RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY

- Anatomy and Physiology are always related

- Structure determines what functions can
take place.
- For example, the lungs are not muscular
ANATOMY chambers like the heart and can not pump
- the study of the structure and shape of the blood, but because the walls of lungs are
body and body parts & their relationships to very thin, they can exchange gasses and
one another. provide oxygen to the body.
- the term anatomy comes from the Greek
words meaning to cut (tomy) apart (ana)
- is the study of the structure and the DIVISIONS OF ANATOMY
relationships among structures.
- the art of separating the parts of an 1.GROSS ANATOMY
organism in order to ascertain their position, - Structures that can be seen with the eye
relations, & structure - Muscles, bones, various organs
- cutting something up to see what’s inside - A type of anatomy that can be undertaken
(structure) without a microscope
- study of anatomy helps in understanding the - considers large structures such as the brain
functions of body.
2. SURFACE ANATOMY (EXTERNAL)
- anatomy that we can see at the surface of
PHYSIOLOGY the body
- the study of how the body and its parts work
or function 3. REGIONAL ANATOMY (SPECIFIC AREA)
- physio =nature - complete anatomy (internal) of a specific
ology = the study of region of the body (learning every blood
- it has many subdivisions. For example, vessel, muscle, bones, etc. in the arm) in
neurophysiology explains the working of the medical school
nervous system , and cardiac physiology - is the study of the interrelationships of all of
studies the function of the heart. the structures in a specific body region, such
- is the study of the normal function of the as the abdomen.
human body (to maintain life) - Studying regional anatomy helps us
- Human physiology is the scientific study of appreciate the interrelationships of body
the chemistry and physics of the structures structures, such as how muscles, nerves,
of the body and the ways in which they work blood vessels, and other structures work
together to support the functions of life. together to serve a particular body region.
- much of the study of physiology centers on
the body’s tendency toward homeostasis. 4. SYSTEMIC ANATOMY (ORGAN SYSTEMS)
- the body is divided into 11 organ systems
- is the study of the structures that make up a
discrete body system—that is, a group of
 structures that work together to perform a the skin in order to decrease body
unique body function. temperature.
- For example, a systemic anatomical study of
the muscular system would consider all of 3. MOVEMENT
the skeletal muscles of the body. - a type of response to stimuli
- Study of specific system: - Human movement includes not only actions
at the joints of the body, but also the motion
*Integumentary *Nervous *Respiratory of individual organs and even individual
*Endocrine *Skeletal *Digestive cells.
*Cardiovascular *Muscular *Urinary - ability of a organism in displacement, move
*Reproductive *Immune *Lymphatic from one location to another

5.MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY 4. DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH

- Structures that cannot be seen with the eye - Development is specialized in structure and
- Need to use a microscope function to perform certain tasks in the body
- Cytology = study of cells - Development is all of the changes the body
- Histology = study of tissues goes through in life includes the process of
- Requires the use of a microscope (e.g. differentiation, in which unspecialized cells
light or phase microscope) become specialized in structure and function
- Microscopic anatomy can deal with the to perform certain tasks in the body
same structures, though at a different scale. - Development also includes the processes of
growth and repair, both of which involve cell
differentiation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE - knowledge, IQ and EQ

1. ORGANIZATION - Growth is the increase in body size. Humans,

- organize structure like all multicellular organisms, grow by
- follows hierarchy increasing the number of existing cells,
- living things are made of cells, which is the increasing the amount of non-cellular
basic unit of life. If something is going to be material around cells (such as mineral
alive, it should be made of cells deposits in bone), and, within very narrow
limits, increasing the size of existing cells.
2. RESPONSIVENESS - cell division specifically “Mitosis” is
- is the ability of an organism to adjust to responsible for growth
changes in its internal and external
environments. - Mitosis = divides in result to be alike
- ability to sense and react to a certain - Meiosis = sex cells; haploid
stimulus and changes from both internal and - Gametes = produce through meiosis
external
- Example: Changes in an organism’s internal
environment, such as increased body 5. REPRODUCTION
temperature, can cause the responses of - is the formation of a new organism from
sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in parent organisms. In humans, reproduction
is carried out by the male and female
 reproductive systems. Because death will - Passive Transport = without energy
come to all complex organisms, without - Active Transport = using energy
reproduction, the line of organisms would - Osmosis = segregate
end. - Phagocytosis = Cell eating
- Endocytosis = Cell drinking
- Sexual = copulation; with the use of sex
organs
- 2 parents supply DNA THE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
- male and female reproductive
system - To study the chemical level of organization,
scientists consider the simplest building
- Asexual = absence of sexual act blocks of matter: subatomic particles,
- pollination, cross pollination atoms and molecules

- Elements = all matter in the universe is

6. METABOLISM composed of one or more unique pure
- ability of organism to utilize energy substances
- ex: living things take in energy for - ex: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
maintenance and growth calcium, and iron

- Anabolism- process where simple - Atom = the smallest unit of any of elements
molecules are gathered to create - are made up of subatomic particles such
complex molecules as the proton, electron and neutron
- storing/building of energy
- smaller to larger - Molecule = formed by two or more atoms
combined
- Catabolism- process where complex - ex: water molecules, proteins, and
molecules were broken down of energy sugars found in living things
- breaking down of energy - the chemical building blocks of all body
- larger to smaller structures

7. GENES - Cell = the smallest independently

- traits you have inherited to your parents/ functioning unit of a living organism
ancestor - each bacterium is a single cell
- hereditary/traits - all living structures of human anatