power of ten
is called standard index form.
You can use the methods you have been using to write any number as
the product of another number, A, and a power of ten. When 4 is at
least 1 but less than 10, the number is in standard index form.
You can use algebra to write this definition as:
AX 10" where 1 < A < 10 and nis an integer (positive or negative).

Standard index form and the scientific calculator

Try this calculation on a scientific calculator.

Pane Se]ON Om On] On oe Oe Oe

The display showing the answer may look something like this:
225) or 1.1250-,10"4
This is the calculator’s own way of showing 1.125 x 10"* or 112500000000
 Now do the calculation 0.000004 + 500000
The answer on the display might look similar to this:
8.00 12 or Seal 0
This is the calculator’s way of showing 8 x 10 74 or 0.000000 000 008

Example When you write

your answers, you
Write these numbers out in full.
must write down the
(i) 3.4x 103 (ii) 45x 10% calculation correctly.
(i) 34x10? =3.4x 1000 3 is multiplied by 1000, so the answer You must not use the
will be three thousand and something, not same notation as the
= 3400
thirty-four thousand. calculator, as 8 1 is
(ii) 45x 10 4=4.5 x 0.0001 actually a and must
= 0.00045 There are four Os (including the one before the not be confused with
decimal point) and then the digits 4 and 5 sxio=

E xercise 8.7
in

Write these numbers out in full.

1 45x 10? 6 3.71x 10*

2ca x10 7 4.1x 10?
St:82 x 10° 86:729¢104
(4734x 10° 9 5.45 x 10°
5 9.02x 10! 103.65 10.4

Writing numbers in standard index form

Example
Write these numbers in standard index form.

(i) 230000 (ii) 0.000305

oD0
Q (i) 230000 =2.3 x 100000 Separate the number from the power of ten.
és
S =12,3 < 10°
S
=
Ww

° (ii) 0.000 305 = 3.05 x 0.0001 The number must be 1 or greater but less than 10
eS
© = 3.05% 10°-*
wNe
S
=
00

)
 ZA)
Exercise 8.8 et
se)
=)
oO.
w
Write each of these numbers in standard index form. =
(as

1 420 6 55 =)
or
@
2 12000 7 600000000000 x
—-
ie)
a
3 234000000 8 19909 =
4 102000 9 340000
5 3000 10 5060000

11 0.003 16 0.009712
12 0.00451 17 0.10567
13 0.000056 18 305
14 0.000000 705 19 67900000
15 0.12 20 0.00004556
Using standard index form
Now you can use standard index form to write answers to problems.

Example
Write 400 litres in millilitres.

400 litres = 400 x 1000 millilitres

= 400000ml

=4~x 10°ml

Exercise 8.9
Give your answers in standard index form.
1 Write 4km in millimetres.
Write 6kg in grams.
How many seconds are there in a day?
Write 5mm in kilometres.
What is 5g in tonnes?
Write 4.24mm in kilometres.
Write
&F
WU
OD
Nn
N
W Mega is the prefix for one million. A megabuck is one million dollars.
150 megabucks as dollars, in standard index form.
 8 Micro is the prefix for one millionth. One microsecond is one millionth of a
second. Write 90 microseconds in seconds, in standard index form.

9 Dinosaurs roamed the Earth 150 million years ago. Write this number of
years in standard index form.
10 Pico is the prefix for a million-millionth. Write 15 picoseconds as seconds in
standard index form.
11 The Big Bang is supposed to have taken place 10'° years ago. How many
years is that?
12 The total mass of the Earth is 6694000000000000000000 tonnes (6694
million million million tonnes). Write this mass in standard index form.
13 The relative density of hydrogen is 0.0000899
Write this in standard index form.
14 In solid copper, the distance between copper atoms is about 3.4 x 107'?m.
Write this distance out in full.

C).Powers.and
roots.on the calculator. ccc
You know that any number can be squared:
ESOS
and a square number has a square root:
V36 =6
Similarly, a number can be cubed:
43 = 64

and a cube number has a cube root:

4125 =5

In fact any number can be raised to any power, just as you have seen
for 10 in this chapter.

ie 6’ = 279 936
Y
a
=S Numbers can also have larger roots:
S 4096 =4
=
~~

°
S© As the numbers you are using are getting larger, it is sensible to use a
i) calculator.
S
nN

=
Oo
Powers po)

Find the button that looks like this: (§§. This is the power or index S
@o
=
button. 72)
fe)

Now enter (99

GDGB
=)
a.
=
ie)
ie)
Your calculator display should show something like 6*(7), which is ct
n

how the calculator shows a power or it might show 67 ie)

=)
ct
When you press the (9 button you should get the answer 279936 =a
1)
9)
o
If you don’t, look at the manual that came with your calculator. a)
=
re)
(ag
Oo
Roots =x

Now find the button that looks like this @[J. This is the square-root
button.
Try entering DDE You have only been
You should get the answer 12 looking at positive
numbers and positive
Now find the button that looks like this QB roots, but the square
This is the button for any root. You will probably need to use the of ~5is 25
key. Therefore the square |
root of 25 (V25) can
Try entering BOO be *5 or —5. There is
You should get the answer 4 more about this in
Chapter 12
If you don’t, look at the manual that came with your calculator.

Exercise 8.10 -
Use your calculator to find the value of each number.
tS GEBe
2 3° 7 4

3 625 8 117649
4 %{16 807 9 [6561
5 6 10 65 536

Working with decimals

All the powers and roots you have considered so far have been for whole
numbers (integers). Decimal numbers also have powers and roots.
You know that 1.2 x 1.2 = 1.44
So you could write this as 1.2° = 1.44
 The three dots
Then the inverse is 1.44 =1.2 dah date
Now look at V5.25 number is not exact,
: there are more
You can estimate that since 5 is between 4 and 9, V5.25 will bea decimaliplaces that
little larger than 2 are:written here, or
Now use your calculator to find the value of /5.25 igs aecalculator
You should fid that /5.25 = 2.291 287 847...

The square root of 5.25 cannot be written down exactly, as a decimal.

It has an infinite number of decimal places. As you cannot write them
all down, you can only give the answer correct to a number of decimal
places or significant figures.

Example
Calculate J5.25, giving your answer correct to three significant figures.
Estimate: /5.25 >2
From the calculator:
Remember to write
V5.25 = 2.291 287847... ‘to 3 s.f.’ after your
= 2.29 (to 3 sf.) answer.

Exercise 8.11
Estimate the answers first, then use your calculator.
1 Find the answers. Give any non-exact answers correct to 1 decimal place.
(a) V1.5 (b) v6.25 (c) V4.9 (d) 182.25
2 Find the answers. Give any non-exact answers correct to 3 significant figures.
(a) V1 (b) 12100 (c) Vi23 (d) V146.41
3 Find the answers. Give any non-exact answers correct to 2 decimal places.
(a) /38.44 (b) V46.55 (c) V132.12 (d) V106.09
u
Q
is) 4 Find the answers. Give any non-exact answers correct to 1 decimal place.
€
S
S (a) Ye2s (b) ¥512 (c) #100 (d) #1728
~
5 5 Find the answers. Give any non-exact answers correct-to 3 significant figures.
°
eS (a) #2744 (b) 212500 (c) 3/8000 (d) 310000
©
wn
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=
Ce)
 6 Find the answers. Give any non-exact answers correct to 3 significant figures. mo)
°
=
(a) 4/50625 (d) 7279936 (s) 3/79.62624 (9)
tesa}
n

(b) 2/62500 (e) 1000 (h) %/46.656 ie})

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a
(c) 313534 (f) 3/27000 (i) 59.343 fe}
=

fe}
et
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Extension §3Gigeh-8- V4 et
=<.
(a>)
(@)
You need to make some decisions before you calculate the answers to these —s
questions. It is quite acceptable for your answers to be estimates because the (a)
=
exact answer could depend on so many variables. fe)
ct
°fae}
Do write down any assumptions you have made.
Note the use of = meaning ‘approximately equal to’.
You may wish to put answers in standard index form.

Example
How many apples have you eaten in your lifetime?
Assume you are 12 years and 3 months old and you have eaten about 3 apples a week since
you were 2 years old.
Number of apples you have eaten in your lifetime ~ 10.25 x 52 x 3
=10x50x3
= 1500
= 1.5 x 10? apples

Estimate the number of times you have blinked in your lifetime.

How many hours of television have you watched in your lifetime?
How many kilograms of chips have you eaten in your lifetime?
How long have you spent doing homework in your lifetime?
How many books have you read in total?
= If you
uh
a
WN were to answer every single question in this book, how long would it
take you?
7 How many tennis balls could you fit into your classroom?
8 How many footballs could you fit into your school hall?
9 How many litres of water have you drunk in your lifetime?
would
10 If you had saved all the money you have ever been given, how much
you now have in total?
high
11 If you were to make a pile of all the books you have ever read, how
would it be?
g scales,
12 If you were to put all the teachers you have ever had on the weighin
what would their total mass be?
 Summary Exercise 8.13 }
1 Write 304.983 correct to:

(a) 1 significant figure (c) 2 significant figures

(b) 3 significant figures (d) 4 significant figures.
2 Write 0.004098 23 correct to:
(a) 1 significant figure (c) 2 significant figures
(b) 3 significant figures (d) 4 significant figures.
3 (a) Write ten million as a power of ten.
(b) Write one-millionth as a power of ten.
(c) How would you describe the number 109?
4 Write these numbers out in full.

(a) 1.7x 103 (d) 9.51x 105

(b) 6.025 x 10° (e) 8.1 x 105
(cy6.2 10° (f) 5.804 x 10?
5 Write these numbers in standard index form.
(a) 56000000 (d) 31205000
(b) 0.004 (e) 4050000000
(c) 0.00024 (f) 0.000501 23
6 What is 3.5 x 10 ©km in millimetres?
7 The first prize for a ‘best pet’ competition is the mass of your pet in £1 coins.
My pet elephant won the competition and he weighs 5 tonnes.
(a) How many grams is that? Give your answer in standard index form.
(b) A £1 coin weighs about 10g. How much money did my elephant and |
win in the competition?
8 Find the answers. Give any non-exact answers correct to 2 decimal places.
(a) J25.25 (b) V13.69 (c). ¥132
4 9 Find the answers. Give any non-exact answers correct to 3 significant figures.
oO
OQ
=
> (a) ¥5.75 (c) */42.875
(b) ¥.95
<=
~~
= (d) ¥/2.48832
fe)
Q 10 Estimate the number of hours that you have spent watching television in the
©
ie) last year. State clearly any assumptions that you have made.
<
(es)
=

0O
 S°)
Activity: Calculator games ; fe)
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Space invaders nn
w
a
a
You can play this with either a scientific or a non-scientific calculator.
fe)
yen)

fe)
In these two games the numbers on the calculator display are the invaders and ct
n
you have to defeat them by ‘firing’ numbers at them. Each game has slightly fe)
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different rules about which numbers you can ‘fire’. Cae
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7)
Game 1 i)
ae
This is basic but helps to get the idea for Game 2 (a)
cl
©et
Enter this number on your calculator. fe)
=

1234.5678

You can only ‘fire’ numbers by subtracting them. The numbers that you fire can
contain only one digit that is not zero, they can contain as many Os as you like
and a decimal point if you wish.
Make a table.

Fire Display
| «| 1234.5678
Decide what you are going to fire first, say 0.06

enter G5 GD G9 GD ED an press GD
Your display will become 1234.5078
Write these figures in your table.

Fire Display
1234.5678
1234.5078

Keep going until you have eliminated all the aliens and your calculator reads 0
Game 2
The rule this time is that you can only ‘fire’ single digit integers — a number in the
units column. You still ‘fire’ by subtracting.
the
To move a number into the units column, you must multiply or divide all
numbers on the display; you can x 10, x 100 or x 1000, or + 10, + 100 or + 1000
 Look at the start of the game.
Fire Display

a ea
123.05678
120.05678
Ca
Now, you continue. Remember you cannot multiply or divide by a power of ten
greater than a thousand, and you must make one move only between fires. Put in
some different starting displays of aliens and try those too.
Game 3
This is a two-player version of Game 2
Player 1 fires the first shot, then passes the calculator to player 2
Player 2 moves, then fires a shot, then passes the calculator to player 1
Player 1 moves, then fires, and so on.
The aim of the game is to get the other player into a position where he or she
cannot fire, for example, 0.000 5678 and is stuck, as x 10000 is not allowed.
Game 4
Game 4 is a whole class version of games 2 and 3
Everyone starts with the same display.
Each player fires, then passes.
Next each player moves without firing, then passes.
Next each player moves, then fires, then passes, and so on.
If you cannot fire on your go, then you are out. Continue until only one person
is left.

re
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=
=
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 Perimeter and area

eecccesceoe
See SoSH OED oo seres sarees sree Oe He HEE SE SES OS SOE OSES EES SES OHO ES EES EO SOOO OO DE HOE H SOO OOOO SEE LEEED

The tangram is an ancient Chinese puzzle. The square is divided into

seven pieces and the pieces can be reassembled into other shapes.

You are going to use the tangram to revise some basic geometry
before moving on to the calculation of perimeters and areas of
triangles, quadrilaterals and circles.

Make four copies of the tangram.

1 Cut out the pieces from one copy of the tangram. Rearrange the pieces to
make this shape.
Stick your solution into your exercise book.

2 Cut out the pieces from the second copy of the tangram.
Rearrange the pieces to make this shape.
Stick your solution into your exercise book.
 3 Cut out the pieces from the third copy of the tangram. Rearrange the pieces
to make up some designs of your own. Be as creative as you can.
4 The original tangram set is arranged in a square, and one of the pieces is a
square itself. Show how you can make a square, using:
(a) two tangram pieces (d) five tangram pieces
(b) three tangram pieces (e) six tangram pieces.
(c) four tangram pieces
5 Show how you can use all seven tangram pieces to make:
(a) atrapezium
(b) arectangle that is not a square
Sanne lcave
(c) aparallelogram that is not a square
(d) a triangle.

The original set of tangram pieces was arranged as a square of side 5cm.
The area of this square is therefore 5 x 5 = 25cm?.
What is the area of each of the shapes in questions 1-3 and question 5?
They are all 25cm? as well.
Although you rearranged the pieces, the total area of all the pieces
did not change.
You will use this fact to discover some more area formulae.
First, here are some formulae that that you already know.

©
wo)
ae Saeco epee
tees
ia) Area of square = b? Area of rectangle = base x height = b x h
Ae,
<
Li)
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Perimeter of square=4b _ Perimeter of rectangle = 2b + 2h
iM)
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3
=
The sides of a rectangle can be referred to as its length and width.
Y
ao
In this case, the formula would be:
area of rectangle = length x width or lxw
9

Gs)
Now suppose you cut a triangle from one end of the rectangle and add 4
ce)
it to the other end. =)
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pa

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=
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Area = base x height Area = base x height o
=
se)
an
The shape changes from a rectangle to a parallelogram. Even though
you have changed the shape, the area has stayed the same.
Therefore, you should see that:
area of parallelogram = b x h

A rhombus is a parallelogram with four equal sides. b

Using the same ideas as above:
Sa >
area of rhombus = b xh

perimeter of rhombus = 4b

When you cut a rectangle or a parallelogram in half you get two

identical triangles.

b b

So: area of a triangle= 3b xh

the
where the base and height are equal to the base and height of
enclosing rectangle or parallelogram.
 For all of these shapes remember that the height must be
perpendicular to the base.

height

Think again about the formula for the area of a triangle.

Work these out, given that b= 4 andh=5
1 3bh 3 bxXhe2 5 bx 4
b
Zee a 6 1x)

ea) Areas and perimeters of 2D shapes

Whe OCU OGIO ITO) OUD OCOOIOOUTIOTUCOCUCOR OTD COOCOCDUNEOIIO CORON SRCOO ONO COUCIODOOOCIOOE OOOO CROC

You should have found that you get the same answer for the area of a
triangle every time. All the formulae mean the same.
It doesn’t matter which way you remember the formula but you will
usually see it written as:
area of a triangle = ;bxh

To find the area or perimeter of a shape you follow the Same steps as
© when you substitute in any other algebraic formulae.
w
—
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Uv
= 1 Write the formula.
a
NS
co) 2 Substitute.
bd

:
=
3 Calculate.
7)
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0)
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Example =
io)
ie)
(i) Calculate the area and perimeter of this rhombus. n
sy)
=)
Area of rhombus = b x h Note that the units (a
are square units mo)
@m
=7x5.5 — because you are 2

= 38 Siem? calculating the area. o

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n
Perimeter of rhombus = 4b 7cm 12)
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=4x7 a)
1e,
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= 28cm >E
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(ii) Calculate the area of this triangle. o
"2)

Area of atriangle = i bxh

1.5m

ae C x 1.51.2 It doesn’t matter which unit you

divide by 2 so choose the easier
= 0.6 x 1.5 option.
=0.9m?

1 Work out the perimeter of each shape.

(a) (c)

12mm
6.5cm

(b)

12m

2 Calculate the areas of the shapes in question 1

 3 Calculate the area of each shape.

(d)

4 Calculate the area of each shape. All lengths are in centimetres.

(a) (c)
4 */

otc)
=
6
ae)
=
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o
(b) 35 (4)
o
~

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5 This is a cross-section through a chocolate bar. >
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What is the area of the cross-section of chocolate? Wn
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fa
me)
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aah,

@m
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|j 2.5cm | 2)
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6 Our garden has some triangular flower beds. Here is a plan of the garden. 72)
=r
ie)
mo)
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n

18m

24m

(a) Calculate the total area of the two flower beds.

(b) Calculate the area that is grassed.
7 Ahexagon is made up of six triangles, all of base 2cm and height 1.73 cm.
(a) What is the area of one triangle?
(b) What is the area of the hexagon?

8 This square is 2cm by 2cm.

(a) How many triangles in total can you find in the square?
(b) What is the sum of their areas?
(c) What is the area of the square?
(c)?
(d) How many times greater is your answer to (b) than your answer to
(e) Why?
 Finding unknown dimensions
In the problems you have just solved, you used the base and height to
find the area. However, there are times when you know the area and
one of the dimensions and you need to find the missing dimension.

Example
Find the width of a rectangle of perimeter 25cm and length 9cm.

Length = 9cm

Perimeter of rectangle = 2/ + 2w Formula

25=2x9+2w Substitute
25= 18+ 2w (18) Calculate
7=2w

w=3.5cm ae
width of the rectangle is 3.5cm Answer with correct units

In the example above you had to divide by 2 to find the answer.

When you are given the area of a triangle remember that you have to
multiply by 2 first, then calculate with the given dimensions.

| Example
A triangle has a base of 8cm and area of 40 cm?. What is the height?

_ bXh
ae 2

© 80=8xh i) Area = 40cm? It is always a good

8)
a
©
(+8) idea to draw a quick
10=h : b=8cm sketch if you are not
v
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ae) The height of the triangle is 10cm. given a diagram.
me
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174)

1 Work out the height of each shape mo

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(a) (c) mo)
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Area = 40 cm?2 nn
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Perimeter = 5cm e)
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8cm Uv
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(b)

5m

2 Arectangle has perimeter of 100cm and a height of 15cm. What is the

length of the base?
3 What is the length of the base of this triangle?

Area = 6cm?

4 Atriangle has an area of 10cm? and a base of 5cm. What is its height?
5 A parallelogram has an area of 840mm’ and a height of 20mm. What is the
length of the base?
6 Asquare has perimeter 10cm.
(a) What is the length of its sides?
(b) What is its area?
 7 Arhombus has an area of 20cm? and a height of 50mm. Witebalpissawa |
|
(a) What is the length of the base? quantities inthe
sameunits. = 4.
(b) What is its perimeter?
8 The area of a triangle is 6cm? and its base is 20mm. What is the height?
9 Triangle ADC has an area of 12.cm?.
AD= 4cm and BD=6cm
Work out:
(a) the length of CD
(b) the area of triangle BCD
(c) the area of triangle ABC.

10 A triangle of height 8cm and base length 12cm is equal in area to a triangle
with a base length of 6cm. What is the height of this triangle?

More quadrilaterals
POCO HOES OTOH OP STOO OH OCEHOERESETEEEEOEOE SOE OEE ESE EEE EEO SESS O DESO OO HEH OOH OO OTOH ES EE HEE OED OS HOES ESE SEEES

You can use the method of taking a formula you know and addin or
subtracting areas to find the areas of some other quadrilaterals. Start
by looking at the trapezium.

The trapezium
A trapezium has one pair of parallel sides of unequal lengths. You can
refer to them as the top and,bottom.

Bottom

It is not easy to spot the formula for this area straight away.
Think about rotating the trapezium and joining thei
image to the
original, like Bee
uu)
i)
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a)
vv
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iw)
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55) ; Bottom “Top a
&
NN
5)
Qa
Now the two trapezia together have formed a parallelogram!
The base length of this parallelogram is equal to the sum of the top
>)
and bottom of the trapezium.
The height of the parallelogram is the same as the height of the x4
ie)
trapezium. =
m
a)
Now you can see that: Cc
ie)
jas
=e
area of trapezium = i x height x (top + bottom) a
2 et
@
=
= ;h(a + b) or Heth) wn

Example
Work out the area of this trapezium.
10cm

15cm

Area = sha +b) Formula

de6(10+15) Substitute

= bas Calculate | Note that you can cancel the calculation

a: by dividing by the common factor, 2, just
=3x25 ee as you did with fractions.
oe = 75cm" Answer with correct units

Work out the area of each trapezium.

1 12cm 2

18cm
 6

1.4m

Now try some word problems.

7 This is the cross-section of a metal ingot. What is the area of the cross-
section?

(a) What is the area of the rectangle BCDE?

(b) Work out the length of AB.
(c) What is the area of ABEF?
(d) What is the total cross-section area of the squash court?

Areas of other quadrilaterals

14°)
wD)
mS In kites and rhombuses the diagonals cross at right angles.
©
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=
a)
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id)
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0)
It may not be immediately obvious to see how this helps you to find =
12)
the area of each of them. ex
@
Oo
Try drawing a rectangle round each shape. i=
ie)
(ay
245
a
ct
v)
=X
a
n

Now you can see that the kite and the rhombus each fills exactly half
the rectangle that encloses it.
The area of the rectangle is base x height, which happens to be the
product of the diagonals of the kite or rhombus!

Example
A rhombus has diagonals of length 8cm and 12cm.1.
What is its area?

|+ 3 : a = =|

\ 12cm

aresof thethombus = dar

area of rectangle
al
=o 8x 12
=4x 12
= 48cm?

Exercise 9.a
1 Work out the z
area of
Tench chen
 PCOS O OE TEH SHO SEO OH SOT SOE SESH OEE EEO OCES IOS TES EEEEEOESH SEO SE SHS SOSH EO ESE SHOES SOS OHO EOE TOOE SES OSH OSES SEES

What do you know about circles? Circumference

The circumference is the line around the circle.
The distance all the way round the outside of the circle is also
called the circumference.
All the points on the circumference are the same distance
away from the centre of the circle.
A radius is a line from the centre to a point on the
circumference.
The radius is also the distance from the centre to a point on
the circumference.
A diameter is a line across the circle, from one side to the other,
through the centre.
The diameter is also the distance across the circle, from one side to
o< the other, through the centre.
Li)
ae) From this information, you can write a formula for the diameter of a
°
La)
ee circle:
cD)
~~
Y diameter = 2 x radius
=re
i)
pate
Use a pair of compasses to draw a circle on your page.
Use your ruler to measure the diameter and the radius.
(ep)
How can you measure the circumference? Lay a piece of string
carefully round the circumference of your circle.
Make a mark on the string, where it meets the point where it started.
Now measure the distance between the marks on your string against
a ruler.
This is the length of the circumference.

E xercise 9.7
1 Draw three circles of different sizes in your exercise book.
2 Measure their diameters and their circumferences.

3 Record the results in a table like this.

Diameter (d) Circumference (C)

4 Now divide each circumference by the diameter. What do you notice?

Ask your friends if they get the same result. Amazing! If you all measured
accurately, you should all have an answer of about 3, or even 3.1, to the
calculation (circumference + diameter), regardless of the sizes of your circles.

Surprising circles
Is the result you have found really so amazing?

x 3.1 cs Bal
a
C=
7 aul
1A=
©
As the diameter gets bigger, then the circumference must also get
bigger. You should not be surprised that there is a link between them.
Note that the result of dividing the circumference by the diameter is
not exactly 3.1 but may be close to it.
It has been calculated very precisely and is a number that has an
infinite number of decimal places.
3.141592 653 589 793 238 462 643 383279...
 This numberis represented by the Greek letter 7 (pi).
Now you can write a formula for the circumference:
circumference = md or C=ta
As the diameter = 2 x radius you can also say:
C=2nr
If you use the button on your calculator, you will see that it
gives 3.1415926 or 3.141592 654 (or it may give 3.1415927, which
tells you that the last figure has been rounded up). It depends on the
type of calculator you are using. You can use this when you calculate
with 7.
In practice you very rarely ever needto know a number accurately to
so many decimal places. You should generally use an approximation,
either 3.1 or 3.14 or the fraction o or 35

Remember that all these values are approximations.

Examples |
(i) Taking x to be 3.1, find the circumference of a circle of diameter 4cm.
T= 3.1 d=4cm
C=td
=3.1x4
= 12.4cm

_ (ii) Taking x to be Ss find the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 14cm.

C= a d=14cm

C=ntd

22 2
px

WaPdeyes

= 44cm
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)
ret
(iii) Using the m button on your calculator, find the circumference of a circle with a diameter
ue) of 14cm. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
ae,
=
ae) d=14cm
x.
5)
~
is)
C=n2
£= =1™X 14
cd)
ai
~ Write out most of the digits on the
= 43.982 297... calculator, followed by three dots, before
Oo) = 44.0cm (to 1 d.p.) you round the result.
 Exercise 9.8
1 Taking m= 3.1 and without using a calculator, find the circumference of each
circle.
(a) |8cm | (b) (c)

©) ©..

(d) diameter of 4m (e) radius of 6cm (f) diameter of 50cm

2 Taking t= ae and without using a calculator, find the circumference of each
circle.

(a) - )= () @ 28mm

(d) radius of 14m (e) diameter of 49cm (f) radius of 1.4m

3 Using the x button on your calculator, find the circumference of each circle.
Give your answers correct to 3 significant figures.

‘eres (b)Ken) (Ys450m

(d) diameter of 0.45m

(e) diameter of 1.4km
(f) radius of 75cm
 Area of a circle
If it was difficult to measure the circumference of a circle, it is even
harder to measure the area. As a start, you can try drawing circles on
squared paper and counting squares.

Gercise99
_)
1 Draw three circles of different radii on graph paper.
2 Inside each of your circles, drawing a square and four rectangles, like this.

Calculate the total area of the square and rectangles, then count the
remaining squares. Remember to include any part squares that are more than
half inside the circle and ignore any that are less than half.
3 Record your radius and area results from question 2 in the first two columns
of a table like this.

Radius (7) Area (A) Ar

el
Sea
4 Now divide each area by the radius squared (4 + r*) and put the results in the
third column of your table. What do you notice?

™ again
Look at your results for 4 + r*. What have you found? If you have
been accurate, you should find that, again, the answer is close to 3.1,
otherwise known as 1
Now you can work out the formula for calculating the area of a circle.
)
w A ’
i
© As = = then
A = mr
AP)
<=
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J
co

:
=
(a)
ra

ro)
 Example ae
(i) Find the area of a circle of diameter 14cm. Take co circumference, you
on ;
The diameter d= 14cm so the radius r = 7cm os iesupice a
working with the
A=nr diameter or the
men ra x7 radius. For the area,
1 you must always use
“=22x1x7 the radius.
= 154cm? Remember you are calculating area,
which is measured in square units.
(ii) Using the button on your calculator, find the area of a circle of diameter 14cm. Give
your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
The diameter d= 14cm so the radius r= 7cm
=o
— RETF : ase
Write out most of the digits on the calculator,
= 753.938... followed by three dots, before you round the result.
= 154.0cm* (to 1 d.p.)

Exercise 9.10

1 Using t= - work out the area of each circle.

(a) ~~
28cm (b)

2 Using m = 3.1, work out the area of each circle.

(a)
i
10cm (b)

©
 3 Using the button on your calculator, work out the area of each circle.
Give your answers correct to 3 significant figures.

(b) (c) Cs) 18.4 mm

(e) diameter 45m (f) diameter 15cm

Use the a: poneonn your

renteulatck to answer these questions. Give your
answers correct to 3 significant figures.
1 Given that the diameter of the Earth is 12 756km, calculate the length of
the equator.
2 | am making a circular table cloth with a diameter of 2.8m. What length of
ribbon must | buy in order to trim the edge of my tablecloth? -
3 | have made a model tank out of a cotton reel, a matchstick, a drawing pin
and a rubber band. The cotton reel has a radius of 3cm. How far will my tank
go in one full turn of the cotton reel?
4 Icut a slice of orange. The slice has a diameter of 8cm. Work out the area of
one side of my slice.
5 A table mat has a diameter of 12cm. Calculate its area and its
circumference.

6 | have a glass with a base diameter of 7cm. What is the area of the base?
7 My bicycle has wheels of diameter 84cm. How far will my bicycle go in one
turn of the wheels?
8 (a) My mother has just cut a wooden lid to fit my baby sister’s round sand
pit. The lid has a radius of 1.5m. Calculate the area of the lid. -
(b) The lid needs a length of wooden trim round the circumference, What
length of wooden trim does my mother need?
© 9 Ihave a round hat of radius 18cm. What length of ribbon do | need to fit all
co
—
& . the way round it?
AP)
= 10 How many circles of diameter 5cm can be cut from a strip of paper 5cm
©
— wide and 1m long?
a
~
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a

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 11 Work out the area of the shaded region in the diagram.
S
5cm +
[e)
=a
rad)
=
o
rN)

12 Work out the area of the shaded region in the diagram.

height 30cm

diameter 20cm

35cm re

MME tengo Nee aad see mia

In each of the calculations you have done so far, you have used only
one unit of area, for example, mm?, cm?, m? or km?
Sometimes you will need to change from one unit of area to another.
This is more complicated than it looks.
Look at these two squares.

1m 100 cm

You know that 1m = 100cm

Therefore 1m? = 10000cm?
* in
“This is very important. Just remember that there are not 100cm
es.
1m?. If you can remember this, it will stop you making mistak
 Extension [2Gvt-a- ara
1 Draw squares like the two shown on the previous page to find how many:
(a) square millimetres there are in a square centimetre
(b) square millimetres there are in a square metre
(c) square metres there are in a square kilometre
(d) square metres there are ina square centimetre

(e) square metres there are in a square millimetre

(f) square kilometres there are in a square metre.
These are not easy to remember. If you need to write the answer in different
units from those that you are given in the question, it is much easier to change
the units first. If you cannot do that, always draw a square and make sure that
you have the correct conversion.
2 Asquare is 4m by 4m. Give its area in:
(a) square centimetres
(b) square kilometres.
3 A triangle has base 5m and height 3 m. Give its area in:
(a) square millimetres
(b) square centimetres.
4 Arectangle has a base of 30cm and a height of 4m. Give the area of the
rectangle in:
(a) square centimetres
(b) square metres.
A rectangle has an area of 2m? and a width of 20cm. What is its length?
A triangle has an area of 1m? and a height of 20mm. What is its base?
wi
oO
N A square has an area of 4km?. What is the length of a side, in metres?
8 A triangle of base 40cm has an area of 10000 mm?. What is its height?
A hectare is a measure used for larger areas.
©
Y 1 hectare (ha) = 10000 m2
ws
a)
aS) 100 hectares = 1km?
<
©
— 9 (a) How many square metres are there in 3.6 hectares?
uD)
ww
ib) (b) How many hectares are there in 5.7 km2?
£~ (c) What is the area, in hectares, of a parallelogram with base 1.2km and
i)
Qa height 800 m?
0)

C=)
10 Bill and Ben are having an argument. Bill has a field in the shape of a kite. m
x
The diagonals of the kite are 1.8km and 600m. Ben has a field in the ct

©
shape of a trapezium. The parallel sides are 400m and 500m long, and the 3
nf,
perpendicular distance between them is 1.2km. Bill and Ben each think his ()
=
field is the larger. Who is right? vu
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If you look at a slice of a circular cake you can see that it is a fraction Oe
@
of a whole circle.

In mathematical terms the slice of a cake is called a sector.

Segment

Chord
Centre
Angle at the
centre
Sector

A chord is a line that joins two points on the circumference but does
not pass through the centre.
If you cut a piece off the cake, along a chord, so that the knife did
not go through the centre, you would have a segment.
When you cut a circle with a chord you form two segments. The small
one is the minor segment and the large one is the major segment.
An arc is a section of the circumference of a full circle. Its length is
determined by the angle formed between the two radii that run from
the ends of the arc. This is the angle at the centre.
 A sector is formed by an arc and the two radii that run to the centre
from the ends of the arc.
There are two special sectors.

When the angle at the centre is 90° it forms a quarter circle known as
a quadrant.
When the angle at the centre is 180° it forms a half circle known as a
semicircle.
With this information you can find the area and perimeter of a sector.

Examples
(i) Find the area and perimeter of a semicircle of diameter 12cm. Use the button on
your calculator and give your answer correct to 1 d.p.
d=12cm r=6cm ,

Area of semicircle = :Tr?

=3 xlmX6X6
= 56.548...

= 56.5cm*? (to 1 d.p.)

Perimeter of semicircle = ;td +d To find the perimeter you need to add
the length of the arc to the diameter.
© =} xmx 12412
Y
x
i) = 18,849... + 12
vo
<
© = 30.849...
we
iw)
~
Y
= 30.8cm (to 1 d.p.)
&=
i?)
a

0)
 mm
(ii) Find the area and perimeter of this sector of xfar
Arc @
a circle. Use the button on your calculator 5
mee
and give your answer correct to 1 d.p. fe)
>
hy
d=10cm r=5cm — 60° is 1 of the angle 9=)
at the centre of the et
wn

Area of sector = is circle. fe)

os
o
a
=
=2xmx5x5
jak
a)
= 13.089... 60>
= 13.1cm*? (to 1 d.p.)

Perimeter of sector = ind+2r To find the

perimeter you need to
=2x2xmx5+2x5 add the length of the
5235. +10 arc to the two radii.

A529 5us

= 15.2cm (to 1d.p.)

Exercise 9.13 F
For this exercise, use the button on your calculator and give your answers
correct to 1 d.p.
1 Find the area of a semicircle of:
(a) diameter 20cm (b) radius 25mm (c) radius 3.5m.
2 Find the perimeter of each of the semicircles in question 1
3 Find the area of a quadrant of:
(a) radius 15cm (b) radius 2m (c) radius 35m.
4 Find the perimeter of each of the quadrants in question 3
5 Find the area and perimeter of each sector.

(a) (b) (c)

6cm

60> ek 72cm

Ce)
 (4) | (e) (f)

25mm

80°
5cm

ot SUG Exercise 9.ee }

1 Write Sonn the oat “yc-
(a) the area of a parallelogram
(b) the perimeter of a rhombus
(c) the area of a trapezium
(d) the area of a kite
(e) the circumference of a circle
(f) the area of a circle.
2 Calculate the area of each shape.

(b)

3 Find the height of a triangle of area 72cm? and base 12cm.

4 This is the cross-section of a stand at a sports stadium. A 4m F
CD, BE and AF are parallel and AB = BC= DE
A)
<3)
pe (a) Calculate the area of:
Lis)
Ww
© (i) BCDE ? (ii) ABEF
Ls)
ge
i) (b) Hence find the area of the cross-section.
~~
58)
&=
is) Cc 12m D
a

0)
 m
5 Taking 1 —— work out the circumference of a circle of diameter 63cm. x
ct
iw)
=)
6 Taking m= 3.1, work out the area of a circle of radius 5cm. pee
fe)
7 Using the m button on your calculator, calculate: =
me)
ie)
(a) the circumference of a circle of radius 5cm, giving your answer correct SI
ct
77)
to 3 significant figures te)
ty
pe)
(b) the area of a circle of diameter 17cm, giving your answer correct to 3
S
=
significant figures.
=
@o
8 Use the button on your calculator and give non-exact answers correct
to 1 decimal place for this question.
(a) This disc is a token for a game machine. What is the area of the token?
(b) The tokens are cut from a sheet measuring 1m by 1m. How many
tokens can be cut from one sheet?

Activity: Drawing spirals ;

You will need graph paper for this ee see
The spiral of a snail’s shell is just one example of a geometrical shape occurring
in nature. Nature knows that a thin shell is much stronger when it is curved, and
the progressive curves of a spiral give additional strength as well as additional
protection. Architects, in conjunction with structural engineers, have used this
theory to produce the stunning curves of the Sydney Opera House and the
gentle spiral of the Guggenheim Art Gallery.
A spiral may look simple but how exactly do you draw one?
The Fibonacci series, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ... is formed by adding the two previous
numbers together to get the next number. If you illustrate this with each number
in the series being the side of a square, you get a spiral of squares.
13

If you then draw a quarter circle in each square, you can produce a spiral.
will allow.
Copy the pattern of squares and extend it as far as your piece of paper
Then draw the spiral.
 You can make a device for drawing a spiral like this.
Step 1: Cut a circle with a radius of 3cm from a piece of thick card and glue it
firmly to the centre of a piece of paper.
Step 2: Cut another circle, but this time with a radius of 3.5cm. Cut a small slit
in the edge of this circle. Glue this circle firmly on top and in the centre
of the first slightly smaller circle.
Step 3: Then get a piece of thick thread 70cm long and tie a knot in one end.
Slip the thread through the slit you cut and pull it until the knot stops it
pulling through any further. It should now be securely attached. At the
other end of the thread make a small loop, large enough to get a pencil
through. Then wind the thread round the circle (under the rim of the
larger circle) until only the loop is showing.
Step 4: Put a pencil in the loop. Then, keeping the thread taught, put the tip of
the pencil on the paper and move it so that you start to unwind the
thread. As you do this you will see that you are drawing a spiral.

As a final investigation into spirals you could go to the library and try to find as
many spirals as you can. Write a report about what you find.

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 ) Percentages

What do you think of when you hear the word ‘percentage’? It is

used in many contexts, varying from price reductions offered by
shops during special sales, through discussions about the nation’s
economy to the results you achieve in exams. But what makes
percentages so important?
The word ‘percentage’ means ‘out of a hundred’, which gives you
a big clue about what a percentage is. Any fraction written out of
100 can also be written as a percentage.

eo) Fractions, decimals and percentages

Peer re rere reer erers / Teer re ree rey erer ere e reese eeeee (Cereus eee © Pee)

The simple fraction families have corresponding decimal and

percentage families that you should know.

25% = 7 025 75% = 2 =0.75

Mee08 01 309tS iets

08 0% ate S07: 90%
=
q 0 =
oe = 0.2 40% = 25 =0.4 60%m = 3°)
= =0.6 80%
For other fractions, decimals and percentages you need to know how
to convert from one to another.

Rules of conversion
Fractions to decimals
Divide the top number (numerator) by the bottom number
(denominator).

Example
Change 2
2 to a decimal.

=3+8
C}w

=.3/>
 Decimals to percentages
Multiply by 100

Example
Change 0.125 to a percentage.
0.125 =0.125 x 100%
= 12.5%
x
= 12 >1 %

Percentages to decimals
Divide by 100

Example
Change 85% to a decimal.
85% = 85+ 100

= 0.85

Percentages to fractions
Write as a fraction with 100 as the denominator and simplify if
possible.

Example
Change 72% to a fraction.
72% =

—_
loS|

Decimals to fractions
Write a fraction with the correct denominator (10, 100, 1000,...) and
simplify if possible.

Example
Change 0.625 to a fraction.
0.625 —= 1000
625

o
“

D — 25
cc 40
=
~

o =A
= 8
o
a

=)
™
 mn
Fractions greater than one =
te)
(@)
Look at the number 12 ee,
fe)
=}
wn
As a decimal this is 1.4 jae
oO
As a percentage this is 140% eh
pe)
It is important to remember that, just as you can have mixed n
ie)
numbers, you can also have percentages greater than 100% S
oe
9
@o
=
Exercise 10.1 oO
@o
=}
ct
i)
1 Write each number as: (i) adecimal (ii) a percentage. ga
oO

(a) 2 () 12
n
tf 2

2 7
(b) 1¢ (4) 5
2 Write each decimalas: (i) apercentage (ii) afraction.
(a) 0.27 (c) 0.65
(b) 0.7 (d) 0.6
3 Write each percentage as: (i) a decimal (ii) a fraction.
(a) 40% (c) 84%
(b) 55% (d) 24%
4 Write each number as: (i) a decimal (ii) a percentage.
4 ihe
(a) 25 (c) 40
9 1
Lo) ers (d) 15
5 Write each decimal as: (i) a percentage (ii) a fraction.
(a) 1.19 (c) 2.6
(b) 0.325 (d) 0.77
6 Write each percentage as: (i) a decimal (ii) a fraction.

(a) 43% (c) 375%

2
(b) 662% (d) 1124.%
al

>as

i
 C).Finding
a percentage. ofan AMOUNE cece
When you are finding a percentage of an amount, the first thing to do
is convert the percentage to either a fraction or a decimal. If you do
not have a calculator, then using a fraction may be the better method.
If you do have a calculator then convert to a decimal.

Example
Find 25% of £36
25% of £36 = 4 x 36
= £9
Sometimes the fraction is not so simple and you will need to use a
calculator. Most calculators have buttons but it is just as easy,
and good practice, to turn the percentage into a decimal and use the
calculator to do the straight calculation.

Example
Work out 37% of £6.35
37% of £6.35 = 0.37 x 6.35
= 2.3495

= £2.35 (to 2 d.p.)

{Exercise 10.2}
Work ertines Bonnie Do nor ace a calculator.
1 25% of 80cm 6 64% of £5

2 40% of £200 7 28% of 5kg

3 35% of 500g 8 35% of 8km

4 60% of £1000 9 85% of £300

5 80% of 4m 10 12% of 20m

Use a calculator to work out these amounts. If the answers are not exact give
them correct to 2 decimal places.
wn
ib)
11 27% of 250cm 16 78% of £6.50
=>)
©
w 12 18% of£22 17 124% of 6.2kg
=
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U
13 7% of 250g 18 3% of 8.7km
—_

Qa
3)
14 63% of £150 19 89% of £324
=)
A
15 41%
of 5m 20 125%
of 6m
Fractional percentages an
=}
As you have seen, some percentages include fractions. Some of these =
=}
are in the common fraction families, but some are not. 0a
fe)
For example: 12 5% = 0.125 = ; but consider 36 5%
ao)
@o
=
(a)
@o
If you are not using a calculator, then turn the ee into a S
ct
fraction by: ie)
ga
Remember that to i)
[o)
turna percentage iinto | SA
re)firstmaking it a top-heavy fraction pe}
a fraction he divide S
@ then dividing by 100 3
fe)
<
So: 36 5% = B% = el
3)
200
=}
et

hes out ir % of 80cm.

fWV;1%6of80cm = a x526 x 26 « Simplify by cancelling by common

*y % factors: 2,20 and 5
> hae Wo a4
ty aks. = 14cm

Exercise 10.3 ;
Calculate these amounts.

1 123
%of 120g 6 164%
of £30

2 373%
of£200 7 831%
of£6

3 301%
of 66m 8 124%
of 2km

4 662 of 144litres 9 441% of 18g

of 240 grams
5 873% of3litres
10 164%
 (Cauhinding aipelcentage st ay RIE sont
When Justin gets 45 marks out of 60 for a test, he writes this:
ao
60
to express his marks as a fraction. He can change the fraction to a
percentage by multiplying by 100

Example In the fraction, the |

What is 45 out of 60 as a percentage?
denominator (bottom
3
{ number) is important —
because it shows |
45 = “ x 100%
60 4 what the mark is”
=75% out of.

Example
In my class of 24 there are 15 boys. What percentage of the class are girls? —
Percentage =aus
vies 100
=9+24x 100
= 37.5%

Problem solving with percentages

In percentage questions, always take care to check what the question
is actually asking for.

Example
45% of Year 8 boys do Latin. If there are 20 boys in Year 8 how many do not
do Latin?
‘Ifthe questionisa
9 pe sentence, 3you should
Ss —

BoE5 your
f answer
: asa
oe eee

=9

9 boys do Latin and therefore 11 boys do not do Latin.

rv) It would be very easy to think that, having worked out that 9 boys
5)
Le) do Latin, you have answered the question, but the question asks how
©
Ww many boys do not do Latin.
°
iD)
.S)
pe
is)
Qa

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=
 art
Exercise 10.4 =
=
4 |
=
1 In my school there are 240 pupils. 144 of these are girls. What percentage of ga
©
the pupils are boys? ae)
©at
2 | am growing a bean plant. Last week it was 1.6m tall and this week it is 2m (a)
©
=et
tall. What is its growth as a percentage of its previous height? a
ire]
3 | have £4 pocket money each week, and | put £1.50 into my money box. ©
What percentage of my pocket money do | not put in my money box?
4 48% of the pupils in our school are boys. If there are 300 pupils in the
school, how many are boys and how many are girls?
5 There are 30 trees in our road and 40% of them are now in blossom. How
many trees are in blossom?
Use a calculator for questions 6-10; give any non-exact answers correct to one
decimal place.
6 What is 45 marks out of 65 as a percentage?
7 £4 service is added to our bill of £32. What percentage charge is this?
8 Trainers normally cost £39.99 but in the sale they cost £29.99. What
percentage saving is this?
9 A 3-kg cake contains 210¢ of dried fruit. What percentage of the cake is this?
10 A service charge of 12% is added to our bill. What is the value of the service
charge on a bill of £48?
Use whichever method you prefer to answer questions 11-15
11 For my exams | got 60 out of 75 for French, 52 out of 70 for maths, 80 out
of 110 for English, 45 out of 65 for history and 63 out of 80 for geography. If
| add all my marks up, what percentage of the total possible marks did | get?
12 In my maths exam | scored 60 marks out of a possible 75. How many more
marks would | have had to get to have scored over 90%?
13 Inarecent leaflet from our local council we were told that 40% of the
people in our borough were in employment. If there are 240 000 people in
the borough, how many are unemployed?
14 When we bought a litre of cleaning fluid, we were told to leave the top on or
as much as 15% of the liquid could evaporate overnight. My mother forgot
and the next morning there were only 850 cubic centimetres of fluid left in
the bottle. How accurate was the manufacturer's claim?
15 Fora maths project we decided to test an advertiser's claim that over 65%
of people had eaten a McJimmy’s hamburger. Between us we interviewed
300 people and 124 of them had not eaten a McJimmiburger. Does that
mean that the advertising claim was correct or not?
 So far, you have been working out percentages and finding pecentages
of amounts. Another use of percentages is to show a change, such as
an increase in population.
When you are working with percentage change, you need to consider
an original value and a new value.
For a percentage increase:
original value + increase = new value

Example
In 2000 the population of Littlehampton was 350000. It increased by 8%
from 2000 to 2010. What was the population of Littlehampton in 2010?
8% of 350000 =0.08 x 350000
= 28000
New population = 378000

For a percentage decrease:

original value - decrease = new value

Example
Last year there were 440 pupils iin the school. This year there are 418 pupils.
What is the percentage decrease?
Decrease = 440 - 418
Parewis22
Percentage decrease= oe
-9 X 100
=5%

Exercise 10.5
1 The peecation of our village has risen by 10% in the last ten years. If the
population was 120000 ten years ago, what is it now?
2 Acake rises in the oven by 25%, If itsoriginal height was 15cm, what is the
rv)
i)
final height of the cake?
=>)
1
w 3 The population of a holiday resort drops by 25% in the winter. If the
=
0) population is 350000 in the holiday season, what is it in the winter?
1S)
~~
cD) 4 Ahotel had 120 guests in August and 90 guests in September. What was the
a
percentage decrease in the number of guests between August and September?
=)
™
5 Arestaurant served 240 meals on Thursday and 320 meals on Friday. What is
the percentage increase in the number of meals from Thursday to Friday?
 6 Aschool had 125 pupils last year but increased the number of pupils by el
@o
12%. How many pupils in there in the school this year? a
(a)
iv)
=}
7 My monthly allowance has increased by 15%. It was £20. What is it now? et
m
ire)
8 My sister's monthly allowance of £25 was decreased by 20% as she now cycles o
n
to school and does not pay a bus fare. What is her new monthly allowance? re)
=}
a
9 Mrs Brown has had a 5% pay rise. If she used to earn £26000, what is her =
ie)
new salary? S
i)
<
10 Mr Black has decided to work part time and is earning £80 less each week. If
he used to earn £400 a week, what is the percentage decrease in his earnings?

(_). Percentages. and money

PPP ore <> Pee eye eee errr errr errr errr rer rey ey ee ey

The last four questions in Exercise 10.5 concerned money. Percentages

are often used as a way of comparing prices and earnings.

Profit and loss

When people buy and sell goods, they want to make money.

e@ A trader who can sell goods for more than they cost to buy or make
will gain a profit.
@ A trader who has to sell goods for less than they cost to buy or
make will sustain a Loss.
When manufacturers, wholesalers and shopkeepers work out the price
at which to sell their goods, they usually work in percentages.
The manufacturer adds a percentage on to the cost of making the
goods and sells to the wholesaler.
The wholesaler adds a percentage on to the total purchase and
transport costs and sells to the shopkeeper.
The shopkeeper adds a percentage on to the costs, and then has to
add on VAT before fixing a price to sell to the public.
The profit or loss is the difference between the selling price and the
buying or cost price.

@ If selling price > cost price the trader makes a profit.

@ If selling price < cost price the trader makes a loss.
The percentage profit is the profit expressed as a percentage of the
buying price.
The percentage loss is the loss expressed as a percentage of the
buying price.
 Example
A shopkeeper buys pencils at £7.50 per 100 and sells them for 12p each.
What is his percentage profit? =z =
Cost price: £7.50 Selling orice: £12.00
tne price: Always start by —
identityingtthereotal
Profit = £12.00 - £7.50 ; cost price and the
= £4.50 total selling price.

Percentage profit = aS x 100% Write the rule or formula first.

15
a 350s 300%

X +

=15x 4%
= 60%
The shopkeeper’s percentage profit is 60%

Use the smallest unit, such as pence, for your calculations so that you
can cancel common factors without worrying about decimals.
If the selling price is less than 100% of the cost price, then the
shopkeeper makes a loss.

Example
A shopkeeper buys 10 jumpers for £150 and then sells them for £12.50 each.
What is his percentage profit or loss?
Total cost price = £150 Total selling price = 12.5 x 10= £125 _
i. . r ‘Loss
= £25
on :
| Eanteee Wieck e tOSS
loss cost — < * 100%
price
| = I50 x 100%

; = 16.666...% -
. : . 3 162%
= ‘Ge ) ce uf
ys

Exercise 10.6 |
vn 1 Work out the percentage profit for each of these transactions.
5)
=>)
ey
ww
(a) Trainers were bought for £18 and sold for £24
=
v
5)
(b) A loaf of bread was sold for £2.40 when manufacturing costs are 84p
_—
8)
ia (c) A cake made with ingredients costing £1.20 was sold at the fete for
£6.00 1
=)
™

(d) A book bought for £3.20 was then sold for £4.00
 fe
Work out the percentage loss for each of these transactions. 7)
ion}
(a)
(a) A book bought for £5 was sold for £3 0)
|
o
et
(b) Potatoes bought from the farm for £5 for 10kg were sold for £2.40 ga
for Skg.
0)n
o
(c) Black bin liners bought from the factory at £4 for 100 were sold in the First find the loss, |
a
market at 60p for 20 then calculate the =|
fe)
percentage. |
(d) A DVD was bought for £8 and sold for £6 ©
<4
Find the selling price for each of these transactions.
(a) A shopkeeper adds 20% VAT to his own price of £10.00
(b) A manufacturer adds 15% profit to his costs of £8.00
First find the profit |
(c) A shop is having a sale with all prices marked down 25%. A jacket or loss then add it to
normally costs £40 or subtract it from
the original value.
(d) A wholesaler adds 12.5% to his own costs of £20
A manufacturer works out that his total costs for 100 DVDs are £150. If he
sells boxes of 100 DVDs at £175, what is his percentage profit? Is this the
same if you calculate it for one DVD or for 100 DVDs?
5 Ashopkeeper has to add VAT at 20% to his price of £60. How much is the VAT?
A wholesaler sells trainers for £12 a pair. He paid £15 for each pair. What is
his percentage loss?
A market trader buys in potatoes at £50 for 200kg and sells them in 5kg
bags for £2. What percentage profit does he make?
| make 2.4% per year by investing my money in a National Savings account.
(a) If | started with £125, how much will I have earned in one year?
(b) How much money will | then have?
A jacket was being sold for £44.50 but has been marked down by 40% ina
sale. What price can | buy it for now?
10 A manufacturer's total costs on 1000 print cartridges are £5000. At what
price should he sell a box of 5 cartridges in order to make a 20% profit?
11 A car devalues by 20% of its original price in its first year, and from then on
it devalues each year at 12% of its price at the beginning of that year. If a
car cost £9000 in January 2012:
(a) What was its value in January 2013?
(b) What was its value in January 2014?
2012
(c) What is the total percentage devaluation of the car from January
to January 2014?
 12 A salesman claims that if you let him invest your money it will appreciate
(grow) by at least 5% per annum. You invest £2000 with his fund. At the end
of the year you have lost 8%.
(a) How much money would you have made if his claims were true?
(b) How much money have you lost?
(c) If you had invested the money elsewhere it would have made the 5%
growth, so what is your actual percentage loss from investing with the
salesman?

Extension iSGitat-w ty
Write each of these fractions as a percentage.

13 oa,
25 7 35
Ss a

45 977
Sp a)wo 10.22
WW Ww

Use a calculator to work these out. Give any non-exact answers correct
to 2 decimal places.
11 653
%of £3.20 16 17 4.% of £35
12 162%
of 450m 17 68 3 % of £6.40
13 251% of Skg 18 242 % of 65 tonnes
14 422%
of£1725 19 652% of 12kg
15 333
of%
4.7km 20 24%
of35 litres

Summary Exercise 10.8 |

Do not use a calculator for questions 1-6

1 Write each of these as a fraction.

ve)
st)
=>) (a) 0.35 (b) 0.12 (c) 42% (d) i %
1)
Ww
— 2 Write each of these as a decimal.
i)
~)
=
i) (a) 82% (b) 53 (c) 871% (a) Z
Qa
3 Write each of these as a percentage.
=)
™
(a) 1.5 (b) 0.125 (c) Wi—a (d) =
 4 Work out these amounts. ~u
(i)

(a) 25% of £14 (d) 45% of 500km &

(b) 14% of 500g (e) 873 % of £400 a
1%)

(c) 80% of 1200 people (f) 66 % of 900 miles 5

[ae
3
5 There are 240 pupils in the school and 5% of them have chicken pox. How }°
=)
many pupils is that?
<
6 | scored 42 out 60 in my French test. What is that as a percentage?
You may use a calculator for the remaining questions, if you wish, but remember
to write down your working.

7 Of the 24 people in my class, 373% are going on the school ski trip. How
many of us are not going in the school trip?
8 Last year, which was not a leap year, there were 146 days when it rained for
more than one hour. For what percentage of the year did it rain for more
than one hour a day?
9 | wanted a new game for my computer but last week it cost £39. In the sale
today it is marked down by 25%. What could | buy it for now?
10 In my school tuck shop we buy boxes of 50 packets of potato crisps for £6.00
and we sell the crisps for 30p per packet. What is our percentage profit?
11 An old wives’ tale says that the height you are on your second birthday is
exactly half the height you will be when fully grown. My mother's baby book
says that a baby will grow by 40% of its height at birth in its first year, while
in its second year it will grow by to 20% of its height at the beginning of the
year. The height of my new baby sister is 50cm. How tall will she be:
(a) on her first birthday
(b) on her second birthday
(c) as an adult?
12 A market trader bought some bunches of daffodils. He paid £15 for
every hundred daffodils and hoped to make a fortune on Mother's Day.
Unfortunately it rained that day and he ended up selling his flowers at 50p
per bunch of 10. What percentage profit or loss did he make?
 Activity: Tormenting tessellations ;
The word tessellation comes from tessella, the Latin for ‘little tile’.

Bathroom walls or kitchen floors are often covered in tiles. These tiles are
generally square. This is because a square is the easiest shape to use, to cover a
whole area, without leaving any gaps.
Use the ‘nibble’ technique described here to design your own tessellations. These
instructions are given for using paper and card, but if you have an appropriate
computer graphics program then you can use it to make some fantastic patterns.
However, try this method first.
Step 1: Draw a square with sides of 3cm.
Step 2: Start at the top corner and draw an outline of the piece you are going
to cut out or ‘nibble’.

Step 3: Cut out the nibbled piece and stick it back on either the opposite side,
as in the example, or on an adjacent side if you prefer.

Step 4: Do the same thing again but, this time, go from top to bottom or
bottom to top or a different pair of adjacent sides.

Step 5: Decorate your shape. Stick it on to card and draw round it carefully. Cut
it out. This is now your tessellating template.

Step 6: Position the card on the worksheet. Line up the corners

very carefully. Trace round it. Now reposition your template
so that it notches into the first figure. Trace round it again.
Keep going!
n
i)
=>)
©
ww
°c When you have finished, decorate the whole design.
<3)
U
~—
i)
a

=)
™

7)
 )Ratio and enlargement

Have you ever made yourself a drink by adding

water to concentrated fruit cordial? Think about
the instructions on the bottle, which usually tell
you to: ‘Mix one part cordial with 4 parts water:
Mathematically, this is the same as saying that
the ratio of cordial to water is 1: 4

A ratio is method for comparing numbers.

The numbers in the ratio are generally separated
by a colon (:)
Think back to what you learnt about ratio in
Mathematics for Common Entrance Book One.

@ You must put the quantities the right way round. For example, if you
mixed your fruit cordial in the ratio 4 : 1 it would be far too strong.
@ A ratio should be expressed in its Lowest terms. You can simplify a
ratio by dividing both parts by a common factor.

Examples
(i) Simplify the ratio 3 : 6
PG 12 Divide both 3 and 6 by 3
(ii). Simplify the ratio 20 : 30 You need to divide
rs each part of the
20:30=2:3 Divide both 20 and 30 by 10 ratiobythe highest |
‘abs factor of all |
(iii) Simplify the ratio 4: 8: 16 i
4, 8and 16 by 4
Divide PRESparts.
the
4:8:16=1:2:4
are
@ If you are comparing quantities, you must make sure that they
in the same units and leave the units out of any ratio.
 Examples
(i) Simplify the ratio 60cm to 1.2m.
60cm to 1.2m =60cm:120cm
=6:12
=1:2
(ii) Simplify the ratio 40p : £1.20 : £3
40p : £1.20: £3 = 40p: 120p : 300p
=2°67 15

Exercise 11.1
1 Simplify these ratios.
(a) 8:2 (b) 2:8 (ey) 5210 (d) 10:5
2 Simplify these ratios.
(a) 15:25 (b) 20:8 (c) 50:35 (d) 10:55
3 Simplify these ratios.
(a) 70p: £1.20 (c) 5km: 1.4km: 600m
(b) 350g: 1.25kg
4 Copy and complete these statements, replacing the stars to make the ratios
equivalent.
(a) 2.3 =** 60 (c)u25".80'3120— 59"
0) |ag Mayeg
5 Look at this pattern.
(a) What is the ratio of black squares to grey squares?
(b) What is the ratio of white squares to grey squares?
(c) What is the ratio of black squares to the total number of squares?

o=
the
6 There are 240 boys and 360 girls in my school. What is the ratio
of boys to girls?
©=
iS) 7 learn £120 per week and my sister earns £30 more than | do.
5
a
What is the
ratio of my sister’s earnings to mine?
=od
—

ae) 8 To make a blackcurrant fruit drink, cordial needs to be

iS mixed with water in
6 the ratio one part cordial to five parts water.
i)
+S (a) Write the mix as the ratio of cordial to water.
a%
(b) Write the mix as the ratio of water to cordial.
11 (c) | carefully measure 100 ml of cordial. How much water will | need?
 (d) | carefully measure 100 ml of cordial. How many millilitres of )
co)
blackcurrant fruit drink will | have? ap
fe)
174)
(e) | pour a litre of water into a jug. How much cordial do | need to add? o
7)
=
=!
9 | mix 50ml blackcurrant concentrate with 200 ml of water to make ow
a
blackcurrant squash. =
ie)
5
(a) What is the ratio of concentrate to water? wn

(b) What is the ratio of concentrate to diluted squash?

10 To make a MacTavish special drink, mix 50 litres of GlenTav with 350 litres of
GlenVish.

(a) What is the ratio of GlenTav to GlenVish?

(b) What is the ratio of GlenTav in the blended MacTavish drink?

Ratios as fractions
Suppose you are working with the ratio of 8 to 12
You can write a
You can write this as 8 : 12 or as a fraction = ratio without the
er ae F lon, as a fraction.
You would say that the ratio is ‘eight to twelve’ iat hi eee
2 1:27 -
This simplifies to 2 : 3 or 2
3

1 Copy and complete each statement, replacing the star to make the ratios
equivalent.

(a) 14=+ (b) 18-4 (c) 18-2*

2 Copy and complete each statement, replacing the star to make the ratios
equivalent.

() iaa=9
* 2 * = 5)

(a) =3 (b) 7375

3 The ratio of tin to zinc in 100g of solder is 60 : 40
(a) What is the ratio of tin to zinc, in its lowest terms?
(b) What is the ratio of zinc to tin?
(c) What fraction of the mix is zinc?
(d) What fraction of the mix is tin?
100g
4 Arecipe for fruit cake requires 200g of raisins, 150g of currants and
of sultanas.
(a) What is the ratio of currants to raisins?
(b) What fraction of the dried fruit is sultanas?
 (c) What is the ratio of sultanas to raisins?
(d) What is the ratio of raisins : currants : sultanas?
(e) Why can you not write the ratio in (d) as a fraction?

Sometimes you need to divide an amount up into several parts. Look

at these lines.
The line AC is divided into five parts. (ee
a ey ea
AB is one part and BC is four parts.
AB: BC=1:4andAB:AC=1:5
The line DFis divided into five parts. | l
DE is two parts and FF is three parts.
SOE Ea 2 sand DE: DF=2:5
Both these lines have been divided into five parts but the first has
been divided in the ratio 1: 4, and the second in the ratio 2 : 3
Now consider the rod AD, five units long. It can be divided into three
parts, in different ways.

A irsiess
CT a
D Ams C D A B Cond
Ape t= 1%3 ABSBC. (D=1222 AB BC (=e

You can also take the full length of the rod into account.

CT =
lll
a aa D A B C D A B C25
AB-BCTAD=151°5 AB: BC: AD=1:2:5 AB: BC: AD=Stees

Always read the question carefully and make sure that you use the
correct letters to describe each part. This is very important when you
S
~

o are solving ratio problems in geometry.

o€
=
6
>
—

oD In questions 1—6, B is a point on the line AC. Draw a line ABC and then answer
ae)
S the question.
%
is)
rw 1 Draw a line AC 6cm long. Mark a point B such that AB: BC= 1:2
iS
Ce
2 Draw a line AC 10cm long. Mark a point B such that AB: BC=2:3
11 3 Draw a line AC 8cm long. Mark a point B such that AB: BC=1:3
 4 Draw a line AC 12cm long. Mark a point B such that AC: AB=6: 1 4)
=
5 Draw a line AD 12cm long. Mark points B and C such that AB: BC: CD=3:2:1 =,
=]
ga
6 Draw a line AD 12cm long. Mark points B and C such that AB: BC: AD=4:2:6 a7
=
fe)
Answer these questions without drawing the lines. =
o

7 AB=20cm, BC = 40cm. Write down each ratio.

=nn

(a) AB: BC (b) BC: AB (c) AB: AC (d) BC: AC

=.
ct
>
=
8 AB=40cm and BC = 1.2m. Write down each ratio. pe)
=
°
(a) AB: BC (b) BC: AB (c) AB: AC (d) BC: AC
9 | have to draw a line AC and mark a point B such that AB: BC =2: 5. If the
length of AB is 4cm, how long are AC and BC?
10 The points X, Y and Z on a straight line are such that XY: YZ = 4: 7 and XZ is
22m long. How long is:
(a) XY (b) YZ?

SOPOT ETE H Oe EI Op ERSTE TEESE E TEES EHTS ES ESEEEESEEESSESESESSHSESSSESESESEESTH OEE SHEE HEOSEOSOEHSSESSESESS

These are the steps you should follow, when you need to solve
problems with ratio.

1 Write out the ratio, making sure you have the parts the right way
round.
2 Work out the total number of parts.
3 Find the value of one part.
4 Identify what you are trying to find.
5 Answer the question.

Example
My uncle gives my brother and me £50 to be divided in the ratio of our ages.
My brother is 9 and | am 11. How much do we each receive?
Ratio of brother’s age : my age= 9: 11
Total number of parts = 9 + 11=20
One part = £50 + 20
=+£250

My brother has 9 parts. This is 9 x 2.50 = £22.50

| have 11 parts. This is 11 x 2.50 = £27.50
 E xercise 11.4
1 Two sisters share £100 in the ratio of their ages. The elder sister is 13 years
old and the younger is 7 years old. How much money does each sister
receive?
2 | need to make 140kg of mortar. The ratio of cement to sand is 1: 6. How
much cement and how much sand will | need?
3 Inachemistry lesson | mix 75 ml of chemical A with 120 ml of chemical B.
What is the ratio of chemical A to chemical B?
4 | make an orange drink by mixing orange juice concentrate and water in
the ratio 3 : 7. If |want to make 5 litres of orange drink, how many litres of
Orange juice concentrate will | need?
5 Garden fertiliser is made from a mixture of the chemical concentrate and
water in the ratio 2 : 25. If | need 1 litre of water, how much concentrate
must | add?

6 My brother mixes his fruit drink with cordial and water in the ratio 2:5
(a) If he puts in 50 ml of cordial, how much water does he need?
(b) How many millilitres is his drink in total?
(c) Yesterday | made a mistake and mixed his drink in the ratio 2: 5 but
with 50 ml of water. How many millilitres was this drink?
7 lam making some rectangular invitation cards. The ratio of width to height
is 3: 5. If the width is 9cm what is the area of the card?
8 | am painting my bedroom green. To make just the right shade | have to mix
yellow and blue paint in the ratio 2 : 7. If | have 6 litres of yellow paint, how
many litres of blue will |need? How many litres of green paint will |make?
9 Iam going to paint another room pale yellow and | must mix lily white and
buttercup in the ratio 2 : 5. If |need 28 litres of paint altogether, how many
litres each of lily white and buttercup will | need?
10 |.am making a tropical cocktail by mixing lime juice, coconut milk and
pineapple juice in the ratio 1: 3: 6. If |want to make 5 litres of cocktail, how
much will | need of each ingredient?
ww
S 11 The angles in a triangle are in the ratio 1: 2:3
o
= What are the angles and what type of triangle is it?
o
oy
I
12 The angles of a triangle are in the ratio 1:2: 2
=
=—
What are the angles and what special type of triangle is it?
oD
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ow NERC C OCC RTS TS ES SRR EsAR OUR TARR ARN Ketan Gnls sets chteke
I
Ce In the unitary method, you work out the value of one unit (unit equals
one) and then use this to work out the answer to the question. —
if
 a”)
Example se
2)
a)
If a distance of 8km is equivalent to 5 miles, what distance, in miles, is °
5
=,
equivalent to 320km? °
=)
gdistance of &km is the same as 5 miles. =
=
(+ 8) =
AL
Then a distance of 1km is the same as 2 miles. °
2
: , (x 320) —
=a
So a distance of 320km is the same as x 320” = 200 miles. m
Cc
1
=
ct
is)
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<
3oO
ct
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12)
oO.
Use the unitary method to solve these problems but, be warned, some questions
may not be quite as they seem! Leave your answer as a fraction when necessary.
1 If my car travels 84 miles on 14 litres of petrol, how far will it travel on
21 litres of petrol?
2 If | can buy 12 bars of Candynut for 80p, how much will it cost me to buy
9 bars?
3 If a bricklayer, on average, lays 84 bricks in 2 hours, how many bricks could
he lay in five hours?
4 My cat eats 18 tins of cat food in two weeks. How many tins of cat food
would she eat in three weeks?
5 Two of my class took 40 minutes to complete the school cross-country
course. How long will it take 18 of my class to complete the same course?
6 An electric golf caddie can travel two miles in 50 minutes. How long would it
take to travel three miles?
7 In four weeks my bean plant has grown 1.2m. How high might it grow in
7 weeks?
8 Acar travels 122 miles on 4 gallons of petrol. How many miles will it travel
on 9 gallons of petrol?
9 Mrs Smith can type 12 pages in 45 minutes. If she keeps typing at the same
rate, how long will it take her to type 20 similar pages?
10 | read three books in five days. How many books will | read in nine days?
ng
If you check your answers to questions 5, 7 and 10, you will notice somethi
race is generall y differen t from
interesting. The time it takes one person to run a
grow at a steady rate.
the time that it takes anyone else. Bean plants do not
Books can be different lengths.
ional. This means
You can only use ratio methods when the amounts are proport
that they increase or decreas e at the same rate.
 11 A capacity of 91 litres is equivalent to 20 gallons. How many gallons are
there in 70 litres?
12 Water can be added to five tins of concentrated soup to make 2.2 litres of
diluted soup. How many tins of concentrated soup will | need to make 3.5
litres of diluted soup?
13 Five bags of cement together weigh 280 lb. How much will three bags of the
same cement weigh?
14 If three men can, on average, shift 90 bags of cement in one hour, how many
men would | need to shift 150 similar bags of cement in one hour?
15 This is a recipe for making 16 Scotch pancakes.
250g self-raising flour
250 ml water
4 tablespoons of milk
1 egg

Rewrite the recipe so that you could make 24 Scotch pancakes.

SPCR OSES CROCE OEE O CORTE EEO TOTO DMEJOO DOSE OR OORT EO EOE EEO EHO TE OSH O OSES EEO E OT OS ESOS OSES OSE ES SESE ESSE ESEESS

Look at this line. 4 B G

—.

Measure the length of AB, BC and AC

You should find that the ratio of AB: BC=1: 3
Then you can also say that AB: AC=1:4
Therefore AC is 4 times as long as AB
You could say that AC is an enlargement of AB
This is an enlargement in one dimension.
Now think about enlarging a 4 x 2 rectangle.
~ Suppose you want to enlarge it in the ratio:
=
o
= new : original = 2: 1
o
sh The 4 x 2 rectangle becomes an 8 x 4 =
T
—
e rectangle.
or
AP)
< The original rectangle’s dimensions have
S been multiplied by 2
a)
7 When you enlarge by the ratio 2 : 1, the length of the enlargement is
Ce
twice the length of the original, so you can say that the enlargement
has scale factor 2
Any enlargement always has to be defined by a scale factor. Each <)
re¥)
length in the object is multiplied by the scale factor to give the =.
1°)
corresponding length in the image. ie¥)
=)
(aX,
@o
es
E xercise 11.6 fe})
=y
0a

1 Draw a line that is 2cm long. 3

@o
S
Draw the enlargement of that line by scale factor 3 (sad

2 Draw aline that is 2cm long.

Draw an enlargement of that line by scale factor 2
3 Draw a line that is 4cm long.
Draw an enlargement of that line by scale factor 1.5
4 Copy these rectangles on squared paper.

(a) (b)

(i) Draw their enlargements by scale factor 2

(ii) Write down the ratio
area of original : area of enlargement.
5 Copy this shape on squared paper. Label it A.

Draw the enlargement of A:

(a) with scale factor 2 and label the enlargement B
(b) with scale factor 3 and label the enlargement C
(c) in the ratio 3 : 2 and label the enlargement D.
6 Calculate the areas of the shapes A, B, C and D that you drew in question 5
Then write down these ratios.
(a) area A: area B
(b) area A: area C
(c) area A: area D.
What do you notice about the relationships between the areas?
 Cece eee sees eG Peccoceccccceseccessseese

To draw an enlargement on a co-ordinate grid, you need to identify a

centre of enlargement as well as a scale factor.
This example will lead you through the steps you need to follow.

Example
Triangle ABC has vertices A(2, 3), B(2, 4) and C(4, 3). Draw DEF, the enlargement of ABC by
scale factor 3 with centre of enlargement (1, 1)
Step 1: Draw the object ABC
Step 2: Mark the centre of enlargement X
Step 3: Draw lines from X passing through A, B, C and beyond them.

=aoO

Gs!
UI
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NY
wo
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x
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2S Sie Siow BS, 9F 10

Step 4: Mark points D, E andF on your extended lines XA, XB, XC respectively, such that the
length of XD is the length of XA multiplied by the scale factor of the enlargement,
and so on.
Step 5: Join up the new points to produce the enlarged image DEF

persco)

)
S
5)
S
505)
Sy
a)
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=

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117
Finding the centre of enlargement m
=
Sometimes you may be given the object and its image after an re)
=
ga
enlargement. @o
3
@o
S
10+ ae ct
12)
9 1a | 9 =
a8)
8 8 ga
=

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5 5
4 — 4
3 | aoe 3
2 2
1 —- —t 1
X
Pet? 4-4 5.6 7) 8.9.10 ei? 2 4) G hee 7S 1OmMO,

To find the centre of enlargement, first look carefully at the diagram

and work out its approximate position.
Then draw lines through the corresponding points, extending each line
so it goes past the approximate position of the centre of enlargement.
Extend the lines back until they meet.
The point where they meet is the exact centre of enlargement.

Example:
| | atts
= oO

ONWAUNDN
WO
= om
Oro
wo
WA
=N
oS

Orie bak 5 G7 8 8 10
Centre of enlargement is (0, 1) Centre of enlargement is (9, 9)

Scale factor 2 Scale factor 2

 Exercise 11.7 :
=== =

For each question in this exercise, start by drawing a set of co-ordinate axes,
with each axis labelled from 0 to 10, as in question 1

1 (a) Copy the co-ordinate grid below. Draw on it the triangle and the
construction lines.

—2

Ic
SO
OO)
“I
IG)
TSO
NICO

oO
i 2ee3) 48 OG. 7 S90 10

(b) Draw the image of the triangle after an enlargement with scale factor 2
and centre of enlargement the origin (0, 0)
2 (a) Draw triangle ABC with vertices A(1, 2), B(2, 1) and C(3, 2). Then
draw the enlargement, EFG, of ABC with scale factor 3 and centre of
enlargement (0, 0)
(b) What is the ratio area EFG : area ABC?
3 (a) Draw triangle UVW with vertices U(6, 4), V(6, 2) and W(7, 2). Draw
the enlargement, XYZ,ofUVW with scale factor 2 and with centre of
enlargement (9, 2)
(b) What is the ratio area XYZ: area UVW?
4 Copy these four diagrams and, by drawing construction lines, find the centre
of enlargement and the scale factor.

(a) +. (b) y
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(a) Draw triangle ABC with vertices A(3, 4), B(5, 4) and C (4, 5). Draw
triangle DEF with vertices D(2, 7), E(6, 7) and F(4, 9)
(b) Find the centre of enlargement and the scale factor for the enlargement
that maps triangle ABC to triangle DEF.

(a) Draw triangle GH/ with vertices G(3, 5), H(3, 4) and /(4, 4). Draw triangle
JKL with vertices /(5, 9), K(5, 6) and L(8, 6) -

(b) Find the centre of enlargement and the scale factor for the enlargement
that maps triangle GH/ to triangle /KL.
rf (a) Draw rectangle ABCD with vertices A(2, 7), B(2, 6), C(3, 6) and D(3, 7).
Draw the enlargement, EFGH, of ABCD with scale factor 3 and centre of
enlargement (1, 8)

(b) What is the ratio area EFGH : area ABCD?

8 (a) Draw rectangle PORS with vertices P(3, 4), Q(3, 2), R(5, 2) and S(5, 4).
Draw the enlargement, /KLM, of PORS with scale factor 2 and centre of
enlargement (3, 1)

(b) What is the ratio area /KLM : area PORS?

(a) Draw a square PQRS with vertices P(4, 3), Q(4, 2), R(5, 2) and S(5, 3).
Draw a square WXYZ with vertices W(5, 8), X(5, 5), Y(8, 5) and Z(8, 8)

(b) Find the centre of enlargement and the scale factor for the enlargement
that maps PQORS to WXYZ.
10 (a) Draw the shape ABCD with vertices A(3, 2), B(5, 2), C(5, 4) and D(3, 4).
Draw the enlargement, AFGH, of ABCD with scale factor 2 and centre of
enlargement (3, 2)

(b) What is the ratio area AFGH : area ABCD?

11 Write a rule about the ratio of the areas when you know the scale factor.
 Exercise 11.8
These questions are similar to those you have met before, but a little harder. As
always, make sure you read the questions carefully and show all your working.
1 | have to make a bar of an alloy. | do this by mixing copper and zinc in
the ratio 3 : 8. If my finished bar has to have a mass of 187kg, how many
kilograms each of copper and zinc will | require?
2 James and Jane mixed up jugs of orange squash for sports day. Each jug
contained 2 litres. The orange concentrate and water were supposed to be
mixed in the ratio 1: 7. Jane mixed her squash correctly but James did not
read the instructions and mixed his in the ratio 1 : 4. If the concentrate came
in bottles of 1.5 litres, how many more jugs did Jane make from one bottle
of concentrate than James did?

3 My bicycle is geared in the ratio 2 : 3, so two turns of the pedals turns the
wheel three times. If the circumference of the wheel is 1.2m, how many
turns of the pedals will | need to go one kilometre?
4 The angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio 1: 2: 3: 4 What are the angles?
5 The angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio 2:3:3:4
What are the angles and what special quadrilateral could
this be? (Could it be any other quadrilateral?)
6 Colonel Mustard likes his cranberry juice and tonic in the ratio 2 : 3 of
cranberry juice to tonic. His wife, Mrs Mustard, likes hers in the ratio 1: 5. If
they both have 200 ml of drink, how much cranberry juice do they each have?
7 My uncle has given £100 to be shared between my brothers and me in the
ratio of our ages. Tom gets twice as much as Tim and | get half the amount
of Tom and Tim together.
(a) | am 12 years old. How old are Tom and Tim?
(b) The amount of money does not share exactly. If we all get a whole
number of pounds, how much do we each get and how much is left over?
8 Ina class the ratio of boys to girls is 2 : 3. Two boys joins the class and the
ratio of boys to girls becomes 4: 5. If a class size cannot be more than 30,
how many pupils are there in the class now?
=
a
9 I have some black squares and some white squares. | make 10 identical
o
= patterns in which the ratio of black squares to white squares is 1: 3. My
o dog comes to help and eats 30 black squares. | can now make 9 identical
=
c patterns with a ratio of black squares to white squares of 1: 4. How many
=
—

o white squares do | have?

v0
S 10 A quadrilateral
ABCD has been enlarged by a scale factor of 2.5 to its image,
6
Ao) WXYZ.
SS
i (a) If side AB = 4 cm, what is the length of side WX?
a
(b) If side XY is 12.5cm long, what is the length of side BC?
17
(c) If the area of WXYZ is 125cm?, what is the area of ABCD?
 Summary Exercise 11.9
m7
=
mw
=
ga
g
1 | have four tins of white paint and seven tins of red paint.
o)
(a) What is the ratio of white paint to red paint? =}
(ag
fe)
(b) What is the ratio of red paint to white paint? s
re)
ga
(c) What is the ratio of red paint to the total number of tins of paint? =
a
2 Simplify each of these ratios.
(a) 12:24 (b) 32: 144 (c) 108: 45
3 | mix 12g of chemical A to 14g of chemical B to make a new compound C.
(a) What is the ratio of chemical A to chemical B?
(b) | want to make 130g of Compound C. How much Chemical B will | need?
4 Drawa line AC 5cm long.
Mark a point B so that AB : BC = 2:3
5 Draw aline AC 12cm long.
Mark a point B so that AB: BC=1:2
6 Replace the x in these ratios, to make them true.
‘EMME’ SeSe | (b) 24:8=6:x (clp2) 7 = 342%
7 Apiece of string 1.2m long is cut into two pieces in the ratio 3: 5
How long is each of the two pieces?
8 I need 12 litres of fertiliser to treat 30 m? of lawn. How many litres will |
need to treat a lawn that measures 8m by 6m?

9 In two hours 2.3cm of rain fell. If it keeps falling at the same rate, how many
centimetres of rain would fall in 3 hours?
10 Draw a co-ordinate grid with both axes numbered from 1 to 10. Draw
triangle A with vertices at (2, 3), (3, 3) and (3, 5). Draw triangle B, which is
the enlargement of A with scale factor 3 and centre of enlargement at (1, 4)

Activity: Christmas lunch investigation

It isChristmas Day in Acacia Avenue and here, at number 12, Mum is trying to
draw up the table plan. Freddy, Sally, Vinnie and |are coming for lunch as well as
Cynthia
Mum, Dad, Granny and Grandpa, Aunt Ethel and Uncle Bert, and cousins
and Sonnie.
How many different ways of arranging the Christmas lunch table are there?
easier by
After spending several hours on this, Dad suggests that we make it
we can find a pattern then
trying to find the answer for tables of fewer people. If
we might be able to use that to solve the problem.
 At number 1 Acacia Avenue lives Stan. He will have Christmas lunch on his own,
so there is only one way to arrange his table.
At number 2 Acacia Avenue live Dot and Doris. The two of them always eat
together. Of course, Dot sits next to Doris and Doris next to Dot, so there is only
one way their table can be arranged.
At number 3 Acacia Avenue live Mr and Mrs Blott and their son, Inky Blott.
Whichever way their table is arranged, Inky sits between his Mum and Dad, and
his Mum sits between Inky and Mr Blott and his Dad sits between Inky and Mrs
Blott, only one arrangement again! How easy life must be in the Blott household!
At number 4 Acacia Avenue live the Whites. There is Chalky White and his sisters,
Pearl and Ivory, and their dog, Snowy. Snowy always sits down for Christmas
lunch too. These are the different arrangements for the table at number 4.
(€

This looks like six arrangements, but if you look carefully you will see that
arrangement 1 is the same as 5, 2 is the same as 3 and that 4 is the same as 6, so
there are only three different arrangements.
You can see from number 4 Acacia Avenue that we think of a table arrangement
by considering who sits next to whom. Although arrangement 1 looked different
from arrangement 5, Chalky was still opposite Snowy and next to Pearl and Ivory.
Remember this definition when you work out the next few answers. -
At number 5 Acacia Avenue live Mr and Mrs Cake and their children, Pan, Fairy
and Sponge. Can you work out the 12 different ways in which they can-arrange
their table?
Ww
iS At number 6 Acacia Avenue live the Gone family. As well as Mum and Dad there
o are the twins, Octa and Nona, and Uncle Penta and Aunt Polly. How many ways
=
o can their table be arranged? House
2
Arrangements
number
Bs Working out the arrangements for the seven people at number 7 might be quite
°
o hard. First copy and complete this table, and then see if you can spot a pattern.
aS)
<= Check your pattern is correct by drawing all the arrangements for the family of
rs
a2) seven at number 7.
ow)
3
Cf Now can you work out how many arrangements there are for our family of 12 at stiedeaey
4
number 12? You need to remember that Dad refuses to sit next to Aunt Ethel, no howebe
5, octbal
17 two boys can sit next to each other, as they fight, nor two girls, as they argue. eu 61aid
188
 )Algebra 2: Equations and
brackets
A greengrocer sells baskets containing 5 pieces of fruit.
A basket contains three apples and two bananas.
I buy two of these baskets:

Altogether I have twice the number of apples and twice the number of
bananas that are in one basket. I have 6 apples and 4 bananas; that
is 10 pieces of fruit in total.
You could write a statement about the numbers of pieces of fruit,
using brackets:
(3 + 2) + (3 + 2) = 2(3 + 2) 2(3 + 2) means two lots of 3 + 2
2(3+2)=2x5
wh
When a calculation includes brackets, you normally do the calculation
inside the brackets first.
Here is another example:
2(7 + 2)=2x9
= 18
You do, however, get the same answer if you multiply out the brackets
like this:
Qe
He XT Fe Xe
=14+4
= 18

RIMLEIDLVITIS
eveveccocsos meee gpoces OUT: DIQCKETS co, e See ia riggetavschacssccs.
Gg Jooocssoseocscee

If there is an eae expression with two or more unlike terms

inside the brackets, you cannot simplify it but you can expand it by
multiplying out the brackets like this.
3 2y=3xXx4+3Xx2
= 3x10
 Exercise 12.1 . 7
Multiply out the brackets.
1 3 +41) 6 3(2b +1)
2 2(x +3) 7 2(4x
+ 3)
3 2(x-3) 8 2(5+ 2a)
4 4(3+x) 9 5(2)+3)
5 2(5-a) 10 3(7- 3a)
11 4(6 +3a) 16 3(7—2x)
12. 2(2x —3y) 17 2(6a— 3b)
13 3(4a—b) 18 6(4— 3x)
14 5(2x+1) 19 8(2n— 4m)
15 3(b-5a) 20 5(3p-4q)

Collecting like terms

When a term with brackets is part of an expression, you may need to
expand the brackets and then check,to see if you can collect like terms.

An expression may include two sets of brackets.

a
©
=<
Ss)
S
S
ae)
S
©
4)

=
S Multiply out the brackets and then simplify each expression.
6 .
> 1 2+3(x+2) 7 24+3(4-2x)
uy

N 2 4x+2(x-1) : 8 4(3x 4)-—12x

e
S
Y
3 2x+5(x-3) 9 4+ 4(2x1)
BS) 4 x+2(2x+5) 10 3x+5(2
+ 3x)
=
N 5 3(x+2)-3 11 2(4x + 3) + 3(2x — 4)
b

6 3(4-2x)+3x 12 3(x +2) +2(2x+1)

13 4(3 +x) + 3(5— 2x) 17 5(2 + 3x) + (5x +6) Lvs)
a
be}
14 2(1+ 2x) + 3(x + 2) 18 4(5 — 3x) + 2(4- 6x)
(a)
a
0}
ct
15 3(2x + 4) + (5x + 3) 19 3(7+3x)+2(5—-x)
n
re¥)
S
16 2(4x — 3) + 3(5—x) . + (3—-
20 2(6—x )2x) jae

=)
=
(_).Brackets.and minus signs
SHH SS THE HEHE SETH ETEHEE HES O THESES EEE E SESH EE ES ME DEC EET E HEE TEO ED ETEESEEH EEE EE ESO ES EOE EE OEE OEEEEH OOH EHH OEOE
nn
es
ga
=}
So far the number outside the bracket has been positive but this will n
not always be the case. If there is a negative number, or a minus sign,
before the brackets, you must multiply whatever is inside the brackets
by a negative number rather than a positive number. So, if there is
a minus sign before the brackets, you must apply it to whatever is
inside the brackets.

Examples
(i) 6x—2(2x+1)=6x-4x-2 Remember that
Soe, negative x positive is negative
but
(ii) 5—3(@—-2)=5—3x+6 negative x negative is positive
= 11—3x

Take care when there is a minus sign but no number in front of the
brackets. This means ‘multiply by ~1’ so you must change the sign of
each term inside the brackets as you multiply through.

Examples
(i) 5x—(3+2x)=5x-3-2x
=3x-3
(ii) 5—(3x-1)=5-—3x+1
=6— 3X
(ii) 2(3x-— 3) —3(x+ 4) =6x-6-3x-12
= 3t-—16

Multiply out the brackets and simplify each expression.

q 4-2071) 6 8x —(4+ 5x)
2 3x-2(2+x) 7 10x — 3(2 + 3x)

3 5x—2(5 +2x) 8 8—4(3x +2)

4 8-3(3x+2) 9 12—(2 +2)
5 3-(2x+1) 10 3x—2(5x-1)
 Take care, these expressions have two sets of brackets.
11 2(4x + 3) — 3(x - 1) 16 2(x +3) —3(3x-4)
12 3(x+2)-—2(2x+1) 17 5(2+x)-(5x+1)
13 4(2 + 2x) — 3(4—2x) 18 4(3—2x) —2(6—6x)
14 2(1+3x)-3(x+1) 19 4(5+ 3x) — 2(5 + 6x)
15 3(2x+2)—(3x+3) 20 2(3—x) - (6 — 2x)
What happens when your answer looks like one of these?
@ 6x+/7
@ 2x-12

It is always best to avoid starting an expression with a negative

number, because it is easy to miss.
In the first of these examples, it would be better to write the
expression as 7 — 6x
There is nothing you can do about the answer for ~2x — 12, so
you have to leave it as it is.
Remember this when you do the next exercise.

Exercise 12.4
Multiply out the TERI “atree simplify each expression.
1 8+3(2x-4) 6 12-(2x—4)
2 10-2(2x+1) 7 5(2+ 3x) -8x
3 3(3+x) —2(5 — 2x) 8 3(3 — 4x) + 2(6x — 1)
4 4 2(1+x)
+ 3(x+2) 9 3(6 + 3x) — 2(9 — x)
eB)
rs; 5 3(3x+
4) —(5x+ 4) 10 2(7 +x) — (3+ 5x)
=
S 11 2(4x+3)-6 16 2(4x +6) + 3(2x—4)
3 12 4x -2(2x+1) 17 6(2 + 3x) — 3(5x + 6)
iy 13 4(3 + 6x) — 3(5— 8x) 18 12x —2(4-6x)
=}
Ave 14: 4(1+2x —2(r)+2) 19 3(7+3x)-21
NE 15 15x —5(5x +3) 20 4(6 — 3x) — 3(8 — 4x)
5
5)
“St
<x
N
 as
oY)
fa
et
ce)
Sometimes an expression may have the same numbers or letters in a,
ear
both terms, for example, as in 2 + 2x 5
(ore)
In this case, 2 is a common factor in the same way that 2 is a
common factor of 4 and 6
m2rex= 2(4+ x)

If you find a common factor and take it outside the brackets, you have
factorised the expression. You can always check that your factorising
is correct by multiplying out the brackets.

Examples
(i) Factorise: 2x +8
Think of each part
2x+8 =2xXx+2x2x2
of the expression as a
product of its prime
ee?
Check: 2(x + 4) = 2x +8 factors.
(ii) Factorise: 2a + 6b
2a+6b=2xXa+2x3xb
= 2(a + 3d)
Check: 2(a + 3b) = 2a + 6b

1 : Copy and complete these. The common factor has already been taken out
for you.
(a) 2x+6=2(x+*) -2)
(c) 4x-8=4(*
(b) 3x+ 12 =3(x+*) (d) 3x+6=3(x+*)

2 Copy and complete these. You need to write down the common factor in
each case.
(a) 3x+12=*(x+4) (c) 4x+2y-6=*(2x+y-3)

(b) 6x —3=*(2x—1) (d) 15-3x+6y=*(5—x-+2y)

3 This time the common factors have been taken out and you have to fill in
the brackets.
+ *)
(a) 4x+6=2(* (c) 6x+ 9y—- 12 =3(* + *—*)
—*)
(b) 3x — 15 =3(* (d) 12+ 9x — 3y =3(* + * -*)

4 Factorise these expressions.

(a) 4x+8 (b) 3y-—6 (c) 12+ 18y
 5 Factorise these expressions. Note that you may need to write the number 1
as a term inside the brackets.
(a) 15y+5 +4
(b) 16x — 20xy (c) 8x+ 4y— 12xy
6 Factorise these expressions, if possible.
(a) 2x+8 (g) 18c + 6ab—12
(b) 12a+5 (h) 8 — 16a+24c
(c) 15-—21x (i) 18+ 16a
(d) 18a
+ 16b (j) 4x + 16y—xy
(e) 9a+ 16b (k) 7+ 14p -21q
(f) 8a+ 16b— 24ab (l) 8ab+16

Be uationsmer 2 omatien um
You already know how to solve simple equations. You will recall
that an equation is like a balance. In order to keep it balanced, you
must do the same thing to both sides. When you have completed a
solution, it is good practice to check your answer by substituting the
value you found into the original equation.

Example
(i) Solve the equation: x+3=9
¥+3=3=9-3
(- 3) (- 3) Subtract 3 from both sides
x=6 ‘
Check:6+3=9 v
(ii) Solve the equation: 3x = 6
~
“n 3x+3=6+3
©
we (+ 3) (+ 3) Divide both sides by 3
U
i) x=2 :
ke
ae)
wD
Check: 3 x 2=6 v
=
bi)
wn
=
Sem) Sometimes you need to go through two or more stages. As you become
© more confident, you can leave out some of the working.
=
>
ly
Note that the equals signs align in a column and the operations in brackets
NI
ue) described on either side show what you have done to both sides of the
Leg
Q equation. You must write these down clearly so that, as your equations get
aS)
is)
more complicated, it is clear how you have solved them — and it makes it
<= easier for you to check your working. Once you have become confident you
NX
can write the operations in brackets on the right-hand side only, to show what |
~~
ou have done to both sides of the equation.
 Examples 2
(i) Solve the equation: 2x - 3 =9
2x-3=9 z
:
(+ 3) Add 3 to both sides
2x= 12
(+2) Divide both sides by 2
x=6
, Check: 2x6+3=15 V7
(ii) Solve the equation: 7 — 3x = 6
7-3x=6
(+ 3x) Add 3x to both sides
7=6+ 3x
(— 6) Subtract 6 from both sides
1=3x
(+ 3) Divide both sides by 3
a)
ster
Check: 7-3 x 5 =6 Vv

Exercise 12.6 | 7
Solve these equations. Remember to check your answers in your head.

1 x+4=6 6 4x=12
2 a-6=3 7 m-4=7

3 4b=8 8 3d=12

4 2c=10 9 7+x=6

5 p+8=4 10 7=5+m

11 2a+4=8 16 3s+7=16
12 3m-1=5 17 2t-4=10
13 5=134+4p 18 7=13+39
14 14+3n=13 19 6x+1=7
If the unknown
15 2x+14=9 De ais OP) term is negative,
add it to both sides.
This way it appears
21 5+3b=8 26 5=2-3n side of
on the other
29 6=24+3x 57 7=8— 2p the equals sign, but
becomes positive. It
23 11=2-3)b 28 9=1+2x is importantto keep
Bao 1 44h =6 99. 7=2—5e the unknown term
positive.
25 5-2c=8 EA a aerate
 (C_).Squares
and square roots. cccsssssssssssssnsusenene
Powers and roots can be used in algebra too.
If x* is the square of x, then x is the square root of x?
1 is the square of 1 and also of 1 +1 and ~1 are the square roots of 1
4 is the square of 2 and of 2 2 and ~2 are the square roots of 4
9 is the square of 3 and of ~3 3 and ~3 are the square roots of 9
16 is the square of 4 and of ~4 4 and ~4 are the square roots of 16
The symbol for ‘square root’ looks like this: J”
You can write the square root of 4 as V4 V4 =2 or -2
You can write ‘2 or ~2’ as *2, which you say as ‘positive or negative two’.

Exercise 12.7
Write down these squares and square roots.
1 Vi6 6 Vo.25
2 V25 7 144
3 10000 8 100?
4 0.4 9 0.1?
5 1.22 10 Vi21

Square roots
You know that 3 x 3 = 9 and also that ~3 x -3 = +9
Therefore equations that include a term such as x can have two solutions.
Wy
~
8)
x
1S)
Example
4)
Q
nN Solve the equation: x* = 9
U
=
i)
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Exercise 12.8
©
=
Q Solve these equations.
iB)
= Lea 47%C=6)
<=

N 20023100 5 ted
™

3 b*=49 6 a*=64
 7 x*=0.09 9; = 0:16 m
acy
(=
8 c?= 1600 10 »*=400 a)
ie
fe)
Write an equation and solve it to find the answer to each of these questions. =)
n

11 The area of a square is 144m?*. What is the length of one of its sides? =:
=>
12 The area of a square is 1.44m?. What is the length of one of its sides? oT
=
rab)
fa)
&
13 The area of a square is 0.64cm*. What is the length of one of its sides?
7)
et
14 The area of a square is 0.04cm?2. What is its perimeter? wn

POOP OTH SOS OH SH SHES ESTHET OE EH HOSE EHH EO ESSE HOHE T SESS OSOSTOSOTEDESESO SOO ES ESOHO STO EES CHOOSE ODOESESOOOS

As you have seen, you sometimes need brackets in an expression.

Example
Two of my friends are having birthdays. | have £10 to spend. Birthday cards cost £2
Assuming | spend the same amount on each friend, how much can | spend on each present?
You could write the puzzle like this where the cost (in pounds) of one present is represented by i
(th+ 2) + (f+ 2)=10
But it is more mathematical to say: ‘Let the present cost £x,’ and then form
an equation in x, which you can solve.
2(x + 2) = 10
(B) expand the brackets Note that you
2x+4=10 leave the units, £ in
(- 4) this case, out of the
2x=6 equation, then solve
(+2) it. You give the answer
ae to the question,
including the units,
The presents each cost £3 after the calculation.
Check: 2(3+2)=2x5=10 V

Exercise 12.9
Solve these equations. Remember to multiply out the brackets first and to
write down what you are doing at each stage. Check your answers in your head.
Remember that an answer may be a negative number or a fraction.
1 3(x+1)=12 6 15=3(2x+3)
2 2(x-3)=10 7 2(2x+3)=8
3 4(3+x)=16 8 2(2x-3)=8
4 3(2+x)=15 9 16=3(4+2x)
5 2(2x—1)=18 10 4(2x +5)=3
 11 5(x—4)=5 16 4=3(2 +2x)
12 2(5+3x)=1 17 4(3x-2)=16
13 2(x—1)=8 18 2(2 + 3x) =22
14 12=4(x +2) 19 3(2x-1)=9
15 2(4+3x)=2 20 4(x+3)=8

C).Fractions
and equations. oo ccs
If an equation involves a fraction, start by multiplying the whole
equation by the denominator (the bottom number) of the fraction.

Examples
: : Make sure you
(i) Solve th equation, ;
‘ive the 25
4 =4 include the Mshort
x=4 notation to explain
(x 3) the steps.
x=12
Check: (12+3)=4 V¥
(ii) Solve the equation: ~ 3 4=2

x=4 =?

(x 3)

(+ 4)

Check:(10-4)+3=2 V

You can see that, in both examples, by multiplying by 3 first you can
2)
~
get rid of the fraction. The equation then becomes simpler to-solve.
wu
~<
U
iNN
a)
v
c
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4)
<
A)
=)
&
S 2°5=7 7 34
>
uy
NI
Aa
3 9=% 8 *P=3
9
) 4 Bos 9 a-4=5
—
=)
<=
5 32=9 10 4+4~2
N
b
ed

@)
C ).Writing. story puzzles with brackets
COROT H THESE EE EEO OE HEE EE OHO SESE SOO OEOESOO SOHO OTOH DESO EH EO DEO E OHS HEH OSES =
up
When you are trying to solve a story or word problem, you need to P|
[je}
decide whether to use brackets. In the example about buying presents wn

2
et

for friends, there were two ‘presents’ of the same size. <
ms)
(dF+ 2) and (t+ 2) =
N
pale
@m
The brackets indicate that 2 was added to the unknown quantity #%, in wn

each case. =.
ct
= a

Then the whole expression, (t+ 2), was multiplied by 2 because g

oOo

fal
ped)

there were two presents to be bought. ia)

(a>)
ct

It is a good idea to use brackets round amounts that are added or n

subtracted, even if you are not sure if they are really necessary.

Example
If you double the age that | will be in five years’ time, you will get my mother’s age now.
My mother is 38. How old am I?
Let my age be x years.
In five years’ time | will be (x + 5) years old.
My mother’s age is 38
2(x + 5) = 38 Double (x + 5) is my mother’s age.
(B)
2x + 10= 38
(— 10)
2x= 28
(+2) Remember to write
out the answer with
x=14
the correct units.
| am 14 years old.
 Write an equation for each story puzzle and then solve it to find the solution to
the puzzle.
1
| think of a number, add 5, double the result and | get 30. What was my number?
2 | think of a number, double it, add 5 and | get 25. What was my number? —

3 | think of a number, subtract 3, double the result and | get 14. What was my number?
4 | think of a number, double it, subtract 3 and | get 17. What was my number?
5 If you double the age that | will be in 4 years’ time, you will get 40. How old
am | now?

6 If you treble the age that | was 4 years ago, you will get 36. How old am | now?
7 If you subtract 5 from Mum's age and then double it you will get 70
(Grandpa’s age.) How old is Mum?
Some of the answers to the rest of the exercise will be expressions in terms of x.
8 | am 5 years younger than my sister. My brother is twice as old as | am.

(a) If my sister is x years old, how old am |?

(b) How old is my brother?
(c) Write an expression in x for the sum of our ages.
(d) The sum of our ages is 33. Form an equation in x and solve it. How old is
my sister?

(e) How old am I? How old is my brother?

My sister is three years younger than | am and my brother is three times as
old as my sister. '
(a) If |am x years old, how old is my sister?

~
vn (b) How old is my brother?
iB)
x
U (c) Write an expression in x for the sum of our ages.
He)
OQ (d) The sum of our ages is 28. Write an equation in x and solve it to find
v my age.
<
&
“wn
Lea (e) How old is my brother?
,O
6 10 Tom, Sally and | divide up a packet of sweets. Tom has the green ones, Sally
14)
= has the orange ones and | have the rest. | have twice as many as Tom and 5
>
dy more sweets than Sally.
N
i] (a) If Tom has x sweets, how many do | have?
=
ce)
ic)
=>)
(b) How many does Sally have?
—

= (c) Write an expression in x for the total number of sweets.

N
™— (d) There were 15 sweets in total. Write an equation in x and solve it to find
how many sweets we each had.
 E xtension
=a
ercise 12.12 ; S
ey,
=)
Here are some more complicated equations. In these questions you have to ga
M4)
multiply out the brackets first and then simplify before solving the equation. et
oO
on
<
mo)
Example S
N
val
Solve this equation: 2(3x — 1) + 4x = 10 oO
”

| 2(3x—
1) + 4x = 10 =:
=5
lon
4
6x—-2+4x
= 10 be)
(a)
ee
()
ct
10x —-2=10 n

10xy— 12

|
=k N

—_°o

Oy
Url Convert the improper fraction to a mixed number.
uij—

Now solve these equations.

1 3(2x-2)+4=8 4 3(2y + 1)=7
2(3+ 2x) -1=12 eee Tine ss)
5+2(x-2)=7 9=4-2(3x+1 )
3(1+ 2x)+5=8 Oo
on
o 2(4x
— 1)-3x=8

wu
&
N
W 3-2(x+4)=6 10 6—(2x+5)=7

11 3x + 4(2x — 3) =21 4(2 + 3x) — 4(3 + 2x) =11

12 4x — 3(2 + 3x) = 36 3(2+x)-(4x+
1) =8

13 3(x + 3) + 2(x+ 4) = 22 3(x + 3) —2(x + 4) =12

14 3(3 — 2x) — 4(4 + 3x) =6 2(3x + 2) + 5(3x — 3) =22

15 2(x — 1) + 3(x-4)=1 2(v+2)-(e-

1)=4
 Summary Exercise 12.13 |
1 Multiply out the brackets.
(a) 2(x + 1) (c) 4(5 + 3x)
(b) 3(2x— 4)
2 Multiply out the brackets and then simplify the expressions.
(a) 2(x+ 1)+3x (c) 4x -—5(2x
+ 1)
(b) 3+2(2x—- 1) (d) 6(3x + 4) — 20x
3 Factorise these expressions, if possible.
(a) 2a+4 (e) 24a+ 15b-21¢
(b) 3b- 18c _ (f) 10y— 5x
(c) 8x+4 (g) 3ab+ 7b+ 12a
(d) 4a+5c (h) 8a+ 16ab — 24
4 Solve these equations.
(a) 3x=12 (c) m-6=11
(b) a+4=7 (d) 4s=3
5 Solve these equations. Show each stage of your working.
(a) 4x-7=9 (c) 3-—2m=11
(b) 2a+3=7 (d) 4=3+5¢
6 Solve these equations.
(a) ¥=4 : (b) a =2
7 Solve these equations.
(a) 2(x+3)=5 (c) 8x+3(4-2x)=7
wa)

4
~
5) (b) 3+ 2(3x—2)=5
U
ae)
ae
8 | think of a number, double it, add 7 and get the result 15. What was my
Q number?
Be)
oe
1] 9 Freddy, Henry and Casper are going on a sponsored walk. Henry walks 10
Ww
© miles further than Casper, and 6 miles fewer than Freddy.
a2)
om)
LA) . (a) If Henry walks x miles, how far does Freddy walk?
=]
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by (b) How far does Casper walk?
N
i)
(c) Write an expression in x for the total distance the three boys walk.
=
OQ
(d) They walk a total of 41 miles. Write an equation in x and solve it to find
aS)
iD)
how far each one walks.
=

N
=
 ) Angles and polygons

The study of angles and shapes is called geometry. You already know
a great deal about geometry. Here is a summary of some of the terms
that you should recognise.

An angle is formed when two straight lines meet at a point.

ey NLA
Acute angle
Less than 90°
Right angle
90°
Obtuse angle
Between 90 and 180°
Reflex angle
More than 180°

What else do you already know about angles?

Angles in a circle (at a point) add up to 360°

os

Angles on a straight line add up to 180°

ae,
 Angles in a triangle add up to 180°

Vertically opposite angles are equal.

G55
\15577
Base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
Angles in an equilateral triangle are all equal to 60°

<6
Remember to give
aa fo) lo reasons for your
answers so that other
Even if you only know some of the angles in a given diagram you can people can follow
your working.
often use these facts to calculate others.

Example
Calculate the values of x, y and z in this diagram.
x = 48° Vertically opposite angles
y = 180° — 48° Angles on a straight line
= 132°
z = 180° — (48° + 54°) Angles in a triangle

“
= 180° — 102°
<=
S = /8°
=
So
Qa Follow these four rules when answering the questions in the next exercise.
Be)
i
Las)
Wy 1 Draw the diagram.
ao
=>)
= 2 Write down each angle fact, giving the reason that you know the fact.
<=
3 Work down the page, aligning the equals signs vertically.
Y)
™

4 Show all your calculations, however simple.

 Exercise 13.1 ,
Find the value of the unknown angles (marked by letters) in each question.
Remember to follow the rules.
 eee eee Pee Eee revere ereer rere creer creer ery co

Two lines are parallel if, however far you extend them, they will never
meet and they remain the same distance apart.
These two lines are parallel.
>

——_>———

If you draw a transversal across parallel lines, you produce some

angles. Some of these angles are equal.

[a

Alternate angles are equal. Corresponding angles are equal.

The angles are either acute or obtuse. The four obtuse angles are
all equal and the four acute angles are all equal. Because the obtuse
angle and the acute angle are adjacent angles on a straight line, they
must add up to 180°. This leads to a third pair of angles special to
parallel lines.

' Co-interior angles add up to 180°

i+j=180°

These angles are sometimes called supplementary angles, which

actually means that they add up to 180°, and they are sometimes
called allied angles.
The most commonly used names now are interior or co-interior angles.
Wy
°c

S In this book, they are called co-interior angles, to distinguish them

=
2) from the interior angles of polygons.
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 ao)
Exercise 13.2 a
bom:
we
1 State whether these pairs of angles are alternate, corresponding, co-interior, o
=
or none of these. ©
172)

(a) : (d) »
=|
a
[a o
=I
g Oe
©174)

= @

(b) (e)
Se [iJ
(> (i

(c) (f)
7
Wa

2 Find the size of the angle represented by a letter in each of these diagrams
and say whether it is alternate to, corresponding to or co-interior with the
other angle given.

(a) (c)

(b) (d)
089
 (e) | (f)

3 Look at this diagram. Find as many pairs of equal angles as you can. For each
pair, give a reason why they are equal, for example, corresponding angles or
alternate angles.

_fa]b»
\efa/
eft
\gfn)

4 Refer again to the diagram in question 3. This time, find as many pairs of
angles as you can that add up to 180°. For each pair give the angle reason for
their relationship, for example, angles on a straight line or co-interior angles.
5 Find the size of each angle represented by a letter in this diagram. Write
your answers in the order that you calculate the angles, which will not
G7]
necessarily be in the order a, b, c,... Give your reason for each answer. la)
(You may need vertically opposite angles and angles on a straight line, in
addition to the three special cases for parallel lines.)
6 Now do the same as in question 5 for the angles in this diagram.
Ve)

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°
S
2 So far, unknown angles in diagrams have been marked by small,
2)
Qa italic letters. In more complicated diagrams it is customary to
A>)
S mark the corners or vertices and the intersections of lines
ia)
w with capital letters. Then you can describe the angles in terms
—
=>) of the two lines that join at the point.
=
=
This is the angle ABC. It is the angle formed at point B,
fon)
Tm
where AB meets BC
Look at this triangle, in which three angles meet at point A Zz
7)
A 3.
=|
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o
a.
=]
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D C B

Run your finger over the diagram to make sure that you understand
that:
Angle BAC is marked y
Angle DAC is marked x
Angle BAD isx+y

Exercise 13.3
1 , Copy the diagram above.
(a) Colour angle ACD red.
(b) Colour angle BCA blue.
(c) Colour angle CBA yellow.
2 Copy this diagram.

(a) Colour angle ABD red.

(b) Colour angle CBD blue.
(c) Colour angle ADC yellow.

In Exercise 13.1 you saw that if you know the size of only one or two
angles in a diagram you actually know enough about angles to find
the size of most, or even all, of the other angles. Now, with what you
know about parallel lines, you can find the sizes of even more angles.
 In mathematics you have to be able to justify your statements. In
your answers to any angle questions, you must give the reasons for
your answers.

Example
Find the size of:

(i) angle ABE

(ii) angle EBD
(iii) angle DBC
Give reasons for your answers.

[53

A
hs B G

(i) angle ABE = 180° — (75° + 83°) Angles in a triangle addup to 180°
= 180° — 158°
=22°
(ii) angle EBD = 83° Alternate angles
(iii) angle DBC = 75° Corresponding angles

Exercise 13.4 .
1 In this diagram AB is parallel to CE and angle ABD = 72°
A (C

“4
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2)
Qa.
vo
=a
:
a
S
“

a
.=))
= Find, giving reasons, the size of:
<=
(a) angle CDF (b) angle CDB (c) angle FDE:
aa)
™
In this diagram AB is parallel to CD, AD = CD and angle BAD = 32° Fal
7)
A 3.
5
SF B ga
a
=)
ga
©74)

ec D

Find, giving reasons, the size of:

(a) angle ADC (b) angle DCA
In this diagram AD is parallel to FH, angle DCG = 65° and angle BFH= 80°

A : 2 D
ie:

d eh

Find, giving reasons, the size of:

(a) angle ABF (c) angle CGH
(b) angle CBF (d) angle CGF
In this diagram AB is parallel to DE, angle BAC = 44° and angle EDC = 87°

Find, giving reasons, the size of:

(a) angle CED (c) angle ACB
(b) angle ECD (d) angle ABC
 5 In this diagram ABC is an equilateral triangle and AB is parallel to DC.
A D

B € :

Find, giving reasons, the size of:

(a) angle BCA (c) angle DCE
(b) angle ACD
6 In this diagram AB is parallel to CD and BC is parallel to AD, angle DAB = 32°
and angle ABD = 48°

.
D G

Find, giving reasons, the size of:

(a) angle BDA (c) angle DBC
(b) angle BDC (d) angle BCD
7 \Inthis diagram CD is parallel to AB, angle ECD = 72° and angle DBA = 47°

“
8
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es,
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La) Find the size of angle CED. Show your working clearly and state any other
Ww

a angles that you have had to find first. Give reasons for all your calculations.
D
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ina)
T

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 8 In this diagram AE is parallel to FK, angle BG/ = 74° and angle D/K = 105° a)
eo
bad
B EG D ga
fe)
Es)
1”)

Find, giving reasons, and stating any other angles that you may have to find
first, the size of:
(a) angle GBC (c) angle BCH
(b) angle CD/ (d) obtuse angle CH/

DELS ae ee ee
Polygons are multi-sided shapes. The name comes from the Greek
poly meaning ‘many’ and gonia meaning ‘angles’. You frequently
meet the prefix poly in words such as polyglot (a person who speaks
many languages), polychrome (having several colours) and of course
polygon (a shape with many angles and sides).
Polygons can be either regular or irregular. In regular polygons all
the sides are the same length and all the interior angles are equal.

3 sides: 7 sides:
triangle heptagon

4 sides:
quadrilateral

5 sides: 9 sides:

pentagon nonagon

6 sides: 10 sides:
hexagon decagon
 There are three angles that are of particular interest in a polygon.

Interior angle

Angle at the centre

Exterior angle

In Maths for Common Entrance Book One, you investigated the sums
of the interior angles of polygons. Work through the next exercise,
to review your earlier work and to find out more about the exterior
angles of polygons.

ESpecan
E poreopeainen ong
1 In your exercise book, draw a pentagon. It does not have to be regular. Divide
it into triangles, like this.

2 Now draw a hexagon, a heptagon, an octagon, a nonagon and a decagon.

Divide them into triangles in the same way.

3 Copy and complete this table. When you come to the last column, think how
you can calculate the interior angle of a regular polygon.

Polygon

Ce
Number of sides Number of triangles Angle sum interior angle of regular polygon
wa
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=
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m
ba)
4 The last row of the table is blank. Use this row to write the formulae for a )
2
polygon with n sides. <
re
fs)
(a) How many triangles will there be in a polygon with n sides? ~Vv

(b) What is the angle sum of a polygon with n sides?

(c) What is the interior angle for a regular polygon with n sides?
(d) Fill in the last row of the table.

eC
5 Now look at the exterior angles. On each of the polygons that you have
drawn, extend the sides so they look like Catherine wheels.

ZX
For each polygon, measure all the exterior angles and add them up.
6 Now draw a triangle, a quadrilateral, a hexagon, a heptagon, an octagon,
a nonagon and a decagon. Draw and measure their exterior angles and
calculate the sum for each shape.
7 Copy and complete this table. When you come to the last column, think how
you can calculate the exterior angle of a regular polygon.
Sum of exterior angles Exterior angle of regular polygon
 8 The last row of the table is blank. Use this row to write the formulae for a
polygon with n sides.
(a) What is the sum of the exterior angles for a polygon with n sides?
(b) What is the exterior angle for a regular polygon with n sides?
(c) Fill in the last row of the table.

Emus ee _
9 Compare the interior and exterior angles for each regular polygon. What do
you notice? Can you explain?

Polygon formulae
From the above exercise you have discovered three formulae.
@ Angle sum of a polygon is 180°(n — 2)
@ Interior angle of a regular polygon is a -2)

@ Exterior angle of a regular polygon is 60°

You also know that:
@ interior angle + exterior angle is 180°
You can use these formulae to calculate angles in any regular polygon.

Example
Work out the interior angle of a regular nonagon.
n=9
‘Interior angle = Olam?

_ 180_(9-2)
20

=20°x7
= 140°

“n
< If you are given the exterior angle of a regular polygon,
you can
S rearrange the formula to find the number of sides.
an ; °
2)
Qa
As exterior angle x = 70e
vo
then it follows that n = 360°
°
La)
“
=
\™>) where x is the exterior angle and n is the number of sides in the
=
= regular polygon.
~
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 a)
Example 2:
<
go
The exterior angle of a regular polygon is 72°. How many sides does fe)
the polygon have? 54)
If you know the
n= 360 interior angle of a
ia regular polygon, first
_ 360 calculate the exterior
iz angle and then
=5 calculate the number
of sides.
It is a pentagon.

Exercise 13.6 |
1 Use the correct formula to calculate the size of an exterior angle for a regular:
(a) dodecagon (12 sides) (c) triacontagon (30 sides)
(b) octadecagon (18 sides)
2 Find the number of sides in a regular polygon if the exterior angle is:
(a) 24° (b) 10° (c) 15°
3 Why can a regular polygon not have an exterior angle of 65°?

is\
4 Can the exterior angle of a regular polygon be an obtuse angle?

Exterior angle

5 Use the formula to calculate the sum of the interior angles of:
(a) adodecagon (c) an icosagon (20 sides)
(b) an octadecagon
6 Use the formula to calculate the interior angle of a regular:
(a) dodecagon (c) pentadecagon (15 sides)
(b) hexadecagon (16 sides)
 7 Work out the number of sides of a regular polygon in which the interior angle is:
(a) 90° (b) 140° (c) 162°
8 Work out the number of sides of a regular polygon if:
(a) the interior angle is twice the exterior angle
(b) the interior angle is three times the exterior angle
(c) the interior angle is four times the exterior angle
(d) the interior angle is seven times the exterior angle.
9 The angles at the centre of a regular polygon are equal. Because they are
angles at a point they must add up to 360°. Work out the size of an angle at
the centre of a regular:
(a) octagon (b) pentagon (c) icosagon.
10 This diagram shows part of a regular polygon.

(a) The interior angle is five times as large as the exterior angle. How many
sides does the polygon have?
(b) If the interior angle were 11 times the size of the exterior angle, how
many sides would the polygon have?

C).Calculatin
angles ing polygons.ccc
You can use what you know about polygons to solve even more angle
problems. As all the sides of a regular polygon are equal, it is likely
that you will find isosceles triangles inside regular polygons.
Remember:
@ the sum of the interior angles of any polygon is 180°(n — 2)
@ the sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360° .
7) where n is the number of sides of the polygon.
|
ag

S For a regular polygon, you also know that:

=
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ia
DvD
@ the exterior angle = 260"
c
Ls]
” @ the interior angle = 1802) or 180° — exterior angle
a
=>)
= 360°
@ the number of sides (n) = exterior angle
<=

Y
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@ the angle at the centre = 760"
Note also that some regular polygons have some diagonals that are a)
ae
parallel to their sides. (a)
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a
74)

a)
o
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od
°
|
n
Regular heptagon Regular octagon

This one is parallel. This one is not parallel.

Example
ABCDEFGH is a regular octagon.
Find the size of:
(a) angle GFE
(b) angle FGE
(c) angle GHA
(d) angle HGB

Exterior angle = 22°

_ 360°
8
= 45° It is a good idea
always to start b
(a) angle GFE = 180° — 45° Interior angle of a regular polygon ‘ending the aes
= 495° and interior angles.

(b) angle FGE = 1s0°—13>" Base angle of an isosceles triangle

=225°
(c) angle GHA = 135° Interior angle of a regular polygon (octagon) | Read through
(d) angle HGB = 180°- 135° —_Co-interior angles, HA parallel to BG | the working in the
| example carefully.
=45) is how you
This
should set out your
answers.

With all this information, you are ready to tackle the next exercise.
The calculations are not difficult but it is important to recognise
which formula to use and to follow the steps. This is why you should
write down each step carefully.
 Exercise 13.7 -
m-
i) 4

These questions are about polygons. Find the sizes of the angles, giving reasons
for all your calculations.
1 ABCDE is a regular pentagon.
A

iB B

D G ;

Find the size of:

(a) angle BCE (c) angle CBD
(b) angle BCD (d) angle ABD
2 BCDEFG is a regular hexagon.
G B

bs €

H
E D

Work out the size of:

(a) angle CDH (c) angle CDB
Fa (b) angle BCD (d) angle BDE
S 3 ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, with centre O.
gS ‘Work out the size of:
os
S (a) angle FOD (c) angle ABC
@ (b) angle ODE (d) angle CDO
Ss
<=

om
bd
 4 ABCDEFGH is a regular octagon with centre O. A B 2)
as
Find the size of: 5
is
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(a) angle COD H Cc AF,
=
Ga
(b) angle FEA a
3
G D go
(c) angle ABC ©4)
=
(d) angle BCO
ae)
a
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oa
fe)
5 ABCDE is a regular pentagon with centreO. = =7)
Find the size of: :

(a) angle AEF

(b) angle BCD E E
(c) angle CBD
(d) angle ABD
D G

Exercise 13.8 °

Maths from stars: Calculating angles

You started to look at tessellations at the end of Chapter 10. Now that you
know how to calculate interior and exterior angles of regular polygons, you can
investigate whether polygons tessellate.
1 What is the interior angle of a regular hexagon?
2 Look at the middle of this pattern.

Calculate the size of the acute angle inside the six-pointed star.
of the
3 The six-pointed star is an irregular dodecagon. What is the sum
interior angles of a dodecag on?

4 Calculate the size of the reflex angle inside the six-pointed star.
 5 Draw a six-pointed star on triangular spotted paper and check that your
answers are correct.
This is a regular pentagon with all its diagonals shown. This design is known as a
pentagram and has been linked with magic for centuries.
The word magi in
the New Testament
refers to wise men
and has the same
origin as the word
magic. Sometimes
mathematical
patterns are so
amazing that they
seem magical.

The Pentagram from Eliphas Levi's (1810-1875)

‘Transcendental Magic’

6 What is the interior angle of a regular pentagon?

7 Now calculate the sizes of the angles labelled a, b, c and d in the pentagram
in question 5
“n
© This eight-pointed star is an important part of Islamic tiling patterns. It is made
S from two squares and in its centre is a regular octagon.
=
1s)
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ae,
=
La)
wn
—
=>)
<
<=
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~~
 8 What is the interior angle of a regular octagon? @)
a
(o@)
9 Look at the eight-pointed star pattern in question 7. Calculate all the angles is
in one of the coloured isosceles triangles. o
SS.
=)
10 The eight-pointed star is an irregular 16-sided figure. What is the sum of the Ga
o
interior angles of a 16-sided figure? =
wc
©177)
11 Calculate the size of the reflex angle in the eight-pointed star. -
Eight-pointed stars can be put together to make a pattern of tiles. This is a part es
oe
of a tiling pattern from the Alhambra Palace in Spain. <
oo
°
=~n

12 The new eight-pointed star has eight kites forming its eight points. Calculate
the angles in the kites.
13 Between the four eight-pointed stars there are four irregular hexagons that
meet and form an irregular octagon. Calculate all the angles in the hexagon
and the octagon.

Summary Exercise 13.9 ;

1 Copy this diagram three times.

Mark a pair of alternate angles on the first diagram, a pair of

corresponding angles on the second and a pair of co-interior
angles on the third.

2. Find the sizes of the angles marked by the letters in this diagram
and give reasons for your answers.
(as
 3 In this diagram AB is parallel to CD and BCE is a straight line.
You are also told that angle BAC = 44° and angle DCE = 118°
Find the size of:
(a) angle DCB (c) angle ACB
(b) angle ABC (d) angle ACE

4 (a) What is the exterior angle of a regular 9-sided polygon?

(b) What is the interior angle of regular 15-sided polygon?
5 Write down the number of sides of a regular polygon with:
(a) an exterior angle equal to 36°
(b) an interior angle equal to 160°
6 What is the sum of the interior angles of a 13-sided polygon?
7 ABCDE is a regular pentagon. B
Work out the size of:
(a) angle CDF (c) angle ADE A Cc
(b) angle BCD (d) angle CDA

E D 3
8 In this diagram AE is Zea to BD, AB = EB, angle EBD = 54° and
angle DCB = 37°

c
2) A
W/ i stoon
B
=g Find, giving reasons, and stating any other angles that you have had to find
2 first, the size of:
4 (a) angle BEA (c) angle ABE
=) (b) angle DBC (d) angle BDC
<=

-
 9 In this diagram AC is parallel to DH, angle BEF = 54°, angle BFG= 73° ®)
and BF = FG aw
(a)
i
o
A c S
=
ga
w
=
7.
©Ww
“
yo
a
<<
oa
[e)
5
4)

D LA fa H
G

Find, giving reasons and showing any other angles that you have to find,
the size of:
(a) angle ABE (b) angle FBE (c) angle GBC
10 ABCDE is part of a regular polygon with centre O. Angle COD = 30°

(a) Calculate the number of sides of the polygon.

(b) Calculate the size of:
(i) angle ODC (ii) angle CDE (iii) angle ECD
(c) Calculate the size of the angle marked:
(i) x (ii) y
 Hexeroneeareprecnacine poe B athey reseellare The rel of the honeycomb
built by honey bees are hexagonal.
A regular hexagon can be cut into six equilateral triangles. Look at these patterns
of hexagons.

2 hexagons 4 hexagons 4 hexagons

perimeter 10 perimeter 18 perimeter 14

There should be a connection between the number of hexagons and the

perimeter of the whole shape. However, the patterns with four hexagons have
different perimeters. What else is different about them?
In the shape with the larger perimeter, the hexagons are in a row.
In the shape with the smaller perimeter the hexagons are in a block with two
points completely enclosed in the shape.
Now look at these patterns.

6 hexagons 6 hexagons
perimeter 18 perimeter 20
4 enclosed points 3 enclosed points
”“
aie
1 On triangular spotted paper, draw as many groups of four hexagons as you
S _ can. Which has the shortest perimeter?
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the enclosed points for each.
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Try to write a formula for the perimeter, in terms of n and d.

 Scale drawings and
constructions
Architects and engineers use drawings to show their designs. These
need to be constructed very carefully. Many drawings are not full size.
Can you think of a reason for this? They may be scaled down to make
them smaller or scaled up to make them larger. When working with
scale you will need to use some of the methods that you learnt in
Chapter 11: Ratio.

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When you want to represent an object, diagram or plan, it is rarely

possible to draw it at its full size but you can draw it to scale.

This plan of an apartment is 7cm wide but the real apartment is

14 metres wide.
So each centimetre on the plan represents two metres on the floor.
The scale is 1cm to 2m.
 You can write this as a ratio by expressing both parts in the same
units and then writing it in its lowest terms.

Example
Convert the scale of 1cm to 2m to a ratio in its lowest terms.

Scale 1cm to 2m=1cm: 200cm

=1:200

Exercise 14.u
ws map isheer sO ‘that 11cmpeste 1km. What is the scale as a ratio?
A plan is drawn so that 1cm represents 1m. What is the scale as a ratio?
A map is drawn so that 1cm represents 500 m. What is the scale as a ratio?
eeA diagram
ee is drawn so that 2cm represents 10cm. What is the scale as
a ratio?
A plan is drawn so that 1cm represents 5m. What is the scale as a ratio?
A map is drawn so that 1cm represents 5km. What is the scale as a ratio?
A diagram is drawn so that 2cm represents 1m. What is the scale as a ratio?
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on A map is drawn so that 4cm represents 1km. What is the scale as a ratio?

Look back at the plan of the apartment.

The scale is 1 : 200 so 1cm represents 200cm (2m).
Therefore: If the bedroom is 5m wide, the width on the plan will be
wn 2.51eM.
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SS represents. Make sure you set out your working carefully, as shown in
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| am drawing a plan of my classroom to a scale of 1: 50
(i) My classroom is 5m wide. How wide will it be on the plan? suisp
ayeos
(ii) On the plan, | have a teacher's desk that is 4cm long. How long is the real desk?
(i) Scale is 1:50
_1cm represents 50cm First find out what 1cm represents.
The width of the classroom is 5m (500 cm).
The scaled length of the classroom is
500+ 50= 10cm The scaled length is smaller so divide.
(ii) The scaled length of the desk is 4m.
The length of the real desk=4x50cm The scaled length is larger so multiply.
= 200cm
=2m

Exercise 14.2
1 | have drawn a plan of my bedroom to a scale of 1: 50
(a) What does 1cm on my plan represent?
(b) My bed is 2m long. What length is it on my plan?
(c) On my plan, my desk is 1.2 cm wide. How wide is it really?
(d) My plan is 10cm by 14cm. What are the actual
measurements of my bedroom?
(e) | have two chairs in my bedroom. How many chairs should
there be on my plan?
2 A model train has been built to a scale of 1: 100
(a) What is the length of a real carriage, if a model carriage is 12cm long?
(b) What is the length of the real goods van, if the model is 20cm long?
(c) What is the length of the model engine, if the real engine is 15m long?
(d) What is the diameter of a model wheel, if the real wheels are 1m in
diameter?
(e) If the model has four carriages, how many carriages does the real train
have?
3 This seed is drawn to a scale of 5: 1
seed.
Measure the diameter of the drawing and find the diameter of the real
 4 This is the image of a hair from an insect’s body, enlarged by a scale of 20: 1
Measure the length of the drawing of the hair then calculate the real length
of the hair, in millimetres.

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dha AAI TO
5 Amap is drawn to a scale of 1: 10000
(a) What does 1cm on the map represent?
(b) What distance in the map represents a real distance of 4km?
(c) On the map, the distance from the church to the post office is 3.2.cm.
What is this distance on the ground?
(d) On Monday we walked 2.4km. What distance is this on the map?
(e) There are two churches on the map. How many are there in reality?
6 | want to draw a map of a field that is 600m by 1.4km on a piece of paper
that is 20cm by 30cm. What scale should | use? (You may need to try a few
scales before you get your answer!)
7 !am building a model boat to a scale of 1: 20
(a) What does 1cm on the model represent?
(b) What length on the model represents 1 metre on the real boat?
(c) The masts are 6m and 7.5m tall. How long are they on my model?
(d) There are two masts on the model. How many are there on the real boat?
8 | want to make a scale model of another boat that was built a long time ago
and was therefore measured in imperial units. | find that a scale of 1:24
makes more sense because there are 12 inches in a foot.
(a) What does 1 inch on the model represent?
(b) If the boat was 20 feet long, what length is my model?
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Copy the diagram and work through the steps to bisect the angle ABC. nn
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Step 1: Open your compasses to a radius of about 4m. Place the point on B
and draw two arcs, one on AB and one on BC.

B
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Step 2: Without changing the setting of your compasses, place the point on the
place where the arc cuts AB and draw another arc, then put the point on
the place where the arc cuts BC and draw an arc to cut the first.
b

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Step 3: Draw a line from B through the point of intersection of the arcs and
label it BD.

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ZABD = ZDBC
A
Why does the construction work?
p
Label the points where the arcs cut the lines AB and BC
as P and Q
Join DP and DQ
Q
As BP = BQ = DP = DQ the quadrilateral BPDQ is a rhombus.
 Do you remember the properties of the diagonals of a rhombus?
@ The diagonals bisect each other.
@ The diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
@ The diagonals bisect the angles.
Therefore, since the construction makes the sides of the angle into the
sides of a rhombus, the diagonal must be the angle bisector.

Bisecting a line
Look at this rhombus. It is positioned so that the diagonal PQ is
horizontal.

Therefore the diagonal AD bisects the diagonal PQ and is perpendicular Remember:

to it. perpendicular means
‘at right angles to’.
Then AD is the perpendicular bisector of PQ.
To construct a perpendicular bisector of any line, you make the line
into the diagonal of a rhombus.
Copy the diagram of the line PQ and work through the steps to bisect it.
rs

rv, Step 1: Open your compasses to a radius that is a little greater than half the
a
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the points to draw
the quadrilateral —
PXOQY it would be a
Y rhombus, but you do
not need to draw it.
Dropping a perpendicular from a point to a line
Now you are going to draw a line from a point X to meet line AB at
right angles.
Copy the diagram of the line AB and the point X above it. Then work
through the steps to draw the perpendicular from X to AB.
 Step 1: Open your compasses to a radius that is a little greater than the
distance from X to AB. Place the compass point on X and draw two arcs
to cross AB.

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Step 2: Close your compasses slightly, to a radius that is just over half the
distance between the two arcs. Put the compass point at the point
where one arc crosses AB and draw a new arc below the line. Now put
the compass point on the point where the other arc crosses AB and
draw an arc to cross the first one. Label this point Y.

Step 3: Join XY and label the point where XY crosses AB as P. XP is perpendicular

to AB.
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previous construction, but this would take up more space on the page. Cc
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This makes an isosceles arrowhead. Its diagonals have the same

properties as those of a kite.

Exercise 14.3
1 (a) Draw an acute angle in your book. Construct the bisector of your angle.
Check your accuracy by measuring the angles with a protractor.
(b) Draw a line PQ halfway across your exercise book. Construct its
perpendicular bisector. Check your accuracy by measuring the angle
with a protractor and the line with a ruler.

(c) Draw another line AB on your exercise book. Mark a point X above it.
Construct a line perpendicular to AB from X. Check your accuracy by
measuring the angle with a protractor.
2 Repeat question 1 but draw a different angle, a different line PQ and a
different line AB and point X.
3 Draw an obtuse angle ABC of 130°. Construct the angle bisector.
4 Draw aline XY 8cm long. Construct its perpendicular bisector.
5 Drawa line AB 10cm long. Mark a point P 5cm above it. Construct a line
perpendicular to AB from point P.
6 (a) Construct an equilateral triangle ABC with sides of 8cm. Construct all
the angle bisectors.
(b) What do you notice? Explain what you have found.
(c) Measure the distance from where the angle bisectors meet to the sides
AB, BC and AC. What do you notice? Draw a circle that just touches AB,
BC and AC.
ct the
7 (a) Construct an equilateral triangle POR with sides of 10cm. Constru
perpendicular bisectors of all the sides.

(b) What do you notice? Explain what you have found.

rs meet
(c) Measure the distance from where the perpendicular bisecto
passes
to sides PQ, PR and RP. What do you notice? Draw a circle that
through P, Q and R.
and ZABC = 65°
8 Construct triangle ABC in which AB = 8cm, BC = 9cm
touches AB, BC and AC.
Construct all the angle bisectors. Draw a circle that just
 9 Construct triangle DEF with DE = 7cm, EF = 5.5cm and DF = 6cm. Construct
the perpendicular bisectors of all the sides. Draw a circle that passes through
D, E and F.

10 Construct triangle POR in which PQ = 7.2cm, ZPQR = 55° and ZQPR = 42°
Draw a circle that passes through P, Q and R.

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Think back to what you know about angles. In day-to-day life, you
will see angles in many situations. One example is in navigation. The
captain of a boat or an aeroplane relies on navigation all the time.
The most useful tool in navigation is a simple instrument called
a magnetic compass — this is quite different from the pair of
compasses you used in the last exercise. Compasses come in many
styles, but you will probably be most familiar with these.

Inside the compass there is a magnetic pointer that is free to turn

about its centre. The end with the arrow always points to magnetic
north. Around the rim of the compass there is a scale, from 0 to
360, similar to that on a circular protractor. To use the compass on
the right, above, you hold it horizontally so that the arrow on the
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= rectangular base plate points to a landmark such as a spire. Then you
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clockwise from north.
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- map or chart with a compass and a bearing to identify where you are.
For example, if you see that there is a lighthouse on a bearing of 045°
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Note that, as your own position is not marked on the map, you When you are using
cannot draw the north line from where you are, so you draw it at the bearings, angles such
lighthouse. Mark the angle at the lighthouse and draw the line along as 45° are identified
the bearing. You know that you must be on the line somewhere. by three figures,
045° (zero-four-five
If you can do the same with another two landmarks, you can identify degrees) in this case.
your own position uniquely.
Remember that you can use a set square to draw north lines, and
use your ruler as a straight edge, so that you can slide the set square
along it and keep north lines parallel.
N

line, then slide

Line the set square up on the ruler, against the north
the set square along the ruler.
 Exercise 14.4 o
1 The nearer mane a map showing a yacht in the middle of a bay. Around
it are another boat, a tanker, a lighthouse and a hilltop. Find the bearing of
each one from the yacht’s position.

Hilltop

£ ~~ Tanker
Lighthouse
‘Scale 1cm to 100m

For the lighthouse and the hilltop you will have to put the protractor
the other way round and add 180° to the reading. ;
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ear
S) carefully with 000° and then you can read all four bearings without
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Not to be used for navigation

Trace over the outline of the land on the chart (the line between the yellow
and the green).
3 On your tracing, mark the hotel and the radio mast on the north shore and
the water tower on the south bank.
4 Amanon the yacht measures the bearing of the radio mast as 052°
Construct the line along which the yacht will lie.
5 Awoman on the yacht measures the bearing of the water tower as 245°
Construct the line along which the yacht will lie.
6 The man on the yacht measures the bearing of the hotel as 345°. Mark the
position of the yacht.
7 Compare the tracing to the chart. Is the yacht in the main channel?

Using scale diagrams

You can use bearings to draw scale diagrams representing positions
and journeys.
ma: oe
Example
Draw pointA,which is 35 metres from point B ona
bearing of 110° ona scale of 1cm to 10m.
i We
 E xercise 14.5
Draw diagrams to show these points. Use the scales stated.
1 Draw a point P that is 7m from point Q on a bearing of 045°, using a scale of
1cm to 1m.
2 Draw a pointA that is 800 m from point B on a bearing of 127°, using a scale
of 1cm to 100m.
3 Draw a point X that is 120m from point Y on a bearing of 175°, using a scale
of 1cm to 10m.
4 Draw a point M that is 60m from point N on a bearing of 200°, using a scale
of 1cm to 10m.
5 Draw a pointA that is 750m from point B on a bearing of 312°, using a scale
of 1: 10000
6 Draw a point R that is 6.5m from point S on a bearing of 163°, using a scale of
1: 100
7 Draw a point V that is 72m from point W on a bearing of 035°, using a scale
of 1:1000
8 Draw a point P that is 8.6km from point Q on a bearing of 287° using a scale
of 1cm to 1km.
9 In question 1 and question 8 measure the bearings of Q from P and in
question 2 and question 5 measure the bearings of B from A.

Calculating bearings
When you learned about angles formed by transversals and parallel
lines you discovered you could find pairs of equal angles and pairs of
angles that add up to 180°

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> pairs of equal angles and pairs of angles that add up to 180°
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You can use this method to calculate previously unknown angles and
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2 Mark the given angle and the one you are trying to find. f
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3 Use letters to mark any other angles that you may need to calculate. =
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4 Give your answer as a three-figure bearing. aT
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If the bearing of A from B is 140°, what is the bearing of B from A?
Draw a sketch showingA and B and the north lines.
Let the angle between AB and the north line at A be x
N Then x= 180° — 140° Co-interior angles add
= 40° up to 180°

The bearing of B from A = 360°— 40° _——Angles at a point

= 320° add up to 360°

Exercise 14. 6
i the peas ofA romeBiis5 120°,what is the bearing of B from A?
2 If the bearing of P from Q is 072°, what is the bearing of Q from P?
3. If the bearing of X from Y is 213°, what is the bearing of Y from X?
4 If the bearing of M from N is 298°, what is the bearing of N from M?
5 Ayacht race is in the shape of an isosceles triangle, N
with base angles equal to 63°, starting from point P.
The first mark, Q is on a bearing of 055° from P.
Calculate the bearing of:
(a) R from Q
(b) PfromR
(c) R from P.
 6 | have to run a square course starting from point A.
The first corner, B, is on a bearing of 200° from A.
(a) Calculate the bearing of:
(i) CfromB
(ii) D from C
(iii) A from D.
(b) I sprain my ankle when | get to C and hobble
back to A. What is the bearing of A from C?

7 Look at this plot of a ship’s course. PQ is equal

to OR.

(a) Calculate the bearing of:

(i) PfromQ
(ii) Q from R.
The ship is in trouble when it reaches R and an
emergency helicopter is sent out from P.
(b) What is the bearing of R from P?

8 A ship sails from Ayport on a course of 127° to a

point B, then turns 90° anticlockwise. What is its
new bearing?
Ww
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A?)
~ many degrees did it turn and in what direction?
3)
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° 6km, then turn 120° clockwise, walk another 6km and turn 120° clockwise.
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on the page sensibly and also make sure that you have the correct
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| start from a pointA and walk 100m on a bearing of 110° to B. fa
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| then walk 75m on a bearing of 040° to C. =.
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From your drawing, measure the distance and bearing of A from C. =
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AC = 14.4cm, which represents 144m

Angle measured at C is 99°
360° — 99° = 261°
To find the bearing subtract this angle from 360°
Distance AC = 144m
The bearing ofA from C is 261°
 Exercise 14.7
Make a scale drawing for each question. Draw a sketch first. Mark your scale
drawing with the given information and do not forget to answer the question.
1 Look again at the last example. Draw the sketch, and make the scale drawing
for yourself. Check that your measurements agree.
2 Aship sails on a bearing of 125° from a port A. Another ship starts from —
port B, 15 km due south of A, at the same time, and sails at a bearing of 070°
(a) Draw a sketch to show the relative positions of the two ships.
(b) Draw a line to the left of your page. Mark point A and then construct a
line to show the first ship’s journey.
(c) Using a scale of 1cm to 1km, plot point B on your drawing. Now
construct a line to show the journey of the second ship.
(d) By measuring the distance and the correct angle, find the distance and
bearing of A from the point P where the two ships’ paths pass.
3 | am standing by a tree A and | see a red kite on a bearing of 210°. My friend
is standing by tree B, 400 metres to the west of me, and he sees the kite on a
bearing of 142°
(a) Draw a sketch of the relative positions of my friend, the kite and me.
(b) Draw a line across the top of your page. Use a scale of 1cm to 50 metres
and mark points A and B.
(c) Now draw the two lines from A and B to find the position of the bird.
(d) Measure the distance from the bird to point B. Remember to turn your
measurement back into metres.
4 | walk 300m from A on a bearing of 310° to a point B, and then | walk 400m
on a bearing of 220° to point C.

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(a) Draw a sketch of the relative positions of A, B and C.
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1S) (b) Draw a north line from point A to the right of your page. Use a scale of
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1cm to 50 metres and mark point B.
—
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1S) (d) Measure the distance AC then find the distance, in metres, from A to C.
B)
°
© (e) Measure the appropriate angle and find the bearing of C from A.
7)
>>) 5 The first leg of a yacht race is sailed from the start at X on a bearing of 072°
‘S
= for 4.5km to a buoy Y. The next leg of the course is to a buoy at Z, a distance
4 of 6.3km from X on a bearing of 164°. Draw a plan of the course to a scale of
v
—
3) 1cm to 0.5km. What is the length of the second leg and what is the bearing
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of Z from Y?
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6 (a) !am lost. | can see a road running from a farm to a white house. My map 7)
(9)
Draw the relative re)
—
says they are 4km apart and the farm lies on a bearing of 102° from the
positions of the farm a)
white house. If the farm is on a bearing of 124° from me, and the white a.
=
and the white house
house on a bearing of 238° from me, draw an accurate scale drawing
showing our relative positions. Choose a suitable scale.
first and then draw in 5=
my position. ga
(b) Work out my shortest distance to the road by constructing a line from my pe}
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position that is perpendicular to the road from the farm to the white house. T
iw’)
7 Ayacht leaves Ayport and sails for 8km on a bearing of 102°. It then changes re)
2p
direction and sails for 5km on a bearing of 138°. Here it runs into difficulties. =)
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7)
Beeport is 10km due south of Ayport. A lifeboat leaves Beeport and heads for
the yacht. How far does the lifeboat have to go and on what bearing should
it travel?
The previous exercises all involved angles. Sometimes we have
angle problems that are best solved using algebra. First identify the
unknown quantity with a letter and use known facts to write an
equation. Solve the equation to solve the problem.

Exercise 14.8 ;
1 The hands of a 12-hour clock move at different speeds. In one hour the
minute hand will have gone a full circle, turning through 360°, but the hour
hand will have gone through one twelfth of a full circle, turning through 30°.
At what times will the angle between the hands of the clock be exactly 90°?
2 The time is m minutes past four.
(a) How many degrees round from 12 is the minute hand of the clock, in
terms of m?
(b) How many degrees round from 12 is the hour hand of the clock, in terms
of m?
(c) At m minutes past four, the hour and minute hand are in exactly the same
place. Form an equation in m and solve it.
(d) Give the time to the nearest minute.
(e) What is the angle between the hands 15 minutes later?
O and less
3 (a) The bearing of point X from point Y is b°, and b is greater than
than 90. What is the bearing of Y from X in terms of b?
your
(b) Is your answer the same if b lies between 090 and 180? Explain
answer carefully.
270?
(c) What is the bearing of Y from X if lies between 180 and
360?
(d) What is the bearing of Y from X if lies between 270 and
B is y°. Both x and y lie
4 The bearing ofA from B is x° and the bearing of C from
to BC.
between 0 and 180 and y is greater than x. AB is equal
Find the bearing of C from A in terms of x and y.
 5 ABD is an isosceles triangle with base angles equal to y°.
BCD is an isosceles triangle with the angle at the apex equal
tox.
(a) Write angle CBD in terms of x.
(b) Write angle ADB in terms of y.
(c) Given that AB is parallel to CD write a simple formula
EX
Oem B
fory in terms of x.
(d) Suppose AD is parallel to BC write a formula forx in terms of y.
(e) Suppose AD is parallel to BC write a formula for z in terms of x.
6 ABCDEF is a semi-regular hexagon. The sides are equal but the F .
angles are not.
(a) Given that angle FAB is 80° find the size of: A
(i) angle ABF (ii) angle ABC (iii) angle ABD.
(b) Given that angle FAB is 100° find the size of: : A
(i) angle ABF (ii) angle ABC (iii) angle ABD.
(c) Given that angle FAB is x° find the size of:
(i) angle ABC (ii) angle ABF (iii) angle ABD.

Summary Exercise 14.9

1 (a) A map is drawn so that 1cm represents 200m. What is the scale as a
ratio?
(b) A map is drawn to a ratio of 1 : 50 000. What does 1cm on the map
represent?
2 Aplan is drawn to a scale of 1: 50
Ww
°
(a) Aroom is drawn 10cm by 8cm. What are its true dimensions?
ae)
far)
.S)
(b) A single bed is 2m by 1m. What will its dimensions be on the plan?
|
~
peg (c) There are two windows drawn on the plan, how many windows are there
WH
SS in the actual room?
ie)
U
a, 3 (a) Construct a triangle ABC such that AB = 10cm, AC = 6cm and BC = 8cm.
pe
Li)
iv)
_(b) Construct the bisector of ZACB.
L=>)
< (c) Construct the perpendicular bisector of AB.
>
Ne (d) Construct another copy of triangle ABC and construct the line CP that
1)
ie) meets AB at P and is perpendicular to AB.
—
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a
4 (a) Using a scale of 1cm to 1km, draw point Q, 7.5km from point P ona
bearing of 127°
Sw

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(b) Measure the bearing of P from Q.
 Za)
5 Given that the bearing of A from B is 217°, N (9)
what is the bearing of B from A? @
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6 ABC is an equilateral triangle, andthe N

bearing of B from A is 110°
Give the bearing of:
(a) CfromA o 10)

(b) B from C.

7 Ona geography field trip, we walked for 4.5km on a bearing of 129° from the
base camp. Simon wrote down the directions incorrectly. He walked for 5.4km
on a bearing of 192°
(a) Draw a sketch to show the relative positions of the base camp, B, my
group, G, and Simon, S.
(b) Using a scale of 2cm to 1km, make an accurate scale drawing to show
the positions of B, G and S.
(c) Simon has to come and find us. From your drawing, measure GS and find
out how far he has to walk.
has
(d) Measure the bearing of G from S to find the direction that Simon
to walk.
runs between
8 Reaton lies 2 km from Toytown on a bearing of 235°. A track
position, the
them. A boy scout has got lost. He works out that, from his
is 192°
bearing of Toytown is 105° and the bearing of Reaton
n, T, Reaton, R, and
(a) Draw a sketch to show the relative positions of Toytow
the scout, S.
scale drawing to show
(b) Using a scale of 5 cm to 1 km, draw an accurate
the positions of R, Tand S.
lar to RT, calculate the
(c) By constructing a line from S and perpendicu
to join the track.
shortest distance the scout has to walk
 Imagine that you are the pirate, Black-eyed Jack. You are going to bury your
ill-gotten treasure on a desert island.
First draw a map of the island. Put in lots of detail.
N

Cape of
No Hope

Dead Man's
Island
Fingal’s
Shark Bay
Point

Now decide where your treasure is to be buried.

The next thing you have to do is to write some instructions so that Lucky Jim can
discover the treasure. The instructions must not be too easy, and should use both
bearings and compass directions. To follow the instructions, the map will need a
scale. This could be in kilometres, leagues or even paces.
For example:
”“ e Start at the stricken pine tree.
=
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(S)
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Le) e Walk fifteen paces on a bearing of 312°
5)
Be) e@ Walk north until you meet the coast.
S
La]
“wn
S
e@ Turn south-west and take five paces.
&
@ There lies the treasure!
-
—
Uv Once you are happy with your set of instructions, give them, with your map, toa
a friend. Can they find the treasure? Or were your instructions not clear enough?
i)
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DS
a
 ) Straight-line graphs

A graph is a diagram showing the relationship between certain

quantities plotted on a grid, with reference to a set of axes.

The axes are very important. When drawing, or looking at, a graph,
you should always start with the axes. You must label the axes -
carefully to show what each one represents.
This is a co-ordinate grid of y
against x.
The x-axisis numbered from ~3 to 4

and the y-axis is numbered from

SL GOs)
The grid is drawn on squared
paper and, on each axis, one unit
is represented by the side of one
square.

Now look at this graph. The word graph

is often used to describe the illustration
on the left. This consists of a grid with
axes and the red line. The red line is also
eters: known as a graph.

= Reet
ae
This is drawn on graph paper, which has
darker and lighter lines.

ae
km
in
Distance
The horizontal axis shows time in hours,

ae
with 1 unit made up of of ten small
squares representing 1 hour.
The vertical axis represents distance with
Time in hours 1 unit made up of of five small squares
representing 10 kilometres.
y of 40 km taking 4 hours.
The red line is a graph of distance against time. It shows a journe
 Any point on a graph has two co-ordinates.
The co-ordinates are written as a pair of numbers, in brackets. The
horizontal co-ordinate always comes first.
To remember this, think of how you wake up horizontal — then you
stand up to become vertical.

POR R CERO eC E TORE E TESS SETS SET TSE SH EES EESES SOS EHEEOHS OSES ESSE HSH ESH EE EESES EHH OSES EEE SE SESES OSES ESOESS

Look at this grid. A point on the grid can be identified exactly and
uniquely by a pair of co-ordinates.

These points are on the x-axis: These points are on the y-axis:
A(-3, 0) BC IF0) E(0, 4) F(0, 2)
C(1, 0) D(4, 0) G(0, ~1)
All the points on the x-axis, All the points on the y-axis have
have a y-co-ordinate of 0 an x-co-ordinate of 0
Therefore the x-axis is the line y = 0 and the y-axis is the line x = 0

Copy this co-ordinate grid into your exercise book.

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 1 Plot these points. 2)
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A (3, 1) B (3, 0) C (0, 3) a)
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D (2, 0) E (0, 2) F (2,1)

~
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=
a
G (1, 0) H (1, 4) 1(G,. 1) @
ct
2 List the points that lie on the x-axis. oO
ct
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3 List the points that lie on the y-axis. @
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( ).Graphs parallel to the axes

PrP eeeeeey COUT eee (LPP eee eee rere rere err errrrvrrrererr

In this next exercise we are going to look at graphs parallel to the

x-axis and y-axis and find the rule or equation for each one of them.

Example
Write down the co-ordinates of
each of the lettered points. From
peta
cae ae ie
these, write down the equation of
that line. Porat 2
A (2, 3) B (0,3) C(2,3) D (4,3)
All the y-co-ordinates are 3
n the line
_ Therefore the equatioof
isy=3 et ee

line are marked

On each grid there is a straight-line graph. Some points on the
by letters.
write down the
Write down the co-ordinates of the lettered points. From these,
equation of the line.
“SEE uvMEan 2
 7. 8

ve)
<= Points of intersection
ae
14)
— A point of intersection is the point where two lines meet or cross.
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AS Now that you know about the equations of lines you can draw some
a
~w lines on a grid and consider points of intersection.
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Draw six co-ordinate grids with each pair of axes both numbered from ~4 to 4 ga
Wn
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Use one pair of axes for each of questions 1 to 6 is)
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1 Draw the lines given by the equations x = 3, y="1 ie)
=
Write down the co-ordinates of the point where the two lines intersect. ga
=
Qa.
Draw the lines given by the equations x = ~2, y=0 n

Write down the co-ordinates of the point where the two lines intersect.
Draw the lines given by the equations x = 4, y= 1
Write down the co-ordinates of the point where the two lines intersect.
Draw the lines given by the equations x = “2, y=x
Write down the co-ordinates of the point where the two lines intersect.
Draw the lines given by the equations x = 0, y= 3
Write down the co-ordinates of the point where the two lines intersect.
Draw the lines given by the equations x = 2, y= "x
Write down the co-ordinates of the point where the two lines intersect.

You can draw more than one line on the same co-ordinate grid.
When you draw lines that intersect, the area between them is a region.
Sometimes the lines you draw will intersect in such a way as to form a
closed shape.

Example
Draw a co-ordinate grid with both axes
numbered from ~4 to 4
Draw the four lines given by the equations
x= "2, v= Lee24y= 3

Name the shape enclosed by the four lines

and find its area.
The shape is a square.
Area =4x4

= 16 square units
 Exercise 15.4
1 Soran cateranere and x number both axes from “3 to 3
Draw the four lines given by the equations x ="2, y="1,x=1,y=2
Work out the area of the square formed by the four lines.
2 Draw aco-ordinate grid and number both axes from “4 to 4
Draw the four lines given by the equations x = 4, y="2,x = "3, y=3
Name the shape formed by the four lines and work out its area.
3 Draw a co-ordinate grid and number both axes from ~4 to 4. Draw the four
lines given by the equations x = 3, y="1,x= 2, y=4
Name the shape formed by the four lines and work out its area.
4 Draw a co-ordinate grid and number both axes from ~3 to 3. Draw the three
lines given by the equations x = 2, y="1, y=x
Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the three lines.
5 Draw a co-ordinate grid and number both axes from ~5 to 5. Draw the three
lines given by the equations x = 1, y=4, y="2
Draw a fourth line so that the four lines form the outline of a rectangle of
area 30 square units. Write down the equation of the fourth line.
6 Draw a co-ordinate grid and number both axes from ~4 to 4. Draw the three
lines given by the equations x = 3, y="2,x =~3
Draw a fourth line so that the four lines form the outline of a square. Write
down the equation of the fourth line and calculate the area of the square.

‘> Graphs that are not

SAPP
parallel to the axes
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Almost all the lines you have drawn so far have been parallel to the
x-axis or the y-axis.
The two exceptions were y=x and y="x
Both of these the lines ran through the origin (0, 0)
vn
<= Now look at this graph.
ial
as)
a The sloping line is straight; it does not pass through the
>>)
iB) origin but it does pass through the point (0, 3)
=
ar.
tw To find the equation for this line, start by looking at points
<
BS) that lie on the line.
ia)
as
~
— (3,0) (1,2) (0,3) (2,5)
Ww
™—
In each case, the y-co-ordinate is 3 more than the
x-co-ordinate.
From this information, you can work out the equation for the line.
The equation of the line is y=x + 3
Any straight line can be described by an equation.
If you know the equation of a line, you can calculate points on the
line.
For the line y=x +3
B®When += 0, then'y= 0 +3
=3
@ when x = 2, theny=2+3
=5 sydeiy
Jayj}es
yey
ase
Jou
0}
34}
SaXe

@ when x =4, theny=4+3

=7

Now you can plot the points (0, 3), (2, 5) and (4, 7) and draw a line
through them to represent the graph of the equation y =x + 3
Before you do this, though, practise some substitution.

Example
Given the equation y= 2x, find the value of y when x is 2
When x=2
ye Ki
=4

1 Given the equation y= 3x, find the value of y when x is:

(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 0

2 Given the equation y=x + 5, find the value of y when x is:

(a) 3 (b) 0 (c) 7 (d) 2

is:
3 Given the equation y= 7 — x, find the value of y when x

(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 0 (d) 3

x is:
4 Given the equation y= 2x+ 3, find the value of y when

(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 7 (d) 0

 5 Given the equation y= : , find the value ofywhen x is:

(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 0 (d) 1

Substituting negative numbers Always use brackets

The values of unknowns such as x may be negative. Just remember the round negative
rules for negative numbers. numbers, so that you
do not confuse the
rey eye ey x el 4 signs associated with
the numbers with the
eye 2) = Gee (2) (rc) operators +, —.

2) =32 +(2)="2 (a2 ane — (2) ="*2,082

Example
Given the equation y = 3x + 3, find the value of ywhen x is ~2 You can do this in
y=3x(2)+3 your head. You do not
need to write down
=(6)+3
the calculation.

E xercise 15.6
1 lpentte equation 2 BX; find the value of y when x is:

(a) “1 (b) ~4 (c) 2 (d) 0

2 Given the equation y= 3x — 2, find the value ofywhen x is:

(a) ~2 (b) 0 (c) ~3 (d) 1

3 Given the equation y= 3 + x, find the value of y when x is:

(a) “4 (b) “1 (c) 0 (d) “3

4 Given the equation y= 2 — x, find the value of y when x is:

(a) “1 (b) -3 (c) 0 (d) 1

“n
<= 5 Given the equation y= 1 — 3x, find the value ofywhen x is:

(a) 71 (b) 0
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( ).Drawing the graph of an equation
eee Sree eee ee ree ere ereee reer ree rere eee eee eee

To draw a graph from an equation, you need to plot at least two

points. It is sensible to plot at least three points, though, to make
sure that you have not made a mistake.

Step 1: First write down the equation.

Step 2: Next choose at least three values for x and write them in a
table.
Step 3: Then calculate and write down the corresponding values of y,
in the same table. suime
ydess
uoije
ay}
jo
ue
Step 4: Finally, draw the graph. Plot each point with a dot or (better)
a cross.
Step 5: Join the dots or crosses to draw the graph of the line.

Example
Draw a graph of the equation y=x+2

Plot the points (~2, 0), (~1, 1), (0, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4)
Then draw the line and label it.

Finding other values

x and y that
When you have drawn a line, you can find other values of
the value
lie on that same line. To do this, draw a dotted line from
you reach the
you are given to the line you have just drawn. When
This gives you
line, draw another dotted line back to the other axis.
the value you are looking for.
 Example ©
From the graph of y =x + 2, find:
(i) the value of y when x = 2.5
(ii) the value of xwhen y= 1.5

(i) Whenx=2.5, y=4.5

(ii) Wheny= 1.5,x=~0.5

Exercise 15.7 }
For each equation, copy and complete this table of values for x and y.

1 Drawa graph of y=x-2

2 (a) Drawa graph of y= 2x+1
(b) From your graph find:
(i) the value of ywhen x = 1.5
(ii) the value of x when y = 2
3 (a) Drawa graph of y=3-x

“
(b) From your graph find:
<=
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os
(i) the value of y when x =~0.5
<=
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(ii) the value of xwhen y = 2.5
—
— 4 (a) Drawa graph of y= 1+ 3x
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(b) From your graph find:
i
ph (i) the value of y when x = 2.5
~
~Y
(ii) the value of xwhen y=5
LA
=
For more complicated equations you may find that an extra row of working helps 1)
=
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you to calculate the value of y.
=)
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5 (a) Copy and complete this table of values for the equation y = 2x — 3 ga
ct
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ga
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(b) Draw a graph of y = 2x — 3 =|
is?)
(c) From your graph find: He)
(=
pe)
(i) the value of ywhen x = 1.5 (a
ie)
5
(ii) the value of x when y=~2
6 (a) Copy and complete this table of values for the equation y = 4 — 2x

(b) Draw a graph of y=4- 2x

(c) From your graph find:
(i) the value of ywhen x=~1.5
(ii) the value of x when y= 5
7 (a) Draw up a table of values for the equation y= 2— 5x with values of x
from ~3 to 3
(b) Draw a graph of y=2- .
(c) From your graph find:
(i) the value ofywhen x = 1.5
(ii) the value of x when y= 0.75
of x
8 (a) Draw up a table of values for the equation y = - — 3 with values
from ~3 to 3
(b) Draw a graph of y= a -3
(c) From your graph find:
(i) the value of y when x = 1.5
(ii) the value of x when y= "1.5
 Before you move on, look again at this graph to remind yourself of
some of the things it tells you and how you can work out the equation
for the line.
4 =

The sloping line is straight, but does not pass through the origin.
Points that lie on the line include (~3, 0), (~1, 2), (0, 3) and (2, 5)
In each case, the y-co-ordinate is 3 more than the x-co-ordinate.
The equation of the line is y= x + 3

7,
Write down the co-ordinates of the points that lie on the line.
ey
Qa
ivy
From your list ofpoints decide whether the line is:
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(a) y=2x+3
<
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(b) y= ‘ +3
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» (c) y=x+3
ite}
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~~ Look at the graphs in the next four questions. In the same way as you treated the
—~A
one in question 1. Write out the co-ordinates of several points and then write
Ly
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down the equation of the line.
 suImes
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Look again at the lines in questions 1-5 and your answers.

Can you see any connection between your equations and the points where
the lines cut the y-axis?
Look again at the lines in questions 1-5 and your answers.
Can you see any connection between your equations and whether the lines
slope up to the right or up to the left?
Look again at the lines in questions 1-5 and your answers.
s of
Can you see any connection between your equations and the steepnes
the lines?
(a) Draw a co-ordinate grid with values of x and y from 5 to 5
(b) Draw graphs of these equations.
(i) y=0 (ii) y=2x-1 (iii) x ="1
lines.
(c) Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the three
~5 to 5
10 (a) Draw a co-ordinate grid with values ofxand y from
(b) Draw graphs of these equations.
(i) y=3 (ii) y=1-x
s triangle.
(c) Draw a third line so that the three lines form an isoscele
(d) Calculate the area of the triangle.
line.
(e) Write down the equation of the third
 11 (a) Draw a co-ordinate grid with values of x andyfrom ~5 to 5
(b) Draw graphs of these equations.
(i) y=x (ii) y=2x-4
(c) Draw a third line so that the three lines form a triangle of area 9 square
units.
(d) Write down the equation of the third line.

Summary Exercise 15.9

1 (a) cerns Sr Eind the value ofywhen x is 4
(b) Given the equation y = x — 3, find the value of y when x is ~2
(c) Given the equationy = 2x + 3, find the value of y when x is 2
(d) Given the equation y = 2x + 1, find the value ofywhen x is ~1
(e) Given the equation y = 1 — x, find the value of y when x is 4
(f) Given the equation y = 3 — x, find the value ofywhen x is ~3
(g) Given the equationy= . + 5, find the value of y when x is 4

2 Copy the graph and label each line.

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<3) '(b) Draw a co-ordinate grid and number the x-axis from ~2 to 2 and the
— y-axis from “8 to 2. On your grid, draw the graph
of the equation
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 (c) Where does this graph cross: Oo
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(i) the x-axis (ii) the y-axis? S.

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(d) From your graph find: ct
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(i) the value of y when x is 1.5 ga
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(ii) the value of x when y is -0.5 mo)
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Activity: Real-life graphs ; @o
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Many companies use graphs to try to sell their products. This is an example of a at
2)
bar graph about a brand of herbal bubble bath. —

LEVEL
TENSION

It appears from the graph that the herbal bath has a wonderful effect on tension
levels.
is
But look carefully at the vertical axis. That little zig-zag means that the scale
are no values given on the tension level
not continuous. Notice also that there
axis, so you don’t know how tension is measured.
The full graph could
actually look like this: or this: or even this:

ence at all. It is important

It could be that the herbal bath makes very little differ
selling lots of the product and
to remember that the company is interested in
at reducing stress levels,
wants you to feel as though their herbal bath is great
and is a bit misleading.
even if it does probably exaggerate the real effect
 1 Make a class collection of all the graphs and charts you can find that are
used to promote or advertise products. You will need to look in newspapers
and magazines, in product information and on packaging.
2 Divide the graphs into two groups, accurate and informative graphs and
misleading graphs. Write a short report on how the graphs are misleading.
3 Look again at the first group. Are you sure they are accurate? See if any of
them could be sneakily misleading after all.
4 Inasmall group, decide on a product you would like to market. Draw up two
graphs showing the wonderful properties or incredible popularity of your
product. One graph should be accurate, the other misleading. How sneaky
can you be?

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 )Handling data

Information is what mathematicians call data. They often find it as

the result of an experiment, a survey or by a series of measurements.
Data, just after it has been collected, is called raw data and is not
very useful. To make sense of it, you need to look at it in more detail
and form an analysis. It often helps to put the data into a chart or
table. The collection and analysis of data is known as statistics.

i ey trat dO: YOU KNOW 2c nee scatigianan

You should already know about various ways of collecting and
studying data.
Here is a quick review.

The range
The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest values
in the set of data.
Range = highest value — lowest value

The mean
The mean is what most people think of as the average. To find the
mean of n items of data you add up all the values and divide by 7.
Adding up all values is called finding the sum.
sum of all values
ee number of values
410+10+0
The mean of 5, 6, 10, 11 and 13 = 5+6
mee)
5
=i
 The mode
The mode is another average. It is the value that occurs most often,
or most frequently, in the set of data.
The number of times a value occurs in a set of data is called its
frequency.
The mode of the data set 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7 is 2
The mode is the only average that you can use for data that is non-
numeric, such as favourite colours or shoe sizes.

The median
This is the third type of average. If you list all the data values in
order, the median is the one that lies exactly in the middle.

Example
Find the median of the data set 3, 7, 2, 5, 7, 9, 4, 6, 8, 3, 7

Step 1: Write the numbers in order.

2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8,9 There are 11 numbers.
Step 2: Work out the middle number.
The median is the sixth (middle) number.
The median is 6

If there is an even number of items then the median will be the mean
of the two middle items.

Example
Find the median of the date set 3, 9, 8, 5, 1,5, 7,6

Step 1; Put the numbers in order.

1,3,5, (5, 6,) 7, 8,9 There are 8 numbers.
Step 2: The median is the mean of the fourth and fifth numbers.
The median is st8 5.5

© Now think about how you might use these calculations to analyse
iG
Ae)
D results in an experiment.
=
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=
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The pupils in Monty’s class have been growing bean plants.
—e
These are the heights, in centimetres, of the pupils’ plants. is)
Con
a
fo)
74 56 42 68 56 «K
le}
=
63 45 rah 43 62 =
5
fe)
56 56 54 70 67 =baa)
64 o's 61 48 62
Monty's plant is 68cm tall.
How does it compare with those of the rest of the class?
You can see that, when it is presented as an array of numbers, the
information doesn’t help Monty much.
Try finding the range, mean, mode and median of the heights of the
plants.
The range is the highest value — the lowest value = 74 — 42

= 326M
: the sum of all the heights
The mean height = “the number of plants
Beit 7p
20
= 585cm

To find the mode, it is helpful if you put all the values in order. You could
just count them up, by eye, but then you might miss out some values.
42 43 45 48 52 54 56 56 56 £56

61 62 62 63 64. «67 OSs Oe est 74

Now you can see that the number with the greatest frequency is 56
The mode is 56cm.
To work out the median, you need the middle value. As there are 20
data items this will be the mean of the 10th and 11th when they are
put in order.
The values are already in order, from the calculation of the mode.
The 10th and 11th values are 56cm and 61cm.
So the median is 26461 Z i
oS.
 Monty can now see that his plant, at 68cm, is well above the mean and
median heights of 58.5cm and, in fact, is very close to being the tallest.
The range is quite large, so the plants were probably treated in
different ways, since some are much larger than others.
Those plants with heights that are considerably below the mean
and median may not have had enough light or nutrients. Those with
heights that are far above the mean and median may have had some
special fertiliser.

Finding missing values

Sometimes you are given the average figure and a number of items,
and are asked to calculate the total of the values.
Then you need to rearrange the equation you use for calculating the mean.
sum of all values (where n is the number of
M
ean —
=. values being added)
To calculate the total, rearrange the equation to get:
mean x number of items = sum of all items or total

Exercise 16.il
1. Find theecon
mean,een and mode of each set of numbers.
(a) 3, 4,5, 6,6, 6, 7, 8,9
5) Pre ie rc ay
(c) 17, 19, 20, 20, 24, 25, 29
(d) 16, 18, 13, 15, 13, 18, 19
(e)°2.27-27°2:22,'°2.22/2:2,0.22, 0.22.22
2 Find the range, the mean, the median and the mode of each set of numbers.
(a) 98, 46, 65, 42, 38, 46
(b) 4.2, 5.2, 4.6, 5.0, 4.4, 4.9, 4.2, 4.6, 5.0, 4.2
(c) 100, 112, 104, 106, 108, 111, 104, 111
3 Find the range‘and the mean, median and mode for each set of numbers.
©
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(b) 255 92,48
2, ee anol
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4. 7 *
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16
 1
4 Every week my class has a mental maths test. These are my marks so far =
@o
this term. Ze)
ae
@)
14 18 15 Wg 16 18 14 Ss
(9)
<4
These are my friend Sam's marks. He was away last week and so he has one et
is)
fewer mark than | do. SE
w)
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te 18 sie 14 18 15 e¥)
S
ao.
Who has the higher mean? =
x
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5 These are the ages of six pupils. S
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=)
10 years 10 months, 11 years 5 months, 10 years 7 months, 10 years Oo
<
8 months, 11 years 1 month, 10 years 5 months (ae
m
What is the mean age of the pupils? ga
=

6 | sat six exams and my average mark was 63%. What was the total of all 3
wn

my marks?
7 Inscience | weigh samples of five compounds. The mean mass of these is
253g. What do they weigh altogether?
8 The seven players in our netball team have a mean mass of 43kg.
(a) What is the total mass of the team?
(b) Our substitute weighs 39kg. What is the total mass of the team,
including the substitute?
(c) What is the mean mass of the team if we include the substitute?

9 | have 10 numbers. Their range is 3. Their mode is 4, their mean is 5.5 and the
median is 6. What are the numbers?
10 The mean age of a class of 15 pupils is 12 years and 3 months.
(a) What is the sum of all our ages?
(b) Anew boy joins the class. The teacher recalculates the mean to include him
and finds that it is now 12 years 2.5 months. What is the new boy's age?

().Frequency,
eeeesoneempeceseses tables and frequency. diagrams...
It is often more helpful to look at a picture than to read a table of
numbers. In mathematics, you will use tables, diagrams and charts
to display data.
In a bar chart or frequency diagram, each bar represents a data
value or other piece of information and the height of the bar is the
frequency of that data value. A bar chart may also represent a range of
numbers, depending on what sort of information you are illustrating.
Before you can draw the chart, you need to sort the data to make
it easy to represent. You can do this by using tallies in a frequency
table. You will revise this technique in the next exercise.
 E xercise 16.2
1 ane a ers a a 25 for a recent French vocabulary test.
16 20 19 23 18 24 18 17
20 21 18 16 22 24 19 16
22 19 17 17 20 25 ail 16
(a) Copy and complete this frequency table to show the distribution of
the marks.
Frequency

(b) What is the range of marks?

(c) What are the mean, the mode and the median?
(d) What, if anything, does this tell you about the marks?
2 Our class has been growing bean plants from seed. These are the heights, in
centimetres, of the plants we have grown.
14 15 12 13 16 a5
We iW 13 16 15 14
15 Ue) 14 15 16 18
(a) Copy and complete this frequency table to show the information above.

Ae)
©
1)
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=
a)
a
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 nm
(b) What is the mean height of the plants? =
(9)
Ha)
(c) What is the range of heights? fs
(?)
=s
3 This frequency table shows the distribution of marks for a French O
4
vocabulary test. et
red)
Ze
(a) What was the range of the marks? (o>)
vn
ie)
(b) What was the mode? =)
(ah
=
(c) (i) How many pupils are there in the class? =
@
O
(ii) If the marks are put in order, which two would give you S
(a?)
>
the median? (9)
<<
(iii) What is the median? (It is not 15!) a.
mg
ga
=
(d) To find the mean you need to find the total of all 20 marks.
What is the total? (It is not 95!) 5
~

(e) Calculate the mean.

4 Here is a table showing another set of marks.

Score Frequency (a) Calculate the range, mode, median and mean of this
set of data.
(b) Draw a frequency diagram to show this information.
(c) Could you find the range, mode, median and mean from the
frequency diagram only? Explain your answer.

5 This frequency diagram shows the distribution of marks out of 10 for our
Latin test. My class is not very good at Latin!
(a) What was the range of the marks?
(b) What was the mode?
(c) What was the median?
(d) Calculate the mean.

pupils
of
No.
 6 | did a traffic survey for prep. | stood outside my house for 20 minutes and
filled in a tally chart to show how many vehicles passed me. Here are my
results.

Type of vehicle Frequency

Lorry

(a) Copy the table and complete the frequency column, then calculate the
total. What was the modal type of vehicle?
(b) Why can you not work out a median and a mean?

SCPC OOOH HEHE SE EE HEH SEH HOHE DEH EEO HES OSES ESOS OO SES SES ES ES EEHEO ESO ES OSES EEE ESEEEES

Sometimes the data you collect will have so many different values
that it would be difficult to represent it. In such a case, you can
group data together into ranges of values.
Look at the statistics about rainfall in the first two questions in the
next exercise. It would not be sensible to have a frequency for each
value, to the nearest millimetre (mm). In this type of example, you
should collect the individual data values together and put them into
sensibly sized groups.
When data is grouped, you cannot find a mode. Instead, you refer to
the group with the greatest frequency as the modal group.

Exercise 16.3
1 These figures record the daily rainfall, in centimetres, during April.
2.2 Semaine pets ae ee ee 289 16 25- 35° Sen
a) we 6.7 1:70 292" 2D KS 26s asl LeF’ a 6
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(a) Copy and complete this frequency table. @)
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fe}
(=
Rainfall (cm) Frequency Z.
=|
0a
a.
oY)
ct
ey}

(b) Draw a frequency diagram to show the daily rainfall during April.
This data shows the daily rainfall, in centimetres, over the month of June.
Draw a frequency table and then a frequency diagram to display this
information. Group the data as you did in question 1.
Lo 0 = 0 0.2 2.8 (Proms Loe 28 2
1.4 O 06 26 (Ie onda 1B: ISI oy to BM ty8 0 0.4
Z5° <0 0.3 pee 0:8 351 ie Ta Nota) Lf lS
(a) Using the information in question 1 and question 2, find the range and
the mean rainfall for each of the months of April and June.
(b) Identify the modal group for each month.
(c) What do all your results tell you about the two months?
Pupils in my year were asked to hold their breath for as long as possible. This
frequency table shows the results.

Time (seconds) Tally Frequency

[uw 8
fase
(a) How many pupils are there in the year?
(b) Draw a frequency diagram to illustrate this information.
(c) What is the modal group?
(d) | pick one of the class at random. What is the probability that this pupil
held their breath for between 44.5 and 54.4 seconds?
(e) Do the same experiment with your class. Draw a frequency diagram to
show your results.
(f) Compare your results with those above. What are the differences?
 5 These are the percentage marks of 32 boys who took a maths exam.
56 64 78 58 90 72 55 90
62 63 TAS 68 83 94 52 81

86 67 87 73 78 82 66 74

63 76 81 70 67 78 71 79

(a) What is the mean percentage? What is the median mark?

Because most of the marks are different, finding the mode for this set of
data is not sensible, nor is it sensible to draw a bar chart from these results.
Instead, you need to group the marks together to get a better picture of the
distribution.
(b Work out the groups that you need and draw a frequency table.
(c What is the modal group?
—w
—

(d) Draw a frequency diagram of this distribution.

(e These are percentage marks for another set of 16 papers.
—

55 62 58 71 By 80 64 50

a 60 72 74 62 66 58 61

Draw another frequency table to show all 48 marks, and then draw another
frequency diagram.
(f) What are the differences in the frequency diagrams?
(g What are the new mean, median and modal group?
(h=<
— If the new set of 16 papers come from another class, what does that tell you
about the two classes?

Pie charts
PO COOR MOCO OO OREO EEOCROO DECOR CO OCOD EHO EEOC OOOO EOCC DECC EEOC O EEOC ORC EOECCee Eee E eS UOC ORC OO eeEseeeeceeeeece

A pie chart is a circular diagram that is divided into slices, hence the
name.
Pie charts show the proportions of the various categories of data that
make up the whole data set. For example, local government may provide
households with a breakdown of how the money taken in local taxes is
spent on education, housing and services such as transport and waste
ay}
disposal. .
®
me) This is an example from North Lanarkshire.
L=>)
S
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ae
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™
Council Budget 2015/2016 (Net) a
io)
fa)
=
(Education £266.8m @
=|
ct
n

BB Social Work £109.2m

[ ] Community Services £75.5m

[J Planning & Enviroment £42.2m

[| Joint Boards £77.6m

[ | Housing & Property £11.9m

] Miscellaneous Services £7.4m

This is the breakdown of another council's expenditure.

Education £400 million
Social work £80 million
Community services £120 million
Planning and environment £70 million
Other £50 million
Total £720 million

Can you remember how to display this information as a pie chart?

You need to work out the fraction of the whole ‘pie’ that each slice
represents and then work out the angle for each sector.
The total is £720 million. Remember there are 360° in a full turn.
Therefore each £1 million will be represented by an angle of = —

Now work out the angles that will represent the categories being
represented. You can use a calculator to work out the angles, but
record the calculations and the answers in a table, like this.
Expenditure Amount (£m) Calculation Angle

720

720

Planning and Environment

360 x 50
720

ar ae
to
Always check that the total of the angles is 360° before you start =
draw the pie chart.
 Draw a circle, add a radius and then use your protractor to measure
the angles. Then draw the pie chart. If you have drawn it correctly,
the pie will be full. There should be no empty spaces and no sectors
should overlap.
The first council had a budget of £590.6 million and the second had
£720 million. Although the two councils allocated their money in
different ways, the pie charts make it easy to see that the second .
council spent a higher proportion than the first on education.

ae Education

& Social Work

fed ‘Community Services

C] Planning and Enviroment

[| Other

Pie charts can also be used to present the data in terms of

percentages.

This is the breakdown of votes in a local election.

Party _ Percentage of poll

Conservatives
Lib Dems

Total
This time you need to find the percentages of 360°
Again, you should record your working in a table.

Party Calculation Angle

- 100
as)
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Uv
L™))
=
aS) 100
£&
Le)
= Others ae ° 14.4 = 14°

Xe)
=

@)
This table shows fractions, but you can also use decimals, in which
case the first calculation would be 0.4 x 360 = 144
Always check that the angles add up to 360°. In this case: ald
S}IEU
144° + 130° + 72° + 14° = 360°

but the check is important because some of the angles may have been
rounded to the nearest whole degree. When this happens, the total
may be 361° or 359° and you will need to make further adjustments.
Now you can draw the pie chart.

E] Conservative

[| Labour

[ ] Lib/Dem

Foal Other

Exercise 16.4 5
1 A year group of 36 pupils carried out a survey to look at the number of
brothers and sisters that they all had. They are going to draw a pie chart to
show the results of their survey.

(a) Copy and complete this table to work out the angles.

Number of brothers and sisters Frequency Calculation Angle

(b) Draw a pie chart to show this information.

 2 | conducted a survey of my class of 30 pupils to find out approximately how
many hours of television they watched each week. These are my results.
0-2 hours 1 pupil
2-4 hours 3 pupils
4-6 hours 5 pupils
6-8 hours 12 pupils
8-10 hours 6 pupils
More than 10 hours 3 pupils
(a) Draw up a frequency table like the one in Q1 to display this information.
(b) Complete the table by calculating the angles.
(c) Display the information on a pie chart.
3 A market research company asked the pupils at my school about their
favourite television programmes. These are their results as percentages of
the total number of pupils at the school.
Star Factory 43%
The Dance Factor 35%
Bake it! 9%
The News 5%
Other 8%
(a) Copy and complete this table.

Programme eee Calculation

(b) Show this information on a pie chart.

4 220 children were asked how they preferred to spend their free time. These
were their first choices.
wo)
% : Watching television Ci: Reading 12
W)
=>) Playing computer games 46 Art/modelling/pottery 8
=
aS) Sport (football/rugby) 35 Music (listening/playing) 6
<S
is)
= Sport (tennis/badminton) 22 Other 24
ie)
™—
Riding 14
 (a) Draw up a table like the one in question 1 and calculate the angles.
(b) Construct a pie chart to illustrate these results.
(c) What percentage of children chose tennis or badminton as their first choice? ald
SLEUD
(d) What percentage of children chose watching television or computer
games as their first choice?
(e) If a child were chosen at random, what is the probability that riding
would be their first choice?

Interpreting pie charts

Consider these two pie charts. They compare the activities that pupils
in Year 4 and Year 8 like doing after school.
Year 4 Year 8
[| Watching TV ee Watching TV

Cl Using the ie Using the

computer computer

est Making models Fa Making models

T] Reading [] Reading

Talking to Talking to
friends friends

a Other Fa Other

The charts show that the older pupils enjoy using the computer and
talking to friends more than the younger children do. Although the
pie charts do not give exact figures, you can see that about a quarter
of the Year 4 pupils like making models, but only about a tenth of the
Year 8 pupils do.

Exercise 16.5
1 A teacher asked the pupils in his class what they were doing at 7 p.m.
the previous evening. This chart shows the
answers.
[Bl watching Tv
(a) What fraction of them were watching TV?
(b) What fraction of them were doing their BB Doing homework
homework?
I Eating supper
(c) What would be the probability that a
pupil picked at random was eating supper CI Reading
at 7 p.m?
[J Walking the dog
(d) Given that six pupils were reading, how
many pupils were in the class?
(e) How many were walking the dog?
 2 The parents conducted a survey of how pupils come to
school in the morning. This pie chart shows the results. BR car
(a) Roughly what fraction come to school by car? Be walk
(b) Given that 40 come by bicycle, how many pupils took
part in the survey? [ Bicycle

The school introduced a school minibus service and now BR train

one half of those who used to come by car use the school
minibus. IB Public bu:
(c) Sketch another pie chart showing the new breakdown
of morning transport.
3 This pie chart shows where the pupils in the school went [Europe
on holiday last year.
| i
(a) What was the most popular destination?
(b) What fraction spent their holiday in the USA? i usa
(c) In fact a quarter of those going to Europe went to BR australia
France. What fraction of the whole school went to
France? WB other
(d) 60 pupils stayed in the UK. How many went to Europe?
4 My class did a survey in the local park to find out
what people did there. This pie chart shows the various i Playing
activities.

Write a report about these results. Include as much detail

BB ogging
as you can. Think what time of day we might have asked [sport
the questions. Would we have found the same results at a
different time? BB walking
Hl Enioving
the view

Scatter
BfaRNS ecm erect acon en or teeta aS
A scatter graph is a way of comparing two sets of data, to find out if
they are related. For example, you may want to find out if people with
big feet can swim faster than those with small feet, or whether people
who like dogs also like cats.
There are some relationships that you would expect; for example,
a)
as people get taller they weigh more. There is a range of ideal mass
ie
Le,
according to a person’s height. If someone's mass is outside that
oS range, then they are either underweight or overweight.
=
OD Other applications of scatter graphs occur in science. Look at the
<=
Lis) results of these two experiments. The first compares the amount of
=i:
fertiliser used on six identical plants (A to F) against the height of
ie)
Le those plants after four weeks.
 7)
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oe
+
ro)
=
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mo)
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n

Height
incm

5 10 15 20 25 30
Volume of fertiliser in ml

This scatter graph shows that as the amount of fertiliser (in

millilitres) that is used increases, so the height of the plant
(measured in centimetres) increases. The graph demonstrates positive
correlation.
The second experiment compares the amount of insecticide applied to
six identical plants (G to L) against the height of those plants after
four weeks.

Height
incm

5) 10 5) 20 IDS) 30
°
Volume of insecticide in ml

In this case, as the amount of insecticide increases, the height

decreases. This graph demonstrates negative correlation.
When you have plotted all the points, you can sometimes draw a line
of best fit. There should be the same number of points above the line
as there are below it and it should be as close to them as possible.
 Here are the graphs from the two experiments, with lines of best fit
added.
2D

20

Height
incm Height
incm

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10) ~ 15 20 25
Volume of fertiliser in ml Volume of insecticide in ml

You can often use the line of best fit to make some deductions about
the data. Although there is no plotted point for a plant that is 21cm
high, by drawing a horizontal line from 21cm to the line of best fit
and then a vertical line down to the axis you can deduce that you
would need about 23 ml of fertiliser. You should do this only for values
within the scales on the axes.

Exercise 16. 6
1 This table o ces “mts aps shoe sizes and heights (in metres) of 10 pupils.

Height (m)
Shoe size

(a) Draw a scatter graph to show the relationship between the two sets
of data.
(b) Draw a line of best fit.
(c) What type of correlation does this show?
2 This table shows the percentage marks scored in maths and English exams by
i 14 pupils.
®
aS)
Mathematics
=>)
— English
>
£
oy (a) Draw a scatter graph to show the relationship between the two sets of data.
<
(b) Draw a line of best fit
Xe)
™

(c) What type of correlation does this show?

3 Our class sat two mathematics papers. This table shows the results.

Paper 1
Paper2

(a) Draw a scatter graph to compare the two sets of results. sydes
13939
(b) Fred was not feeling well when he took Paper 2. Circle the point on the
scatter graph that you think might show Fred’s marks.
(c)’ Draw a line of best fit.
(d) Mary was away for Paper 2 but scored 85 on Paper 1. Use the line of best
fit to predict what Mary might have scored on Paper 2

Exercise 16.7 °
In this exercise you will use algebra to explore answers to questions on statistics.
An expression is a
When you are answering them, you may need to use the formula: collection of terms. It
cannot be solved but
total = mean x number of items
may be simplified.
1 The average age of a class of 20 is x months. Write an expression in terms of x
An equation is made
for the sum of their ages.
up of two expressions |
2 The average age of a class of x children is 10 years 5 months. Write an separated by an
expression in terms of x for their total age in months. equals sign and can
be solved.
3 There are x pupils in the class and the sum of their ages is 1980 months.
(a) Write an expression in terms of x for their average age in months.
(b) What is their average age, in years, in terms of x?
4 Ihave £x, India has £2 more and Archie has £5 less.
(a) Write an expression for the total amount of money that we have.
(b) The mean amount of money we have is £12. Form an equation and solve
it to find the value of x.
5 This table shows the ages of a group of pupils.

Age
Number of pupils

(a) What is the value of x, given that the mean age of the pupils is 10
exactly?
(b) What is the maximum number of pupils, and hence the maximum value
of x, if the median age is 10?
of
(c) What is the maximum value of x, and hence the maximum number
pupils, if the modal group is 10?
 6 This table shows the ages of a group of children.

Age

Number of pupils

(a) Given that the mean age is 6, what is the value of x?

(b) How many five-year-olds are there?
7 This bar chart shows the numbers of patients that visited 16
Dr Bone’s evening surgery last week.
Dr Bone cannot remember how many patients he saw last Friday, Mean
but the bar chart shows the mean number of patients he saw in 12
the evenings over the five days. Calculate the number of patients
he saw on Friday evening. Let x be the number of patients that he
saw on Friday evening.

of
Number
patients

Mon Tues Wed Thur Fri

Days of the week
8 There are x pupils at a school. A quarter of them walk to school, two-thirds
come by car and the rest by bus.
(a) Write an expression in x for the number of pupils who come to school by bus.
(b) If the number that come to school by bus is 19, form an equation in x and
solve it to find the number of pupils in the school.
9 There are x employees in the SunLite Factory, and they are rarely ill. In fact,
the mean number of days that they have taken off this last year is 1.75
(a) How many working days have been lost over the year?
(b) Three times as many employees have been ill as have not been illat all.
Write an expression in x for the number of employees who have been ill.
(c) No-one has had more than five days off and the number of people who
have had two days off is the same as the number who have had four days
% off. Half of this number have had five days off.
iG
We) Twice as many as the number that had two days off have had one day off.
i=)
No-one was off for exactly three days. What fraction of the people who
=
> had any days off had five days off?
<
c (d) Write expressions in x for the number of people who had 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and
=
5 days off. Make sure that the total adds up to x.
16 (e) 24 more people than the number who took 5 days off were never ill. Write
an equation in x and solve it to find the total number of employees.
 7)
Summary Exercise 16.8 ° (@)
be)
ct
ct
@m
t
1 Work out the range, mean, median and mode of each set of numbers. ga
=
ie¥)
(a) 3 4 4 4 5 6 7 7 me)
=r
n
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fh ahdteed 2A seri 13228 14:1 2 Bike 13.8
2 These are the ages of five pupils, in years and months.
11 years 6 months, 10 years 4 months, 10 years 6 months, 11 years 4 months,
10 years 11 months
(a) What is the mean age of the pupils?
(b) A sixth pupil joins the group and the mean age of all six pupils is 11 years
and 1 month. What is the age of the sixth pupil?
These are the marks, out of 20, for a recent mental arithmetic test.

15 16 14 13 15 17
11 Le 17 az 16 14
13 19 14 16 18 15
(a) Draw a tally or frequency table to show the results.
(b) Work out the mean, mode and median of the marks.
(c) Show the results on a frequency diagram.
This frequency diagram shows how many people there are in each
car that comes to my school in the morning.

(a) How many cars had three people in them?

(b) How many more cars carried four people than carried two?
(c) How many cars were there altogether?
(d) How many people were there in all the cars?
Frequency
(e) What was the mode?
(f) What was the mean number of people in the cars?

1 2 3 4 5
Number of people in each car
 5 These numbers show the daily rainfall (in cm) for the month of September.
5.1 1.9 5.3 10 04 2.5 5.5 6.3 0 3.8

3.1 O77 1265559 1g 0 0 0 0.6

Bid 257 OB? a0 0 0 C 0.6 19 3:3

(a) Collect these results in a frequency table. You will need to group the data
suitably.
(b) Illustrate the information on a frequency diagram.
(c) Find the range and the mean rainfall.
6 A headteacher asked 175 pupils how many books they had read this term.
These were the results.

Number of books _ Frequency

(a) Make a table to calculate the angles you will need, to show these results
in a pie chart.
(b) Draw a pie chart to illustrate these results.
(c) What percentage of the pupils had read more than 10 books?
7 This table shows the heights and masses of pupils in my class.

Height (cm)
Mass (kg)

(a) Draw a scatter graph to compare the two sets of results.

(b) Draw a line of best fit.
(c) One pupil was away on the day of the survey. He is 154cm tall. Use your
graph to estimate his mass.

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 CEN
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Many statistical investigations are about traffic and travelling. Here are some
ideas for conducting your own surveys. You will be able to practise what you have
learnt in this chapter and have some fun at the same time. sydei
49339
Traffic

There are many questions that you might like to ask about the traffic that runs
past your school.
@ What type of vehicle?
@ What colour of vehicle?
e@ How many buses?
e@ When is the traffic at its busiest?
Before you start, you need to prepare by following these steps.
1 Decide what it is that you want to know about the traffic.

2 Make up a recording sheet so that you can record your observations.

3 Decide when you are going to make your observations and for how long. For
example, you might want to do it at two different times of day.
When you are fully prepared, follow these steps.
4 Find somewhere safe to stand and start recording. Make sure that an adult
knows where you are and what you are doing.
5 When you have your results, you can make your report. Use any of the charts
and tables that you have studied in this chapter to make your report more
interesting.
Travelling to or from school
Several other questions you will have seen were about how pupils travelled to
and from school, and how many people were in a car.
Here’s how you could conduct your own survey.
1 Ask your class how they came to school in the morning.
to
2 Ask anyone who travelled by car how many people were in it. Remember
ask your teacher too!
3 Ask people where they came from. You might find a pattern.
with it,
4 Put together a questionnaire for other classes. When you are happy
ask your teacher to give it out.
to
5 When you have your results, think about what sort of things you want
informat ion we have already mentione d, or
find out. It might be the sort of
if there is a differen ce as pupils get older, or
it might be that you want to see
you might want to compare travel to different destinat ions.
of the things
6 Write a report about the results of your survey. Try to use many
you have learnt from this chapter to make your report interest ing.
 ) Transformations

A transformation is a change. In mathematics, a transformation

changes the position or orientation of an object but maintains its
basic shape. This does not necessarily mean it stays the same size. If
the transformation is an enlargement, the shape and its image will be
similar but not congruent.
Two or more shapes are congruent if they are the same shape and the
Same size. Two or more shapes are similar if they have the same shape
but are not the same size. Their angles are the same and their sides
are in the same ratio.

POPES OEE TOO ESO ERASE OOOO EHO SOO TET OS SOOO ESTO SOS TES ESOS OSOS OE SOSOS OSS OS OOS OOEEOEEDEOEH EO SEESEDESEEESEESS

Many mathematical shapes and patterns have lines of symmetry.

Sometimes you may be asked to draw a pattern that is symmetrical
about a line, sometimes you may be given a shape or a pattern and
asked to find the line of symmetry. If your pattern is drawn ona
co-ordinate grid, then it can be simpler to describe the exact position
of the line of symmetry, of the object being reflected and its image.

In this example, triangle B is

the image of triangle A after a
reflection in the y-axis.
(the line x = 0)
 E xercise 17.1
For each question in this exercise, draw a co-ordinate grid and mark the values of
x and y from “6 to 6, as in the earlier diagram on the previous page. SUOI

1 Copy triangles A and B (above) on to your grid. Draw the reflections of A and B
in the x-axis.
Draw square P with vertices at (3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 5) and (5, 3). Draw the line
y = 2, Draw the square Q, which is a reflection of P iny=2
Draw triangle X with vertices at (3, ~1), (3, ~4) and (5, ~1). Draw the line x = 1
and then draw triangle Y, which is the image of X after a reflection in x = 1
Draw triangle R with vertices at (~1, 3), (4, 1) and (~4, 3). Draw the line y=~1
and then draw triangle S, which is the image of R after a reflection in y= ~1
Draw square A with vertices at (~1, 1), (2, ~1), (4, 0) and (-3, 2). Draw the
line x = 1 and then draw square B, which is the image of A after a reflection
inx=1
Draw trapezium P with vertices at (2, 4), (1, 1), (5, 1) and (4, 4). Draw the
line x = 2 and then draw trapezium Q, which is the image of P after a
reflection in x =2
Look at this grid.

Describe the reflection that maps:

(a) AtoB (b) AtoCc (c) CtoD (d) BtoE
 8 Look at this grid.

Describe the reflection that maps:

(a) AtoB (c) BtoC (e) DtoB
(b) Atoc (d) EtoA

In a rotation, an object is turned round a fixed point to form the

image. To draw a rotation on a co-ordinate grid, you need three
pieces of information:
@ the centre of rotation
5 ime! |

@ the angle of rotation Peat

@ the direction of rotation.

B is the image of A after a rotation of 90°

anticlockwise about the point (1, 2)
A is the image of B after a rotation of 90°
clockwise about the point (1, 2)
S
va)

KS)
oa) Tracing paper is very useful when you are
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studying rotations, especially when you need to
:
ry
check the centre of rotation. First trace over the
object, and then put the point of your pencil on
s the centre of rotation to hold the tracing paper
es
in place. Then you can rotate the tracing paper
N
b
el to check the position of the image.
 Exercise 17.2
For each question in this exercise, draw a co-ordinate grid and mark the values of SUOII
x and y from 6 to 6. You will also need some tracing paper.
1 Draw triangle A with vertices at (2, 1), (5, 1) and (2, 3)
(a) Draw triangle B, a rotation of A through 90° clockwise about the origin.
(b) Draw triangle C, a rotation of A through 180° about the origin.
(c) Draw triangle D, a rotation of A through 270° clockwise about the origin.
2 Draw triangle P with vertices at (2, 2), (3, 4) and (1, 4)
(a) Draw triangle Q, a rotation of P through 90° clockwise about the
point (1, 0)
(b) Draw triangle R, a rotation of P through 180° about the point (1, 0)
(c) Draw triangle S, a rotation of P through 270° clockwise about the
point (1, 0)
3 Draw triangle W with vertices at (1, 2), (1, 5) and (0, 5)
(a) Draw triangle X, a rotation of W through 90° clockwise about the
point (1, 2)
(b) Draw triangle Y, a rotation of W through 180° about the point (1, 2)
(c) Draw triangle Z, a rotation of W through 270° clockwise about the
point (1, 2)
4 Draw rhombus A with vertices at (2, 0), (1, 2), (2, 4) and (3, 2). Draw image B,
a rotation of A through 90° anticlockwise about the point (2, ~1). Draw
image C, a rotation of B through 90° anticlockwise about the point (2, ~1)
5 Draw trapezium P with vertices at (0, 0), (2, 1), (2, ~3) and (0, ~2). Draw
image Q, a rotation of P through 180° about the
point (~1, 1)
6 Draw kite Y with vertices at (~3, 5), (-1, 4), (3, 1)
and (-5, 4). Draw image Z, a rotation of Y through
90° clockwise about the point (0, 1)
7 Look at this grid.
Describe the rotation that maps:
(a) BtoC (d) BtoA

(b) DtoE (e) BtoF.

(c) AtoE
 8 Look at this grid.

Describe the rotation that maps:

(a) PtoQ (c) QtoT (e) StoU
(b) PtoR (d) TtoU
9 An object A is rotated 90° clockwise about a point to an image B, then B
is rotated 90° clockwise about the same point to an image C. What single
transformation will map A to C?
10 Look again at the diagram for question 8. What reflection will map P to Q?

emekranslations........ Me is oh bee 5) {7 9)40 Dh menses

After a reflection the image is in a different place from the object
and is flipped over. After a rotation the image is in a different place
from the object and is a different way round. Sometimes you just want
an image to be in a new place, but the same way round. To do this
you need to slide the object across the page. Such a slide is called a
translation.
A translation is described as a move in two directions, first in the
x-direction and then in the y-direction.
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The translation of A to B is 6 units to the right, 1 unit down.
The translation of A to C is 6 units down.
The translation of C to D is 8 units to the right.
The translation of D to B is 2 units to the left, 5 units up.

Exercise 17.3 7
1 Look at this grid.
Describe the translation that maps:
(a) AtoB (d) BtoD

(b) CtoB (e) DtoA.

(c) CtoD
 2 Look at this grid.

| y
cee 5

| at,

Describe the translation that maps:

(a) AtoB (d) AtoD
(b) Btoc (e) DtoE
(c) DtoB (f) EtoA.
3 Draw a co-ordinate grid and mark the values of x and y from “6 to 6. Draw
triangle A with vertices at (5, 5), (5, 3) and (2, 4)
(a) Draw triangle B, the image of A after a translation of 4 units to the left,
3 units down.
(b) Draw triangle C, the image of B after a translation of 2 units to the left,
1 unit up.
(c) Draw the triangle D, the image of C after a translation of 5 units to the
right, 4 units down.
(d) Describe the translation that will map triangle D to triangle A.
4 Draw a co-ordinate grid and mark the values of x and y from ~6 to 6
Draw kite K with vertices at (~4, ~4), (~3, ~5), (-2, ~4) and (-3, -2)
(a) Draw kite L, the image of K after a translation of 4 units to the right,
74)
= 3 units up.
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14) (b) Draw kite M, the image of L after a translation of 3 units to the left,

:
a
2 units up.
(c) Draw kite N, the image of M after a translation of 5 units to the right,
< 4 units down.
is
(d) Describe the translation that will map kite M to kite L,
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a) Mixed or combined transformations
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You know that a transformation transforms the original object into its
image. A transformation may be a rotation, a reflection, a translation
or an enlargement.
Sometimes a transformation may be described in more than
one way.
B is the image of A after any one of:
@ a reflection in the line x = 3
@ a rotation through 180° about the point (3, 3)
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@ a rotation through 90° clockwise about the point (3, 1)
@ a rotation through 270° anticlockwise about the point (3, 5)
@ a translation, 4 units right, 0 units up.
Remember:
@ reflection needs a mirror line

@ rotation is a turn through an angle in a stated direction about a

fixed point
@ translation is a move to the right or left followed by a move up
or down
@ enlargement requires a scale factor and a centre of enlargement.
Look back to Chapter 11 and review the topic of enlargement, if you
need to, before you start the next exercise.

Exercise 17.4 J
1 Look at this grid.
Describe the transformation that maps:
(a) AtoC (c) DtoB
(b) CtoD (d) EtoB.
 2 Look at this grid.

Describe the transformation that maps:

(a) triangle P to triangle R (c) triangle P to triangle Q
(b) triangle R to triangle S (d) triangle R to triangle Q.
3 Look at this grid.

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2
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S Describe the transformation that maps:
WwW

a (a) triangle V to triangle Y (c) triangle V to triangle W

ce (b) triangle X to triangle Y (d) triangle Y to triangle Z.
N
4 Look at this grid.
Describe the transformation that maps:
(a) triangle A to triangle B
(b) triangle B to triangle C
(c) triangle B to triangle D
(d) triangle C to triangle E
(e) triangle D to triangle E
(f) triangle B to triangle E
For questions 5-10, draw a co-ordinate grid and
mark/the values of x and y from “6 to 6. You will Poxi|y
JO
POUIQ
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also’need some tracing paper.
5 Draw triangle A with vertices at (3, 5), (3, 3)
and (5, 3)
(a) Draw image B, the reflection of A in the y-axis.
(b) Draw image C, the rotation of A through 90° clockwise about the origin.
(c) Draw D, the image of A after a translation of 6 units to the left, 5 units
down.
(d) Describe a single transformation that will map B to C.
6 Draw triangle W with vertices at (1, 2), (3, 2) and (3, 3)
(a) Draw image X, the rotation of W through 90° anticlockwise about the
point (1, 2)
(b) Draw image Y, the enlargement of W by scale factor 2, centre of
enlargement (1, 2)
(c) Draw image Z, the reflection of W in the line x="1
7 Draw rhombus P with vertices at (2, 4), (4, 3), (6, 4) and (4, 5)
(a) Draw image Q, the reflection of P in the line x = 1
(b) Draw image R, the reflection of P in the line y = 2
(c) Draw S, the image of P after a translation of 6 units left, 4 units down.
(d) Describe the rotation that maps Q to R.
(e) Describe the translation which maps S to Q.
8 Draw trapezium A, with vertices at (5, 3), (4, 4), (~3, 4) and (-2, 3)
(a) Draw image B, the reflection of A in the line y= 1
(b) Draw image C, the rotation of B of 180° about the point (0, 2)
(c) Draw D, the image of C after a translation of 4 units left, 2 units down.
(d) Describe the reflection that maps D to A.
(e) Describe the rotation that maps B to D.
 9 Kite K has vertices at (~3, 0), (~2, 1), (~3, 4) and (~4, 1). Draw K.
(a) Draw image L, the reflection of K in the liney= 1
(b) Draw image M, the rotation of K through 180° about the point (~2, 1)
(c) Describe a transformation that could map L to M.
(d) Draw image N, the rotation of K through 90° clockwise about the
point (~3, ~2)
(e) Draw image P, the reflection of L in the y-axis.
(f) Describe the transformation that maps N to P.
10 Draw triangle W with vertices at (~3, 1), (~2, 0) and (2, 2)
(a) Draw image X, the reflection of W in the line x = 1
(b) Draw Y, the image of W after a translation of 2 units right.
(c) Draw image Z, the rotation of Y through 90° anticlockwise about the
point (0, 2)

Exercise 17.5 |
1 You can see some interesting transformations by reflecting objects in the
lines y=x and y = “x. Copy this diagram and reflect triangles A and B in y=x
and y="x

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vertices of the two triangles. ©
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Triangle Co-ordinates Image after reflectionin y=x Image after reflection in = x =}
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What do you notice about the co-ordinates after the reflections? Be
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Sometimes you need to apply two transformations —_- n

to map an object to its image.

(a) Explain why you cannot map A to B in a single
transformation.
(b) Given that the first transformation of A is a
reflection in the x-axis, what is the second?
(c) Given that the first transformation is a
reflection, and the second is a translation,
write down the exact transformations.

(d) Can you find another pair of transformations?

Sometimes there is more than one transformation

that takes an object to its image.
Work out all the possible single transformations
that will map:
(a) AtoB (c) EtoF
(b) CtoD
Which pair has the most possibilities and which
the least? Try to explain your answer.
 4 Copy this diagram.

Rotate triangle T through 90° clockwise about (~3, ~1) to give image R.
A certain reflection of R will give the same image as a certain reflection of T.
Draw this image and clearly mark the two lines of symmetry.
5 The hexagon ABCDEF is divided into
12 congruent triangles.
(a) Describe the single transformation that
maps triangle X on to triangle Y.
(b) Describe the single transformation that
maps triangle Y on to triangle Z.
(c) Describe as many other pairs of
consecutive transformations that map
triangle X on to triangle Z.
(d) How many of the other triangles, N, P, Q,
R, S, T, U, V and W, can be filled by a single
transformation of triangle X? Describe each
transformation carefully.

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1 Look at this grid.

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Describe any single transformations that map:

(a) AtoD (d) EtoC

(b) EtoF (e) EtoB

(c) BtoC (f) BtoD.
2 Copy this co-ordinate grid and triangle A.

B.
(a) Reflect the triangle in the x-axis. Label this image
C.
(b) Rotate A through 180° about the origin. Label this image
D.
(c) Translate A 3 units right, 2 units down. Label this image
 3 Copy this co-ordinate grid and triangle P.

el ile

(a) Reflect P in the line x = 2. Label the image Q.

(b) Rotate P through 90° clockwise about the point (2, 1). Label the image R.
(c) Translate P 4 units right, 3 units down. Label the image S.
4 Copy this co-ordinate grid and shape W.

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(a) Enlarge W by scale factor 3 with centre of enlargement the origin. Label
this image X.
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(b) Translate X 2 units left, 4 units down. Label this image Y.
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(c) Describe the enlargement that maps W to Y.
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 5 Draw a co-ordinate grid and mark the values of xand y from “6 to 6
Draw kite K with vertices at (~2, ~1), (~1, ~3), (2, ~5) and (-5, ~3)
(a) Reflect K in the line y=~1 and label the image L.
(b) Reflect Lin the line x =~1 and label the image M.
(c) Describe the transformation that maps K to M.
6 Draw a co-ordinate grid and mark the values of x and y from “6 to 6
Draw triangle Z with vertices at (4, ~1), (3, 2) and (1, 0)
(a) Draw image Y, the reflection of Z in the liney= 1
(b) Draw image X, the rotation of Y through 180° about the point (0, 2)
(c) Draw image W, the translation of X 2 units down. Pexi|]
JO
POUIG
SUOIF
(d) Describe the transformation that maps W to Z.

Activity: The four-colour

probl
The four-colour problem is famous and was unsolved for many years.

An outline of the problem

Ever since mapmakers began making the sort of maps that show distinct regions
(such as countries or states), they have known that, if they plan well enough,
they will never‘need to use more than four colours.
The basic rule for colouring a map is that no two regions that share a boundary
can be the same colour.

This map is coloured correctly. This map is not coloured correctly.

No two adjacent regions are coloured the same. Two adjacent regions are coloured the same.
It is fine for regions meeting at a point to be the
same colour.
 How many different colours must you have if you want to colour a map so that
countries that share a boundary are not coloured in the same colour?
Look at the ‘maps’ below. Can you colour these with only four colours? Which ones
need fewer colours? Draw some maps of your own and try out some theories. Try
to suggest some theories about why some need fewer colours than others.

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 3D shapes

A two-dimensional (2D) shape is flat; it has a perimeter and an area.

A three-dimensional (3D) shape is a solid; it has a surface area and
volume.

C) Units of volume and capacity

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1000 cubic centimetres (cm?) = 1 litre (l)

1000 millilitres (ml) = 1 litre (1)
100 centilitres (cl) = 1 litre (lL)
Capacity is the amount a container can hold. Volume is the amount
of space taken up by a substance. A jug may have capacity of one litre
but contain a lesser volume of milk.
In this chapter you will learn more about surface area and volume, the
amount of space taken up by a solid.

Rr See eee OHH cetreeet

TO SETS SHEESSEESS DII NI OD ctceeenent nem
The surface area of a 3D shape is the total area of all its surfaces.
To find the surface area you need to consider
each of the faces of the 3D shape.
One way is to draw the net of the 3D shape.
Here are some nets that you should
recognise.
To fold this net into a solid, you join the
sides: red to red, blue to blue, orange to
orange and green to green.

Net of a cube
 Here are some more nets.

Net of a tetrahedron

Net of a a square-based pyramid

Net of a cuboid

Calculating surface area

To calculate the surface area of a 3D shape, you need to calculate
the area of each 2D shape in the net and then add these areas all Remember always
together. This is not as difficult as it may seem because in most to check that the
shapes, some of the faces are the same shape and size. dimensions are in the |
You know how to calculate the surface area of a cuboid.
‘sameunits.

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Calculate the surface area of a cuboid with length 35cm, width 95mm and height 20cm.
7=35cm w=9.5cm h=20cm
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Pode
35cm

20cm

Surface area = 2 x areaA+2 x areaB+2xareaC Even when you

= 2x (20 x 35) +2 x (9.5 x 20) + 2 x (35 x 9.5) use a calculator it
=2x 700+2x 190 +2x 3325 peal
;own les
your working,
= 1400 + 380 + 665 stage by stage, and
= 2445 cm? check it as you go.

Exercise 18.1
Give any non-exact answers correct to 1 decimal place.
1 Copy the diagram of the net of a cuboid. Colour the sides to indicate which
ones will meet when the net is folded up.
2 Copy the diagram of the net of a tetrahedron. Colour the sides of the
triangles to indicate which ones will meet when the net is folded up.
3 Copy the diagram of the net of the square-based pyramid. Colour the sides
of the shapes that make up the net, to indicate which ones will meet when
the net is folded up.
4 Calculate the surface area of a cube with sides of:
(a) 5cm
(b) 1.2m.
TT SEE ga,
5 Calculate the surface areas of each cuboid.
and label the sides A,
(a) 4m by 1.2m by 5m
B and C.
(b) 25cm by 20cm by 35cm
(c) 1.2m by 45cm by 0.9m
 6 A tetrahedron is made from four equilateral triangles with sides of 6cm. Varah eee
(a) Construct the equilateral triangle accurately. yourself about
this construction
(b) Construct a line that runs from the top of the triangle to meet the base
by looking back at
at 90°
Chapter 14
(c) Measure the length of the line to find the height of the triangle.
(d) Work out the area of the triangle.
(e) What is the surface area of the tetrahedron?
7 The length of the base of a square-based pyramid is 6cm. All the triangular
sides are equilateral triangles. Use some of your answers from question 6 to
calculate its surface area.
8 Another square-based pyramid has a base of length 10cm and its sides are
triangles with sides of 10cm, 8cm and8 cm. Construct a triangle, drop a
perpendicular and measure its length, to find the height of the triangle. Then
calculate the surface area of the square-based pyramid.
9 Acuboid has a total surface area of 126cm?. The base of the cuboid is 5cm
by 6cm. Draw its net and give a possible value for the height of the cuboid.
10 | have a roll of paper 3m long and 60cm wide. | need to cut out as many
nets of a 10cm by 8cm by 5cm cuboid as possible.
(a) What is the maximum number of nets | can cut from the roll of paper?
(b) What percentage of the total roll is wasted?

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Volume is measured in cubic units: cubic millimetres (mm?), cubic

You may also meet
centimetres (cm?), cubic metres (m?) and cubic kilometres (km?) for cubic imperial units:
oceans. in?, ft?, yd? but use of |
these is now unusual.
Cubes and cuboids
You can find the volume of a cuboid by multiplying its length by its
width and then multiplying the result by its height. If you think of
volume as a series of layers, you should be able to see why this works.

rv)
icf)
QO
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<=
yy 1 layer 2 layers 3 layers
aa) 12 cubic centimetres (cm?) 24 cubic centimetres (crn3)
™) 36 cubic centimetres (cm3)
[e'e)
b
The formula for the volume of a cuboid is:
In questions you
volume of cuboid (V) = length (7) x width (w) x height (/) may find other words
are used for length, IUIN}
V=Ilxwxh width and height, such
as breadth or base.
When all the sides are the same length, the cuboid is a cube. You can still use the
formula and substitute
The formula for the volume of a cube is:
the correct value.
volume of cube = length?
= Before you do any
calculations, remember
When you are writing down the formula for the volume of a shape, to make sure that
make sure that you specify what shape it is, for example, volume of a measurements are all
expressed in the same
cube. This is because formulae for volumes of different shapes are
units.
different. It is always important to use the correct formula.

Example
Find the volume of a cuboid of length 4m, width 3.2m and height 0.9m.
In this example, the units are all given in metres. -
1=4m w=3.2m h=0.9m
Volume of cuboid=/x w x h
=4x3.2x0.9
= 11.52m?

In the next example the units are different. This is why it is sensible
to write out the dimensions you are given first and check they are in
the same units. If you are not told which units to use, then work with
units that give you the fewest decimal places.

Example
Find the volume of a wooden plank of length 32cm, width 22mm Remember the
and height 1.2m. steps for using a
w=32cm h=22mm=2.2cm formula: write the
1=1.2m= 120cm
formula, substitute,
Volume of cuboid =/xw xh calculate, write the
= 120 x 32 x 2.2 answer with correct
units.
= 8448 cm?
 E xercise 18.2
i

1 7 Find the rolame of mach cuboid.

(a) 3cm by 5cm by 7cm

(b) 5m by 10m by 12m
(c) 1.6m by 1.2m by 0.8m
2 Find the volume of a cube of side:
(a) 5cm (b) 50cm (c) 0.5cm.
3 Find the volume of each cuboid.
(a) length 1.2m, breadth 90cm and height 12cm
(b) length 4.8cm, breadth 8mm and height 1.4cm
(c) length 3.2m, breadth 75cm and height 0.9m
4 Awater tank is 1m long, 1.5m wide and 80cm deep. How many litres of
water does it contain when it is full? Remember —
that 1000 cm? is
5 A fish tank is 30cm wide, 20cm deep and 20cm tall. How many litres of equivalent to 1 litre.
water does it contain when it is three-quarters full?
6 Find out which of these has the greatest volume.
Remember that
(a) a 125-litre water tank 1000 ml = 1l and that |
(b) a water tank in the shape of a cube of side 50cm trml= lone:

(c) a cuboid water tank with sides of 25cm, 50cm and 1m

7 (a) How many millilitres are there in 5 litres?
(b) How many millilitres are there in 500 cubic centimetres?
(c) How many cubic centimetres are there in 50 millilitres?
8 What is the volume of a plastic cuboid with sides of length 4m, 7.cm and
8cm. Give your answer in millilitres.
9 Which volume is largest, a cube of side 8cm, half a litre or a cuboid with
sides of length 5cm, 9cm and 11cm?
10 (a) | have 24 centimetre cubes. If | use all 24, how many different cuboids
can | make? .
(b) | have 36 centimetre cubes. If | use all 36, how many different cuboids
can | make?
i)
(c) I have 35 centimetre cubes. If | use all 35, how many different cuboids
a
149) can | make?
<=
nw
(a) (d) | have 37 centimetre cubes. If | use all 37, how many different cuboids
mM can | make?
io)
a
Finding the height or depth of a 3D shape
By carefully substituting the correct values into the formula and then aUIN]O
treating the result as an equation, you can work out unknown lengths.

Example
Work out the height of a cuboid of length 4cm, breadth 3cm and volume
60cm?
Volume of cuboid = 60cm?,/=4cm, b=3cm
Volume of cuboid =/xwxh Formula
60=4x3xh Substitute
60 = 12h Calculate
(+12)
h=5cm Answer and units

Exercise 18.3
1 This ead has a base of area 12cm? and a volume of 60cm?. What is the
height of the cuboid?

or q

2 Find the height of each cuboid.

(a) base area 9cm?, volume 63cm?
(b) base area 20cm?, volume 150cm?
(c) base area 40cm’, volume 24000 cm?
side?
3 (a) Acube has a volume of 125 cm?. What is the length of one
(b) A cube has a surface area of 96 cm. What is the length of one side?
cuboid is
4 This cuboid is 5cm wide and 12cm long. The volume of the
7.2 litres. What is the height of the cuboid?

V= 7200 cm3
 5 Work out the heights of these cuboids.
(a) volume 1 litre, length 10cm and width 10cm
(b) volume 5 litres, length 25cm and width 8cm
(c) volume 300 litres, length 2.5m and width1.2m
6 (a) A jug contains 500 ml of water. Water is poured from the jug into an
empty cuboid of base area 25cm*. What is the depth of the water in the
cuboid?
(b) A jug contains 2 litres of water. Water is poured from the jug into an
empty cuboid of length 40cm and width 20cm. What is the depth of
the water in the cuboid?
7 A hollow cube of side 5cm is repeatedly filled with water, which is then
poured into a cuboid 25cm by 10cm by 15cm. How many cubefuls of water
does it take to fill the cuboid?
8 (a) How many cubes of side 2cm will fit into a larger cube of side 8cm?
(b) How many cubes of side 2cm will fit into a larger cube of side 7cm?
9 A brick with sides of length 5cm, 10cm and 15cm is dropped into a
rectangular bowl of water. If the rectangular bowl has sides of length 30cm
and 40cm, by how much does the water level go up?
10 A child has a set of three hollow cubes that fit one inside another. The
largest cube has sides of 8cm, the next has sides of 7cm and the smallest
has sides of 6cm.

The child decides to fill all the cubes with water from a litre bottle. He fills
the two smallest cubes but there is not quite enough to fill the largest. What
is the depth of water in the largest cube (to the nearest mm)?

( ).Problem solving
oO OOO tee HOHE OS OOHRS Coe e rere reese ress eee reece eee ee de ee reece receeneee ee seeeneneeseeeS

What do you understand by the word ‘per’? When you were learning
about percentages, you took the term ‘per cent’ to mean ‘per hundred’.
So what does ‘cost per millilitre’ or ‘mass per cubic metre’ mean?
In mathematics, you can take ‘per’ to mean that you have to divide
something by something else.
For example, suppose you were comparing the prices of different
bottle of shampoo. The best way would be to work out the cost per
millilitre, by dividing the price of the bottle by the total volume of
a)
co) shampoo inside the bottle. The best value is the one that gives you
Q.
© most millilitres per pound or penny.
<=
n

fa)
Y)

ee)
_—

Gx)
Example
Pp | Remember that 3oe
Which is better value, 125 ml of orangeade for £1.20, or 175 ml of lemonade when you use a oD
for £1.61? calculator, you must 3
hie first write down the =
Cost of orangeade = qed ' Cost of lemonade. = a calculation that you =:
are going to do, then be
= 0.96p per ml = 0.92p per ml check your answer
to make sure it is
The lemonade is better value, as long as you like lemonade and orangeade
sensible.
equally.

E xercise 18.4
ql

1 | buy half a litre carton of milk for 52p. What is the cost per litre?
2 | buy a 225ml can of energy drink for 99p. What is the price of the drink
per litre?
3 A carton ofjuice is 15cm by 10cm by 6cm.
(a) What is this in litres?
(b) If the carton costs £1.35, what is the price per litre?
4 Which is better value, 225 ml of banana milkshake for £1.35p, or 175 ml of
raspberry smoothie for £1.05p?
5 | can buy one shampoo that costs £1.20 for 750ml, and another shampoo
for £1.50 per litre. Which one is better value?
6 A box of muesli measuring 5cm by 15cm by 30cm costs £1.80. Is this better
value than a litre bag of the same muesli costing £1?
7 \have a water tank that holds 400 litres. So that it will fit through my loft
door, it must have a maximum height of 1m and a maximum width of
50cm. What must the minimum length of the tank be?
8 Acereal packet has a base of 10cm by 24cm anda height of 30cm. It
contains 750g of Wheeties. What is the mass per cubic centimetre (cm?) of
Wheeties?
in
9 Apot of 1.25 litres of emulsion paint costs £22.50. The same paint is sold
1.75 litre pots at £24.15. Which size is the better value?
One
10 [have to paint the walls of a room that is 8m by 6.5m and 2.2m high.
litre of paint covers 15m’.
the room.
(a) How much paint do | need? Ignore any doors and windows in
9?
(b) How much will it cost me if | buy the paint described in question
and get the
(c) There is a special offer on the 1.75-litre pots — ‘Buy one
second half price!’ How much money can I save by using the special
offer?
 -xtension Exercise 18.of
1 This jis t e net afa Polew Pee

It is a rectangle with a square cut from each corner.

What size of square will give the maximum volume of the cuboid?
To find out, let the length of the side of each square be x. The rectangle is
10cm by 8cm.

Then the lengths of the sides of the cuboid are x, (8 — 2x) and (10 — 2x)
Copy and complete this table to find the value of x that would give a cuboid
with the greatest possible volume.

“
A)
jak
©
<
7)
a) 2 Repeat question 1 but this time base it on the net of a box made from a
™
square 20cm by 20cm. You will need more rows in your table.
CO
b
ed
3 Repeat question 1 but this time base it on the net of a box made from a
rectangle 15cm by 20cm. You will need more rows in your table.
4 From your table in question 3 draw a graph of x against volume.
5 A4is the name for the size of standard, everyday paper. It measures about
21cm by 29cm. What is the maximum volume of a hollow cuboid that you SUIA]O
WW3]qG
can make from a piece of A4 paper?
The questions so far have been about volume, but you could also look at the
surface area. Look again at this net for a box.

rm) eae

10
— 2x

Make sure that you can identify the five rectangles that make up the net for
the box.
The areas of these five rectangles are:
x(8 — 2x) x(8 — 2x) x(10 — 2x) x(10 — 2x) (8 — 2x)(10 — 2x)

and you could add them up.

area.
However, it is quicker to look at the whole shape to calculate the surface
then
Start by calculating the area of the whole rectangle (10cm by 8cm) and
subtract the areas of the four cut-out squares (4 x x x x)

Then the surface area is 10x 8-—4%xx* which is 80 — 4x?

show the change in
6 Copy and complete the table below. Then draw a graph to
the surface area, as x changes.

can do some further

If you can use a spreadsheet program, then you
investigation into volumes and surface areas.
 Summary Exercise 18.7
1 | have a cube of side 6cm.
Calculate:
(a) its surface area
(b) its volume.
2 Acuboid is 8cm long, 5cm wide and 9mm high.
(a) What is its surface area? Give your answer in square centimetres (cm?).
(b) What is its volume? Give your answer in cubic centimetres (cm?).
3 By construction, measuring and calculation find the surface area of a
tetrahedron with sides of 8cm.
4 (a) The volume of a cube is 64cm?.
(i) What is the length of one side of the cube?
(ii) What is the volume of the cube, in litres?
(b) The surface area of a cube is 294cm?.
(i) What is the length of one side of the cube?
(ii) What is the volume of the cube, in litres?
5 This cuboid is 50cm wide, 2.5m long and 4m high. Give its volume in:
(a) cm3 (b) m?.

6 The area of the base of a cuboid is 15cm? and its volume is 60 cm?. What is
the height of the cuboid?
7 Which is better value, 1.2 litres of OZO washing powder at £2.25 per litre or
2 litres of DAX at £3.10 per litre?
8 | need two 2.5-litre pots of paint. The local DIY store is selling it for £24 per pot.
Wn
<5) (a) What is the cost per litre?
Qa
sae}
<
“vn
(b) The next week the paint store had a special offer: ‘Buy one pot, get one
a) free!’ | buy two pots. What is the cost per litre?
09)
(c) What is my percentage saving?
co
L
 9 An empty water tank measuring 2m by 1.2m by 80cm is filled by means of
a 4-litre bucket. How many bucketfuls does it take to fill the water tank?
10 A square hole 2cm wide is cut through a cube of edge 5cm. What is the
volume of the solid, once the hole has been made?

SUIA]O
LW2]qG

Activity: Euler's theorem

More polyhedra
If you have access to a polygon construction kit, you will find it very useful for
this investigation.

G
A polyhedron is a 3D or solid shape with faces that are planes.
There are five platonic solids with faces that are all the same regular polygon.

an a
(Ds vz)

Sse
Tetrahedron: Cube: 6 squares Octahedron: Dodecahedron: Icosahedron:
8 equilateral 12 regular 20 equilateral
4 equilateral
triangles pentagons triangles
triangles

There are many other solids with faces that may be different shapes.

together at points
These solids have plane faces and have straight edges that join
or vertices. A cuboid has 6 faces, 12 edges and 8 vertices.
these three values?
Do you think that there might be some relationship between
The answer is: ‘Yes!’ Try to find what it is.
 1 Count the faces, edges and vertices of the cube, tetrahedron, pyramid and
triangular prism shown on the previous page.
2 Make a table like this and fill it in.

Faces Edges Vertices

3 Look at the remaining three platonic solids. Add them to the table.
4 Now make some more solids and add them to the table.
5 With all this information can you now find the relationship between F (the
number of faces), E (the number of edges) and V (the number of vertices)?
This relationship was proved by the mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783).
He opened up many new areas of mathematics and was the originator of the
Konigsburg Bridge problem, which may be familiar to your parents and even your
grandparents. Ask your teacher about this puzzle.

7)
sc)
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 ) Algebra 3:
More equations
You already know how to solve simple equations. Now it is time to
look at more complicated examples.

Seeecceecesc ses eG cccccccscceseseeseess Seo ee Pee cecoosreccecesosesosesees eel eO SOS OESER OHO OEDEDOEDOOES

I am ordering trophies for the school football tournament. When I

asked my maths teacher for help, she told me that the cost of one
trophy plus £50 was the same as the cost of three trophies plus £2
I decided to let ® represent the cost of one trophy, and wrote down
an equation.
P+ 50=-H4+P+P4+2

To find the cost of one trophy, I need to solve the above equation.
My teacher then told me this was not a very mathematical approach,
and that it would be easier to use algebra as I know some rules.
Taking c as the cost of one trophy, the equation is:
c+50=3c+2

We can solve this equation in the same way as we solved earlier

equations. By doing the same operation to both sides (to keep
everything balanced) we can simplify the equation until we find a
numeric value for c
c+50=3c+2
(=¢}
50=2c+2
(=2)
48
= 2C
(+2)
24=Cc
c=24
The cost of the trophy is £24
Check: 24+50=74and3x24+2=74V7
 /Remember to take the equation step by step. If you have brackets or more Re:
than one unknown term on one or both sides then you must multiply outtheq
brackets and simplify before you start. :
Step 1 Subtract the smaller unknown term from both sides; i
Step 2 Subtract the remaining number term from both sides. =
Step 3 Finally divide by the coefficient of the unknown.
(The coefficient of x is the number that multiplies x.)

Align the equals signs in your working and always write down what
you are doing to both sides of the equation, as a commentary down
the right-hand side.
If you are confident in recording every step in a calculation, you can
use the shorter method, as shown in the next example.

Example
Solve the equation: 4x + 20 =x + 29
4x+20=x+29
(-x)
3x + 20=29
(- 20)
3x=9
(+ 3)
x=3
Check: 12 + 20 = 32 3+ 29=32/7

Exercise 19. ie
Solve eee ~openinanee
1 2a+4=a+8 6 3y+2=y+8
2 2b+14=3b+8 7 4x+2=x+11
Wn
o 3 4c+12=5c+5 8 2p+14=5p+8
xe)
=
© 4 6x+10=7x+6 9 2¢+12=6¢+8
=
SS
7 5 x+9=8x+4— 10 772+4=52+8
ied)
nn
S)
= Add or subtract?
9)
=
So far you have been subtracting the numbers, to solve the equations.
a)
ic)
Sometimes you will need to add them.
aS)
<=

ony
—
 a
fe)
Example =

Solve the equation: 4a + 12 = 7a-—6

3.
5
ga
4a+12=7a-6 o
=|
a
(— 4a) n

12 =3a-6 oO:
7
(+ 6) a
=|
18= 3a ©
a}
: (= 3) c
pe)
=a ss
fe)
=6 |n
Check: 4 x 6+ 12 = 36 and 7 x6-—6=36V

Exercise 19.2
Solve these equations.
1 2a-—4=a+1 6 7z+9=92-5

2 4b-7=3b+3 7 8p-5=5p+1
3 5c-3=4c+2 8 2¢+1=4q-9

4 3x+3=2x+7 9 2r—3=15+4r

5 4y+1=5y-6 10 7x-7=x+11

Negative numbers or coefficients

Sometimes, when you remove one term, you will be left with a
negative number.
It is very important to write down your working clearly. If you do, you
should be able to work with the negative numbers. Alternatively, you
can avoid having a negative unknown term if you always subtract the
smaller term.

Example
Solve the equation: 6 + 8b = 4b — 10
Do not ignore the
6+ 8b=4b-10 negative signs, they
(— 40) change the value of
6+4b="10 the number, but do
take great care. It is
4b="16 easy to be careless
with negative
b=-4 numbers.
Check: 6 + (-32) =-26 and -16 - 10="26 V
 Now you know how to solve equations with the unknown on both sides,
and those in which the answers are whole numbers, positive or negative.
In some equations, the answer may be a fraction, positive or negative.

Examples
(i) Solve the equation: 3+ 4x =x -1
3+4x=x-1
(—x)
3+3x%=71
(3)
3x="4
: (= 3)
vas 4 Turn your improper fraction into a mixed number for
your answer.
x= ait
3
(ii) Solve the equation: 5 + 11y = 7y—9
5+ 11ly=7y=9
(— 7y)
54+4y=-9
(— 5)
4y="14
(+4)
14 Remember that you
7 should always write
aij fractions in their
2 lowest terms in your
a5 : final answer.

Exercise 19.3
Solve these equations.
1 3x+1=2x-4 6 6c+2=4c-4
Wn
=
xs) 2 3a-1=4a-5 7 2+4p=7p-7
fe
© 3 5y+7=4y-4 8 5¢+7=q-1
S
> 4 4b-1=5b-7
ic) 9 7r+1=e2r-4
ie)
nN
S 5 7+62=52-3. 10 3s—1=7+5s
=
ey)
4)
i
11 4x-—1=x+4+1 16 3+2d=4d-2
a)
iD)
Sy 12 5S5y-—6=3y+1 17 7m-1=m+4
—

<= 13 z2-1=2+32 18 3+2n=8n+9

3) 14 3+6a=a+7
™_ 19 3x-10=7x+4
15 3b-7=4+8b 20 5+6x=3x-2

@)
 =
_ Finally, you need to be prepared for two special situations. 2)
=
3.
1 The vanishing term =}
ga
fe))
=)
Look at this equation. (ae
74)
ied
3x +2 =x =
=)
(2) ga
©
a2x+2=? What is left on the RHS? Oo
Cc
2e+:2 =0 You know that x — x = 0 so write 0 $3)
So
(2)
(2) =}
”n
2x= 2

AY
eR
ER
me
eee
A
Z)
oe

2 The negative term

Look at this equation. Here are two possible solutions.
24+ 2=4.4+ 3x 2x F2=4+3x
(— 3x) . (— 2x)
SA te= 4 2=4+x
(— 2) (— 4)
Se eax

(+71) (= 1)
ee, ee,

Always try to avoid finishing with a negative x-term. If you look

carefully at the equation, you can identify the smaller x-term and
eliminate it. Just take care with signs, and check whether to add or
subtract to eliminate the smaller term.
Sometimes you need to simplify equations before you start to solve them.
Use the abbreviation (S) on the right to show that the stage is simplification.
 E xercise 19.4
= a — i

Solve these equations.

1 7c-—4+4c=8 6 12b=3b+1-7b

2 3x=3-2x+6 7 11-2t=3+2t-9

3 2=6-82-z 8 5(2+2z)=7-3z

4 3-2a+a=8+3a-4 9 7-a=4a-3(a-3)
5 4x-1+3x=3x-6-x 10 3(5-4c) =2(1+4+ 5c)
You have now solved equations in various different forms. See how
quickly you can do the next 20 questions - time yourself.

Exercise 19.5 i
Solve these equations.
1 44+a=6 6 9-3z7=3
2 2=5-5 7 3(s+1)=2
3 9c=15 8 7=2(t-3)
= few 9 a(v+4)=2
5 2y+1=7 hy os
3

11 3(y-2)=1 16 5n+3=2n
12 32+3=27+7 | 17 8-x+4x=5
13 5p-5=6p+9 18 4-3y-7=5y+12-2y
14 3g-1=4+ 4 19 5(1-3z)=7(2-2)
15 7m+4=5+2m 20 7- 4x =3(3+2x)
Wy
=
a2)
ary
©
S Now that you are good at solving equations, you can put what you
Sz
iB) know into practice, by solving real problems. When you do, make sure
ic)
i you know what you are representing by the letters you choose. It could
= be a quantity, for example cost, mass, age or just an unknown number.
9)
S
Q
is)
=>)
—
<=
2)
—
Example
| am given the same amount of pocket money each week. One week
Always start
| bought four tennis balls and had 27p left over. The next week | bought
by defining what
two tennis balls and had £1.45 left over. How much do the tennis balls
unknown numerical
cost and how much pocket money do | get each week?
value the letter
Let one tennis ball cost x pence. represents.

Week 1: 4x + 27
Week 2: 2x+ 145
| had the same amount of money each week, so:
SuIs
eiga
SLUa]
0}
aAjo
4x+27=2x+
145
(= 2%)
2x +27 = 145
(=27]
2x = 118
(22)
59

Check 4x59+27=263; 2x59+145=263 V Write your answer

as a sentence.
Tennis balls cost 59 pence each and | get £2.63 pocket money each week.

Exercise 19.6 :
1 | have just enough money to buy either four packets of Jellos or two packets
of Jellos and 15 sticks of liquorice at 2p per stick.
(a) A packet of Jellos costs x. What is the cost of four packets, in terms of
ae

(b) What is the cost of two packets of Jellos and the 15 sticks of liquorice,
in terms of x?

(c) Form an equation in terms of x and solve it.

(d) How much does a packet of Jellos cost and how much money did | have
to start with?
as the
2 Buns cost 24p each. The cost of four cakes and six buns is the same
cost of three buns and five cakes.
the cost
(a) Cakes cost c pence each. Write an expression in terms of c for
of four cakes and six buns.

(b) Write an expression in terms of c for the cost of 3 buns and 5 cakes.
(c) Write an equation in terms c and solve it.
(d) What is the cost of five cakes?
 3 Here are two angles on a straight line.

2x
+ 30

Form an equation in terms of x and solve it to find the sizes of the two angles.
4 (a) What is the angle sum of a triangle?
(b) Form an equation in terms of x for the angle sum of this triangle. Solve
your equation to find the sizes of the three angles in the triangle.

5 | have three pieces of string. The second piece is 5cm shorter than the first
piece and the third piece is 10cm longer than the first piece.
(a) The length of the first piece of string is s. Write an expression in terms of
s for the length of the second piece.
(b) Write an expression in terms of s for the length of the third piece.
(c) The first and second piece together are the same length as the third
piece. Write an equation in terms of s and solve it.
(d) What is the total length of all three pieces of string?
6 My grandfather gave me some money. He gave my elder brother £10 more
than he gave me and he gave my younger sister £2 less than he gave me.
(a) If my grandfather gave me £m, how much, in terms of m, did he give my
brother and my sister?
(b) How much did my grandfather give us altogether?
<
2)

Ss (c) The total amount that my grandfather gave us was four times the
ow)
ic amount that | received. How much, in terms of m, did 3, grandfather
=
> give us altogether?
<b)
w= (d) Form an equation in terms of m and solve it to find out how much we
> each received.
a) 7 Louis baked x cakes and India baked three times as many as Louis did. Archie
4)
S
_
baked 15 cakes more than Louis did.
o
=) (a) How many cakes did India bake?
<=
(b) How many cakes did Archie bake?
ep)
™
 (c) Archie baked the same number of cakes as Louis and India together.
Form an equation in terms of x and solve it to find out how many cakes
each of them baked.
8 On Mother's Day my son gave me one red rose for each year of his age, and
my daughter gave me two white roses for each year of her age. My son is
four years older than my daughter and | received 28 roses altogether.
(a) My son is s years old. How many roses did he give me?
(b) How old is my daughter, in terms of s?
(c) How many roses did my daughter give me, in terms of s?
(d) Form an equation in terms of s and solve it to find the ages of my two SUIS)
e’gas
SUa}
0}
aajos
children.
9 The perimeter of this rectangle is 52cm.

3x +1

Form an equation in terms of x and solve it to find the length and width of
the rectangle.
10 For our maths homework | worked out that the length of the side of this
square must be 2x + 9. My friend worked out that it was 3x-1
As it happened, we were both correct! 2x+9

Form an equation in terms of x and solve it, then find the area of the square.
11 Ihave to write a 1000-word essay. | have written most of it and now |just 3x-1
have to write one third of the amount that | have already written, plus 20
words. How many words have | already written?
of Perli
12 Kola Cola costs 6p more per can than Perli Cola. | can buy four tins
three cans of Kola Cola. What is the cost
Cola for the same price as | can buy
of each brand of cola?

xtension [SG eae

New operations
need to define the
In the exercises on algebra and arithmetic you did not
symbols. They all had a known meaning.
l code. You may wish to
It can be quite interesting to set up your own specia
you know about.
define some new symbols with meanings that only
of +, —, X or +, or other
The new symbols should represent a new sequence
operations.
 Example
The symbol # means ‘is 4 more than’.
So12#8 4#0 23 # 27(as8=4+44)
Find the value of x when: (i) x #7 (ii) 20 # x?
(i) Ifx # 7 thenx=4+7
=11 11 is 4 more than 7
(ii) If 20 # x? then 20 = 4 + x?
AGieix?
sox=4or 4

1 (a) Given that # means ‘is 4 more than’, which of these statements is true?
(i) 10#6 (ii) 3#7 (iii) 43 # 4?
(b) Find a value of x that makes each of these statements true. You may find that
:
(i) 7#x (iii) 2x # x (v) 20 #0
8 .
(ii) x #15 (iv) 5 #—1 24.4
(Vile xX

Example |
Given that # means ‘is 4 more than’ and 6 # 4 find the value of x
6=4+1x
a= 1: (
i x .

|
ate

2 Given that + means ‘is 3 less than’ then:

1#4 &#1is3 less than 4

“142 ~1is3 less than 2

(a) Which of these statements are true?

Aty5.32 0 (ii) —5 +-2
(iii 2x 3)
$ 3?
(b) Find a value of x that makes each of these statements true.
(i) 394x (iii) 4x + x | (v) "se
ee
(ii) x #~5 (iv) x + 2x

Algebra
19
3:
More
equations
3 If the symbol A between two numbers means ‘is one more than half of’,
then 5 A 8 (5 is one more than 4 which is half of 8).
(a) Which of these statements is true?
(i) 4A6 (ii) 3A 1 (iii) : Is sae|

(b) Find a value of x that makes each of these statements true.

(i) xat (iii) 2ax (v) ta4
(ii) 6Ax (iv) x A 1 (vi) x A 3x

4 \f the symbol © means ‘the remainder when the second number is divided
Suis
eigas
SLUa]q
0}
Bajos
by 9’, then 3 © 21, since 21 +9 =2 remainder 3
(a) Which of these statements are true?
(i) 1°19 (ii) 5° 13 (iii)
3 ©3
(b) If x © y, are there any values of x and y such that x is greater than y?
(c) Write a value of x, between 20 and 30, that makes each of these
statements true.
(i) OOx (ii) 8 Ox (iii)
5©x
(d) Find as many values of x as you can to make the statement x © 4x true.

Summary Exercise 19.8 >

1 Solve these equations.
(a) 3x+8=2x+5 (d) 4-3x=5+x

(b) x+8=2x-3 +5)

(e) 5(x + 1) =2(x
(c) 5-2x=2x+1 (f) 9-x+8=2x-3+7x

2 Jamie, Henry, Charlie and Oliver have been on the school ski trip. When they
return, they compare how much money they have left. Jamie has twice as
many euros left as Charlie does. Henry has 10 euros more than Charlie does.
Oliver has €7. Together Jamie, Charlie and Oliver have the same number of
euros as Henry.

(a) Charlie has x euros. How many has:

(i) Jamie (ii) Henry?
(b) Form an equation in terms of x and solve it to find how many euros
Charlie has.
(c) How much money do the four of them have altogether?
 3 For the same amount of money, | can buy either five sticks of liquorice and
eight penny sweets or four sticks of liquorice and 12 penny sweets.
(a) If the cost of a stick of liquorice is x pence, what is the cost, in terms of x,
of five sticks of liquorice and eight penny sweets?
(b) What is the cost, in terms of x, of four sticks of liquorice and 12 penny
sweets?

(c) Write an equation in terms of x and solve it to find the cost of a stick of
liquorice.
4 Mia won the school mathematics prize and received a book token to spend.
When she went to the book shop, she found that they have some special-
offer books at half price. She could buy either five books at the normal price
and have £1.50 change or 11 special-offer books and have 55p change.
(a) If the special offer price is x pence, what will the normal price be?
(b) Write an equation in terms of x and solve it to find the normal price
of books.
(c) What was the value of Mia’s book token?

Ww
°c
ao)
rar
1)
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ie)
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 Sequences

A sequence is a set of numbers or shapes that follow a pattern.

Peer ervrrerse > reeererrey > Peverers rv iyererrrrirvi ee)

Look at these sequences of numbers.

2; 4, OpOr eO, te, 14;

4ea ems AS? a Bt ee ho eee

Bee Ee, oo; LO, CL, -.

The first is the sequence of even numbers, the second is the sequence
of odd numbers and the third is the three-times table, or the
sequence of multiples of three.
These are familiar sequences. If you were asked to find the 100th even
number, odd number or multiple of three, you could do that quite easily.
@ 100th even number is 200 2 OO

@ 100th odd number is 199 1 less than the 100th even number

@ 100th multiple of three is 300 3x 100

It is not so easy to recognise other sequences, or to calculate their

100th terms.
If a sequence goes up in regular steps, you can compare it to a times
table.

Example
100th term.
Work out the next two terms in this sequence and write down the
3, 8, 13, 18, ae AS
; ' = Check this is the
The difference between the terms is 13 —- 8 =5

The next terms are:

18+5=23 23+5=28
The times table that goes up in 5s is the 5 times table.
This sequence is the 5 times table less 2
The 100th term is 5 x 100 -2= 498

@)
 E xercise 20.1
1 (a) Write out the next three terms of each sequence.
(i) 5, 10, 15, 20025, 4,
(ii) 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, «4, a.
(b) Write down the 100th term of each of the sequences in part (a).
Show your calculations clearly.
2 (a) Write out the next three terms of each sequence.
(I) icte8 912301 200k ten
(iret, (15,10 ee
(b) Write down the 100th term of each of the sequences in part (a).
Show your calculations clearly.
3 (a) Write out the next three terms of each sequence.
(i), 6, 12018, 24, 30).4.e.
(PORTS 2152733) fen

(b) Write down the 100th term of each of the sequences in part (a).
Show your calculations clearly.
Did you notice that the sequences in the last three questions went in pairs?
If you did, you may also have seen a connection between the first and second
terms in each pair.

Now try these. They are like the second sequence in each pair above.
4 (a) Write out the next three terms of each sequence.
bez SO Pla ee he
(fi)! .5;/125 19; 26, 33, Sean
(iii) 4, 9, 14, 19, 24, ..., ...,
(b) Write down the 100th term of each of the sequences in part (a).
Show your calculations clearly.
For other sequences it may be harder to find the pattern. See if you can recognise
these. You have met them before. Look carefully at the pattern of differences.
5 (a) Write out the next three terms of each sequence.
(ee eee
vn
13)
Ce 6 10 18, 28:
1S)
©
Y {it} Wee 293528: 13 ee.
=}
o
Y
(b) Write down the 10th term in each sequence above, showing your
WF
calculations clearly.
=)
N

(es)
Sequences and patterns
Many sequences are generated by geometrical patterns. Drawing
patterns can help you to work out the rule behind a particular sequence.

Exercise 20.2 Z
1 Look at this sequence of patterns.
Sulsi
sadua

“. oe
(a) Draw the next two patterns.

Number of white rectangles

Number of green rectangles

(c) Write down the calculation you used to find the number of green
rectangles in the 100th pattern.
2 Look at this sequence of patterns.

"a
(a) Draw the next two patterns. (b) Copy and complete this table.

Number of white rectangles

Number of green rectangles

(c) Write down the calculation you used to find the number of green
rectangles in the 20th pattern.

3 Look at this sequence of patterns.

lel
(a) Draw the next two patterns.
om
(b) Copy and complete this table.

Number of white rectangles

Number of green rectangles
of green
(c) Write down the calculation you used to find the number
rectangles in the 100th pattern .
generated in the
(d) What is the name of the sequence of numbers you have
green rectangles row?
 4 Look at this sequence of patterns, drawn on square spotted paper.

. | | eg
Eee, : Se : . a iad tSeer ei
:
;: ;:
: : ;

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3

(a) Draw the next two patterns. (b) Copy and complete this table. ’

Number of ines | LD
(c) Write down the calculation you used to find the number of lines in the
100th pattern.
5 Look at this sequence of patterns, drawn on triangular spotted paper.
/

V/\ ‘ ;
aR)
f \ /| \
Renrs Sed es Yo¥ Oe:/\/
rN maar is” ra

YP %, th18, 24 99... \yhordiio 19dmwn athtna gf Vi VA

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3

(a) Draw the next two patterns.

(b) Draw a table like the one in question 4 and fill it in.
(c) Write down the calculation you used to find the number of lines in the
100th pattern.
6 Look at this sequence of patterns.

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 Pattern 4

(a) Draw the next two patterns in (b) Copy and complete this table.
the series.

(c) Add an extra row for the 100th pattern number and explain how you -
Sequences calculate each of your answers.
20
7 Look at this sequence of patterns. m
Oo

, so oe
Cc
is)
Fy
2)
a
n“
=p
°
=
Ww
@o
O
9
Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 i)
3
im)
1)
(a) Draw the next two patterns in the series. n“

(b) Copy and complete a table like the one in question 6

(c) Add an extra row for the 100th pattern number and explain how you
calculate each of your answers.
8 (a) Make up a pattern of your own. Use squared paper.
(b) Draw up a table like those you have used earlier.
(c) Calculate the numbers in your 100th pattern, showing your calculations
clearly.

().Equations for sequences

Pre ery eee EE deeded

In the last exercise, the patterns helped you to understand the

relationship between the pattern number and the rule. You can also
use algebra to help understand the rule.
Consider an equation, such as y= 2x +1
There is one value of y for each value of x
Taking the values of x as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... gives the values of
1 Sie a ay Ana awWs Fae

You can write this in a different way, taking the y numbers as a

sequence. Then the values of x tell you the number of the term in the
sequence that you are looking at.
It is common to use the letter n in sequences, rather than x and y.
Then n stands for the pattern or term number in the sequence.
@ forthe first term n=1

@ for the second term n=2

@ for the third term n=3
@ for the Ath term nek
is 2n+1
So the rule for the nth term of the sequence above
 When you are considering sequences, you can also use the ‘What's In
in the box?’ technique, as in Book 1. The boxes represent function | —>—
machines. Each function machine changes the number that goes 2 —»—
in so that a new number comes out. Here is a “x 2’ machine. aye
4 > IN
BS
oF
oO

Exercise 20.3 F
eT De ee ee oa aT aacae

The nth term of a sequence is given by the formula: nth term =n + 4

Write down:
(a) the first term (c) the third term
(b) the second term (d) the fourth term.
2 The nth term of a sequence is given by the formula: nth term =n — 1
Write down:
(a) the first term (c) the third term
(b) the second term (d) the fourth term.
3 The nthterm of a sequence W is given by the formula: nth term = 3n + 2
Write down:
(a) the first term (c) the seventh term
(b) the second term (d) the tenth term.
4 The nthterm of a sequence S is given by the formula: nth term = 3 + 2n
Write down:
(a) the first term (c) the fifth term
(b) the third term (d) the eighth term.
5 The nth term of a sequence T is given by the formula: nth term = 5 +n
Write down:
(a) the first term (c) the sixth term
(b) the second term (d) the ninth term.
6 The nthterm of a sequence V is given by the formula: nth term = 5n+ 1
Write down:
(a) the first term (c) the 20th term
(b) the fifth term (d) the 100th term.

wn
cob)
U0
Finding the rule
S
co) Another useful method for finding the rules behind patterns of numbers
=)
S is a relationship diagram. These are like the tables you used when you
1)
oa drew the patterns, or the ‘In’ and ‘Out’ lists on the function machines.
i=)
N
Example
Find the next three terms and the rule for the nth term for this sequence.
4,7, 10, 13
The difference between consecutive terms is 3
The next terms will be:
13+ 3= 16 16+3=19 19+3=22
suoi
sadu
Jo}
Draw a relationship diagram for these terms and add three
more rows. From the mth term column it is
clear that the numbers go up in
n> nth term a 3n threes. The three-times table goes up
W 3-3 4 ae 3 in threes, and each of these numbers
Webel . ss E is just one more than a number in the
three-times table. So from this the
es 10 = 9 rule must be:

Peon 13 a 12 nth term = 3n+ 1

2 Oe 16 acd 15
The three-times table is written
Gs > 19 cae tS) as 3n ina third column so you can
pax" 22 meg 71 check this.

Exercise 20.4
1 Work out the next three terms in the series and hence find the rule for the
nth term.

2.5, 8y14
Draw a relationship diagram to help!
2 Work out the next three terms in the series and hence find the rule for the
nth term.

6, 11,16, 21
for the
3 Work out the next three terms in the series and hence find the rule
nth term.

2, 6, 10, 14
4 Find the next three terms in the series and hence the rule for the nth term.
5, 12, 19, 26
rule for the
5 Work out the next three terms in the series and hence find the
nth term.
3,9, 15,21
in questions 1—5 of
6 Find the rules for the nth term for each of the sequences
Exercise 20.2
 A different rule
You have been considering sequences in which the difference between
two consecutive terms was the same. For example, the sequence 1, 5,
9, 13, ... has a constant difference of 4 and so is based on the four-
times table or 4n.
Other sequences may be based on different patterns. You should
recognise this sequence of square numbers.
T6016 2? oo.

The differences have their own pattern.

(Se
ee) re

Can you see the pattern in those differences? You should recognise
that the nth term is based on the square numbers (n°)

Example
Find the next three terms and hence the rule for the nth term for this sequence.
3, 6, 11, 18
The pattern of differences is 3, 5, 7
The next three differences will be 9, 11, 13
This is the pattern of differences for the square numbers.
Draw up a relationship diagram and add three more rows.
n—- nth term = n?
1 - 3 > 1

2- 6 ~ 4
3 > 17 >
4-> 18 ~ 16
5 = 27 _ 25

6 - 38 > 36
7 - 51 = 49
The rule is T, =n? +2

20
Sequences
 m

E xercise 20.5 O
fs
cy)
1 ;
chs
fe)
1 Work out the next three terms in the series and hence find the rule for the S
n
nth term. Ss
fe)
=m
1, 4, 9, 16 wn
0)
Le)
2 Work out the next three terms in the series and hence find the rule for the (Se
o)
=
nth term. ra
0)
n
Ze aed On 17.
3 Work out the next three terms in the series and hence find the rule for the
nth term.

0/3, 8,15
4 Work out the next three terms in the series and hence find the rule for the
nth term.

4,7, 12, 19
5 Work out the rule for the mth term of each of the sequences in questions 6
and 7 of Exercise 20.2

Extension [3 Gitar4h
There were a couple of sequences in the first exercise that did not fit either the
constant difference pattern or the square number pattern. Take another look at
them.
Sequence 1
FE Sy | a es ee eel

Consider the differences.

eG a
es
These differences go up by one each time. Where have you seen this before? This
diagram should give you a clue.
Ty T> T3 Ty

e s e bd

e e e e e e

e e e e e e

e e e e

sequence.
Whichever way you arrange the dots, they make the same number
T,=1=1
T,=1+2=3
fea 1+24+3=6
 Do you recognise them now? They are the triangular numbers.
Is there a rule for the nth triangular number?
Look at this diagram.
e e e e ee e e e ee e« oe e e
°e e e of 6. a>. ie eo e e e© «
ee e e oe SEY G °
co e« © “© \e
2X1, Zl 2x1, 2xT,
=1x2 Saya =3x4 =E ES
74 =6 Sie =20
Then it follows that:
2xT, =nx(n+1)
=n(n+ 1)
And therefore the formula for the nth triangle number must be:
eel n(n+ 1)
See
1 Write down the next three terms and HS the rule for the nth term of each
sequence.

(a) 0,2,5,9, 14,...

(b) 0, 1, 3,6, 10, 15,...
(c) 2,6, 12, 20, 30, ...
2 Draw a circle and divide it into a number of regions.

(a) Copy the diagrams and then draw the next three in the sequence. ee
line must cross every other line.
(b) Copy and complete this table.

Number of lines

Number of regions
WY
ob)
rw)
=
(c) From your table, write a formula for R,, the number of regions when you
co)
=}
have n lines.
>a
co)
nH
(d) Draw a circle divided up by eight lines and check that your formula eee
when n= 8
i=)
N
Sequence 2

A gp 08, Wyn. wony. cons

Consider the differences.
ee
0
7 ee 8 3
The sequence of differences is the same as the original sequence. You have met
this pattern before. It is known as the Fibonacci sequence. There are other
sequences that are formed in the same way.
suoiz
sadua
10}
3 Write down the next three terms of each sequence.
Gey YP ee
(3 4 ee Se.Oy2 a b> Seen
“fo US Birk Sie (a
4 Copy these sequences and fill in the missing numbers.
Ee eae ee
he) OS GOS Ss eee «ee
A YR Ae i ee
BPO 32, 18, oa 2s ey Ay

Summary Exercise 20.7

1 (a) Write out the next three terms of each sequence.
hyneiie 24,32, 40,5 4,-
(ii) 5, 13, 21, 29, 37, coos over o++

(b) Write down the 100th term in each sequence in part (a). Show your
calculations clearly.

2 (a) Write out the next three terms of each sequence.

(i) 9, 19, 29, 39, 49, oy aye
(ii) 7, 12, 17, 22, 27g
(b) Write down the 100th term for each sequence in part (a). Show your
calculations clearly.
 3 Look at this series of patterns.
® e@ @ eee
ee e»* @6 @oee8e@
@ e@ ®@ eee
(a) Draw the next three patterns in the series.
(b) Copy and complete this table.

Number of green dots

INIVIg) oY=1 mo)ils)E-\olaraloya

(c) How many black dots will there be if there are 10 green dots?
(d) How many green dots will there be if there are 100 black dots?
4 The nthterm of a sequence is given by the formula 20 — 3n. Write down:
(a) the first term (c) the sixth term
(b) the third term (d) the 12th term.
5 Write down the next three terms and then the rule for the nth term in this
sequence.
25,9543
Draw a relationship diagram if it helps.
6 Write down the next three terms and then the rule for the nth term in this
sequence.

3, 6.44, 17.

Activity: Pentagonal and hexagonal numbers ;

You have looked at the patterns of eraagles and squares, produced by dots and
have seen that they give the triangular numbers and square numbers.
Copy and complete this table for the number of dots in each pattern number
below.

Number First hY-rere) ava! Third Fourth Fifth

Triangular
Square

The two next shapes in this sequence are pentagons and hexagons. Look at the
patterns that they produce.
n
is)
1S)
°
i)
a)
>
<3)
WF

1)
N
Pentagonal

1st 2nd 3rd Ath

suoij
sadua
40}

Hexagonal

a i}
ey

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Now add these to your copy of the table above and record these numbers.

Number First Second Bialiae} Fourth aiaen)

Triangular teal
Square
Pentagonal
Hexagonal

Try to work out the rule for the nth number.

Without drawing patterns, can you extend the table for heptagonal and
octagonal numbers? Have a go!
Glossary
2D Two-dimensional: a plane (flat) shape such as a rectangle or circle.
3D Three-dimensional: a solid object such as a cube or sphere.
Acute angle An angle that is between 0° and 90°
Alternate angles Equal angles formed when a transversal crosses parallel lines,
found in a Z-shape.
Area The amount of space inside a 2D shape such as a rectangle or circle,
measured in square units such as square centimetres (cm2).
Axes The plural of axis; the horizontal and vertical number lines on which a
co-ordinate grid is based, they tell you the values of the data.
Bisect Divide a line or an angle into two equal parts.
Cancel Divide the top and bottom of a fraction by one or more common factors
to reduce it to its lowest terms.
Circumference The line round the outside, or the perimeter, of a circle.
Chord A line across a circle which does not pass through the centre.
Coefficient The number multiplying an algebraic variable in a term.
Co-interior angles Angles formed when a transversal crosses parallel lines,
inside a C-shape, which add up to 180°
Co-ordinates The horizontal and vertical distances from the origin (the point
where the axes cross), used to plot a point on a grid; for example, the point
(3, 5) is 3 units along and 5 units up from the origin.
Corresponding angles Equal angles formed when a transversal crosses parallel
lines, found in an F-shape.
Common factors Numbers that are factors of two or more other numbers; for
example, 5 is a common factor of 20 and 25
Common multiples Numbers that are multiples of two or more other numbers;
for example, 100 is a common multiple of 20 and 25
Congruent Exactly the same shape and the same size.
Co-ordinate grid The grid on which the horizontal and vertical axes and the
graph are drawn.
Cube number A number multiplied by itself and by itself again; for example,
Be 3 3 me 37 = 27
Cube root of a number is a value that when cubed gives the original number.
Cube root of 27 is 3 and 3 cubed is 27
Cube A 3D shape with 6 faces that are all identical squares.
Cuboid A 3D shape that has 6 faces that are all rectangles, although some of
the rectangles may be squares.
Data A set or piece of information, for example, highest daily temperatures;
data may refer to a group of values that can be analysed and recorded in a
table or plotted on a chart or graph.
Decimal fraction A number less than one, written after a decimal point.
Decimal place The position in a number of a digit that occurs to the right of
the decimal point; they include tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc.
Denominator The bottom number in a fraction, showing the number of parts
into which the whole is divided.
Diagonal A line joining non-adjacent vertices in a 2D or 3D shape.
Diameter A line joining two points on the circumference of a circle and
passing through the centre; the diameter is twice the radius.
Difference The result of subtracting a smaller number from a larger number;
for example, the difference between 5 and 11 is 6 (11 — 5)
Digit One of the symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 used to make numbers; for
example, 45 is a two-digit number. Kiess
Equation A mathematical sentence that includes an equalssign; equations
frequently contain at least one unknown term and may be solved.
Equivalent fractions Fractions that have the same value although their
numerators and denominators are different; for example, 3.= 3
Equivalent fractions, decimals and percentages Fractions, decimals and
percentages that are equal; for example, 20% = 0.2 = :
Equivalent units The approximate comparison between metric and imperial units.
1 foot ~ 30cm, 1 metre ~ 3 ft 3in or 3.25 feet
8 kilometres = 5 miles
1lb =~ 450g and 1kg = 2.2lb
1 pint ~ 600 ml, 1 gallon ~ 4.5 litres, 1 litre ~ 1.7 pints
10 litres ~ 2.2 gallons
Estimate Make an approximation, often by calculating with rounded numbers.
Evaluate Calculate the answer to
Expression A mathematical phrase, with no equals or inequality signs,
which may comprise numbers, unknown terms or variables (such as x) and
operators. An expression could also be a fraction and may contain brackets.
An expression may be simplified but cannot be solved.
Factor A number that divides exactly into another number; for example, 1, 2, 3
and 6 are factors of 6 and6=2x3=1x6
Factor pair Two factors that when multiplied together give the number being
considered; for example, factor pairs of 6 are 1 and 6, 2 and 3
Formula A rule used to calculate a specific value, often written in letters or
words; for example, the formula for the
volume of a cuboid = length (/) x width (w) x height (h) or V = lwh
Fraction A number less than one, written with a numerator and a denominator,
such as 3
Highest cominon factor (HCF) 1, 2, 3 and 6 are factors of both 12 and 18.
The HCF of 12 and 18 is 6
Imperial units Non-metric units in common use in Britain and America.
Mass (weight)
16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb)
14 pounds (lb) = 1 stone (st) 1 ton (t) = 2240 pounds (lb)
Length
12 inches (in) =1 foot (ft) 3 feet (ft) = 1 yard (yd)
1760 yards (yd) = 1 mile
Capacity or volume
2 pints (pt) =1 quart (qt) 8 pints (pt) =1 gallon (gall)
Improper fraction A fraction in which the numerator (top number) is larger
than the denominator (bottom number), such as i
Index number The number of times a number or unknown is multiplied by itself.
Inequality A relationship between two values that are not equal, using one
of the symbols < (less than), > (more than), < (less than or equal to) or
> (more than or equal to), # not equal too.
 Integer A whole number, positive or negative; for example, 4, ~3 and 17 are all
integers.
Inverse An opposite calculation; addition is the inverse of subtraction,
division is the inverse of multiplication.
Isosceles triangle A triangle with two equal sides and two equal angles.
Line graph A line that represents the relationship between two variables, such
as distance and time; it may be straight or curved.
Line of symmetry The line that divides a shape into two congruent parts, one
being a reflection of the other.
Long division Division by a number with two or more digits, showing each
stage of the calculation and working down the page.
Long multiplication Multiplication by a number with two or more digits,
showing each stage of the calculation; multiplication by first the units, then
the tens, and so on, with the sum of the multiplications at the bottom.
Lowest common multiple The lowest multiple two numbers have in common.
For example: the lowest common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6
Lowest terms A fraction or ratio in which the components (numerator and
denominator) have no common factors.
Mean The average that is the sum of all the values divided by the number
of values, often referred to simply as the ‘average’; for example, the mean of
gi, 15), 7and 9= 2424749 _ at= 6

Median The middle value in a row of numbers arranged in numerical order;

for an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the middle two
numbers.
Metric units Units of mass (weight), length and capacity (volume) that are in
use in Britain and in Europe as well as many other countries.
Mass
1000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram (g) 1000 grams (g) = 1 kilogram (kg)
1000 kilograms (kg) = 1 metric tonne (t)
Length
10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm) 100 centimetres (cm) = 1 metre (m)
1000 millimetres (mm) = 1 metre (m) 1000 metres (m) = 1 kilometre (km)
Capacity (volume)
1000 millitres (ml)= 1 litre (l)
Mixed number A die say of a whole number and a proper fraction;
for example, 22
Mode The value ne occurs most often in a set of data; this is the only
average that may apply to non-numeric data.
Multiple A number that is a product (result of a multiplication) of a factor; for
example, 6 is a multiple of 2
Negative numbers Numbers less than zero (0); for example, ~4, called
‘negative 4’
Net A 2D shape that can be folded up to form a 3D shape.
Numerator The top number on a fraction; it tells you how many parts of the
whole you have.
Obtuse angle An angle between 90° and 180°
i
Me) Order of operations The order in which a calculation should be done: brackets;
WH
wH index numbers or other calculation then divide, multiply, add, subtract (BIDMAS).
aS
o)
Parallel Lines that are the same distance apart and will never meet, however
far they are extended.
Parallelogram A quadrilateral with two pairs of equal and parallel sides.
Percentage A fraction expressed as hundredths of a whole, written with a Aiess
percentage sign; for example, 25% = a
Perimeter The line around the outside of a 2D shape.
Pie chart A chart in the shape of a circle, in which quantities are represented
as proportions of the whole, according to the angle at the centre of each
sector.
Polygon A 2D shape with sides that are straight lines.
3 sides - a triangle 4 sides - a quadrilateral
5 sides - a pentagon 6 sides - a hexagon
7 sides - a heptagon 8 sides - an octagon
9 sides - a nonagon 10 sides - a decagon
12 sides - a dodecagon 20 sides - an icosagon
Powers of 10 The numbers that result from multiplying 10 by itself: 10° = 1,
10! = 10, 102 = 100, 10? = 1000, 10* = 10000, 10° = 100000, 10° = 1000000,
107= 7 =0.1
Prime factor A factor that is a prime number; for example, 2 and 3 are prime
factors of 6
Prime number A number that has exactly two factors, itself and 1; for
example, 2, 3, 5 and 7 are prime numbers, but 1 is not.
Product The result of a multiplication; for example, the product of 3 and 4 is 12
Proper fraction is where the numerator (the top number) is less than the
denominator (the bottom number); for example, 2
Protractor A transparent circular or semi-circular scale used to measure angles.
Quadrant 1 A quarter of a circle.
2 One of the four sections of a co-ordinate grid between the horizontal and
vertical axes.
Quotient The whole number part of the result of a division calculation; for
example, for 25 + 2 = 12 remainder 1, 12 is the quotient.
Radius 1 The distance from the centre of a circle to the circumference.
2 A line from the centre of a circle to the circumference.
All radii are the same length in any one circle.
Range The difference between the highest and lowest values.
Ratio A relationship between two or more parts of a whole, expressed in the
form ‘a to b’ ora: b
Rectangle A quadrilateral with four right angles and two pairs of equal sides.
of
Reciprocal The result of dividing 1 by a number; for example, the reciprocal
2 is ; and the reciprocal of 2is 4
and
Reflection A shape as seen in a mirror; the original shape is the object
the reflected shape is its image.
Reflex angle An angle between 180° and 360°
for example,
Remainder The part that is left over in a division calculation;
25 + 2=12 remainder 1
Rhombus A quadrilateral with four equal sides.
 Right angle An angle that is equal to 90°
Root A number that, multiplied by itself one or more times, gives the number of
which it is the root; for example, 3 is the square root of 9 (9 = 3), 2 is the
cube root of 8 (2/8 = 2). Roots may not be exact; for example, on a calculator
the square root of 2 is 1.4142... but the exact value is written as /2
Rotation A turn of an object through a number of degrees, clockwise or anti-
clockwise, about a centre of rotation.
Round Approximate a number to a given accuracy, such as to:
the nearest whole number
the nearest ten, hundred, thousand, ...
one, two, three or more decimal places (d.p.)
one, two, three or more significant figures (s.f).
Scale factor The ratio of the length of the enlargement to the length of the
Original object, or with its representation on a map or plan.
Sector Part of a circle enclosed by an arc and two radii.
Segment The part of a circle between a chord and an arc.
Significant figures The numbers that show the magnitude of a number that
has been rounded to a degree of accuracy; for example, 34567 = 34600 to
3 s.f. When 3046 is rounded to 3 s.f., it is written as 3050 and the three
digits in bold are significant.
Similar Exactly the same shape but not the same size.
Simplest form See lowest terms
Simplify Reduce (a fraction or ratio) to its lowest terms or an expression to its
simplest form.
Square number A number that can be expressed as one of its factors
multiplied by itself; for example, 4 x 4 = 16, 4 is the square root of 16 and
16 is a Square number.
Square root (see root)
Standard index form A way of writing a number as a number between 1 and
10 multiplied by a power of 10; very large and very small numbers may be
displayed on a calculator in standard index form; for example, 34000 may be
shown as 3.4 x 104
Statistics The process of collecting and analysing numerical data.
Substitution Means replacing letters in a formula with numerical values.
Sum The answer to an addition calculation; for example, the sum of 3 and 4 is 7
Supplementary angles Two angles which add up to 180°
Transformation A change to a 2D shape, may be a translation, reflection,
rotation or enlargement, that changes the position or size of a shape (the
object) to form its image.
Translation A movement of an object, first parallel to the horizontal axis, then
parallel to the vertical axis, to produce its image.
Triangular number A number that can be represented in the form of a triangle.
Triangle numbers can be calculated on the sum of consecutive numbers
starting with 1
Variable An unknown value, usually represented by a letter such as x.
Venn diagram A diagram representing mathematical sets pictorially as circles
or closed curves with common elements of the sets being represented by
Q
1a) intersections of the circles.
~Y
%) Vertically opposite The angles formed when two straight lines cross. At every
aS) such point, there are two pairs of equal vertically opposite angles.
)
Index
acute angles 203 drawing scale diagrams 239, 242-43 co-ordinate grids
addition treasure map activity 248 closed shapes on 253
of fractions 63-64 best fit, line of 281-82 enlargement on 182-83
written calculations 35 bias 78 co-ordinates 250
algebra BIDMAS rule 10 correlation 281
equations involving fractions 198 bisecting a line 232-33 corresponding angles 206
equations with brackets 197 bisecting an angle 231-32 cube numbers 26, 124
forming equations 319-22 board game design 91 cube roots 26, 30-31, 124
formulae 104-10 brackets 189 cubes (3D shapes) 317
negative terms 323 collecting like terms 190 net of 305
new operations 327-28 in equations 197, 201 volume of 309
powers of x 94-96 factorising 193 cuboids
rules of 92-93 and index numbers 97-98 finding the height or depth of 311
solving equations 194-95, and minus signs 191-92 net of 306
319-22 multiplying out 189 surface area of 307
solving real problems 324-25 use on calculators 46 volume of 308-09
squares and square roots 196 and word problems 199 data 265
substituting variables in calculator games 129-30 averages 265-68
expressions 99, 102-03, 110 calculators 46 traffic survey activity 287
vanishing terms 323 negative numbers 101 data grouping 272
algebraic fractions 96 percentages 162 data presentation 269
al-Khwarazmi 92 powers and roots 124-25 pie charts 274-79
allied angles (co-interior angles) 206 standard index form 121-22 scatter graphs 280-82
alternate angles 206 cancelling 60 decimal number system 2
angle sum of a polygon 216 capacity 305 decimal places 117
angles 203-04 impenal units 55 decimals 2
see also bearings metric units 52 corresponding fractions and
bisecting 231-32 cards, packs of 80 percentages 159-61
naming them 208-09 centre of enlargement 183 multiplying and dividing by 39-41
of parallel lines 206, 210 centre of rotation 290 powers and roots 125-26
in pie charts 275-77 chords 153 powers of ten 118-21
of a polygon 214-19 Christmas lunch investigation rounding 11-12
of rotation 290 187-88 denominator 59
of stars 221-23 circles 144-46 diameter 144
arcs 153 angles in 203 dice games 16-17
area area of 148-50 difference 35
of a circle 148-50 parts of 153-55 digital roots 29
of kites and rhombuses 142-43 circumference 144-45, 146 divisibility, rules of 19
of a quadrilateral 132-33, 135 co-interior angles (supplementary division
of atrapezium 141 angles) 206 by decimals 40-41
of a triangle 133-34, 135 combined events, probabilities of with fractions 70-71
units of 151 82-83 long 43
arrangements, Christmas lunch common factors 60, 193 by multiples of ten 39
investigation 187-88 compass, magnetic 236 with negative numbers 100
composite numbers 81 using factors 9
averages 265-66
finding missing values 268 congruent shapes 288 written calculations 36-37
constructions 230 dodecahedron 317
axes (singular axis) 249
bisecting a line 232-33 Egyptian fractions 74-75
Babylonian numbers 48-50
bisecting an angle 231-32 enlargement 180-81, 295
bar charts 269
dropping a perpendicular from a centre of 183
bearings 236-38
point 233-34 onagrid 182-83
calculation of 240-41

2)
 equations 93, 194-95, 283 subtraction 65-66 perpendicular bisectors of 232-33
equations involving fractions 198 writing one value as a fraction of perpendiculars from a point
with brackets 197, 201 another 61 233-34
forming and solving 319-22 frequency 266 of symmetry 288
fractions in 198, 201 frequency diagrams 269 long division 43
negative terms 323 function machines 336 long multiplication 41-42
for sequences 335-36 games of chance 80 loss 167-68
of a straight line 255-56, 260 geometrical patterns, sequences of lowest common denominator 61
vanishing terms 323 333 lowest common multiple (LCM) 23
equilateral triangles 204 graphs 249-50 lowest terms 60
equivalent fractions 60 drawing the graph of an equation magnetic compass 236
estimating 4-6 257-58 maps, four-colour problem 303-04
Euler's theorem 317-18 lines not parallel to the axes mass
evaluation 26 254-55, 260 imperial units 55
expressions 93, 283 lines parallel to the axes 251 metric units 52
exterior angles of a polygon 216, 218 points of intersection 252 mean (arithmetic average) 265,
factor pairs 20 in real-life 263-64 267-68
factorising 193 scatter graphs 280-82 finding missing values 268
factors 18-19 x and y axes 250 median 266, 267-68
common 60 greedy fraction method 74-75 memory button, calculators 46
finding square roots and cube roots grids mental strategies 2
30-31 closed shapes on 253 division 8-9
highest common factor 23 enlargement on 182-3 estimating 4-6
prime 21-22 grouping data 272 inverses 3
use in division 8-9 hexagon investigation 226 multiplication 7-8
use in multiplication 8, 29-30 hexagonal numbers 342-43 metric system 51-52
fair tests 77 highest common factor (HCF) 23 calculating with quantities 53
Fermat's last theorem 27 icosahedron 317 conversions to imperial units 57
Fibonacci number trick 112-13 imperial units 51, 54-55 minus signs
Fibonacci sequence 157, 341 conversion to metric units 57 see also negative numbers
five, numbers divisible by 19 improper (top-heavy) fractions 62-63 and brackets 191-92
formulae (singular: formula) 104-05 indices (powers) 10 misleading graphs 263-64
for shapes 107 and brackets 97-98 mixed numbers 62-63
writing them 106 ona calculator 125 corresponding percentages and
four, numbers divisible by 19 powers of decimals 125-26 decimals 161
four-colour problem 303-04 powers of ten 118-21 modal group 272
fractional percentages 163 standard index form 121-23 mode 265, 267
fractions 2, 59 use in algebra 94-96, 97-98 multiples 19
adding 63-64 inequality symbols 13 lowest common multiple 23
algebraic 96 interior angle of a polygon 216, 218 of ten, multiplying and dividing by
of an amount 67 intersection, points of 252 38-39
comparing and ordering 61 inverses 3 multiplication
corresponding percentages and isosceles arrowheads 235 by decimals 39-40
decimals 159-61 isosceles triangles 204 of fractions 68-69
dividing with 70-71 kites 142-43, 234-35 long 41-42
Egyptian 74-75 large numbers 118-21 mental strategies 7-8
in equations 198, 201, 322 length by multiples of ten 38
equivalent 60 imperial units 55 with negative numbers 100
improper 62-63 metric units 52 use of factors 29-30
multiplying 68-69 like terms 93 written calculations 36
problem solving 72 lines multiplying out brackets 189
ratios as 175 angles on 203 negative correlation 281
simplifying 60 of best fit 281-82 negative numbers 2, 99, 256
substitution 110 equation of 255-58 and brackets 191-2
 in equations 321 square numbers scatter graphs 280-82
multiplying and dividing with 100 ona calculator 124-25 sectors of a circle 153-54
squares of 125 of decimals 125-26 segments of a circle 153
using a calculator 101 of ten 118-21 semicircles 154
negative terms 323 prime factors 21-22 sequences 331
nets 305-06 prime numbers 21 equation for 335-36
nine, numbers divisible by 19 probabilities 79-80 Fibonacci sequence 157, 341
number game 33-34 being certain 83 geometrical patterns 333
number systems 1 of combined events 82-83 pentagonal and hexagonal numbers
Babylonian numbers 48-50 of second events 82 342-43
decimals 2 probability scale 76-77 relationship diagrams 336-37
numerator 59 profit 167-68 triangular numbers 339-40
obtuse angles 203 proper fractions 2 without a constant difference 338
octahedron 317 proportional division, unitary method shape formulae 107
order of operations 10 178-79 significant figures 114-15
parallel lines quadrants 154 versus decimal places 117
angles of 206, 210 quadrilaterals rounding to 116
in polygons 219 area and perimeter of 132-33, similar shapes 288
parallelograms 132 134-35 simplifying (cancelling) fractions 60
area and perimeter of 133 finding missing dimensions 138 simplifying expressions 93
patterns, sequences of 333 trapezia (singular: trapezium) six, numbers divisible by 19
pentagonal numbers 342-43 140-41 small numbers 118-21
pentagrams 222 quotient 36 spirals 157-58
‘per, meaning of 312 radius 144 square-based pyramid, net of 306
percentage change 166 random events 77 square numbers 24, 124, 196
percentages 159 ranges of values 13-14, 265, 267-68 square roots 25, 30-31, 124, 196
of an amount 162 ratios 173-74 squares (quadrilaterals), area and
conversion of fractions to 164 and enlargement 180-81 perimeter of 132
corresponding fractions and as fractions 175 standard index form 121-23
decimals 159-61 as parts of a whole 176 stars, tiling patterns 221-23
fractional 163 problem solving 177 statistics 265
in pie charts 276 scale drawings 227-29 averages 265-68
problem solving with 164 raw data 265 ranges of values 13-14, 265,
profit and loss 167-68 reciprocals 70 267-68
perimeters, of a quadrilateral rectangles straight line graphs 260
132-33, 134-35 area and perimeter of 132 drawing the graph of an equation
perpendicular bisectors 232-33 finding missing dimensions 138 257-58
pi() 145-46, 148-50 reflections 288, 295 lines not parallel to the axes
pie charts 274-77 reflex angles 203 254-55
interpretation of 279 relationship diagrams 336-37 lines parallel to the axes 251
place value 2 remainders 36-37 straight lines
platonic solids 317 rhombuses 142-43, 232 angles on 203
points of intersection 252 area and perimeter of 133 equation of 255-58
right angles 203 perpendicular bisectors of 232-33
polygons
see also quadrilaterals; triangles roots perpendiculars from a point
angles of 214-19 see also cube roots; square roots 233-34
regular and irregular 213 ona calculator 124-25 substitution 99, 102-03, 110
of decimals 125-26 subtraction
polyhedra 317
see also three-dimensional (3D) rotations 290, 295 of fractions 65-66
rounding 4-5, 11-12, 37, 116 written calculations 35
shapes
scale drawings 227-29, 239 supplementary angles (co-interior
positive correlation 281
possibility space diagrams 85 and bearings 242-43 angles) 206
treasure map activity 248 surface area 305, 306-07
powers
scale factors 180-84 symbols, new operations 327-28
see also cube numbers; indices;

@)
 transversal 206 imperial units 55
symmetry, lines of 288
tallies 269 trapezia (singular: trapezium) metric units 52
tangrams 131 140-41 problem solving 312-13
ten, numbers divisible by 19 treasure map activity 248 word problems 44-45
tessellations 172, 221-23 triangles with fractions 72
hexagons 226 angles in 204 involving volume 312-13
tetrahedron 317 area of 133-34, 135 with percentages 164
net of 306 finding missing dimensions 138 - with ratios 177
three, numbers divisible by 19 triangular (triangle) numbers 27-28, using algebra 324-25
three-dimensional (3D) shapes 305 339-40 using brackets 199
Euler's theorem 317 two, numbers divisible by 19 writing formulae 106
finding the height or depth of 311 two-dimensional (2D) shapes 305
written calculations 35-37
nets of 305-06 unique factorisation property 21
long division 43
surface area of 305, 306-07 unit fractions 74
long multiplication 41-42
volume of 308-09 unitary method, proportional division
multiplying and dividing by
traffic survey activity 287 178-79
vanishing terms 323 decimals 39-41
transformations 288
VAT 167 multiplying and dividing by
mixed 295
reflections 288 Venn diagrams 23 multiples of ten 38-39
rotations 290 vertically opposite angles 204 x-axis 249, 250
translations 292-93 volume 305, 308, 308-09 y-axis 249, 250
translations 292-93, 295 of cubes and cuboids 308-09 zeros, and significant figures 115
Resources for all subjects covered at
11+, Pre-Test and 13+ Common Entrance

N.R_R_ Oulton

9781471856280 9781471869051

MEDIEVAL REALMS E NnoliSS)h

BRITAIN 1066-1485 FOR
COMMON
ENTRANCE

Answers Including CEM.

Gland ISEB
Digital
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Bob Pace GALORE

Pan

9781471853395 9781471808876

French Science
Non-Verbal PHYSICS
Reasoning FOR COMMON ENTRANCE

13+

Gt and SEB

David Hillard
Serena Alexander
Ron Pickering
Alison Primrose Jomes Savite

9781471849367 9781471853418 9781471847042

ia i rl es is A Masa aS
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 Book Two of this three-part Common Entrance Mathematics course
extends the Level 1 and 2 topics of the ISEB 13+ Mathematics exam taught
in Book One, with Level 3 topics for extension work. Reviewed by ISEB’s
Mathematics editor, this course lays the foundations for success at 13+ and
exceeds National Curriculum requirements at Key Stage 3.
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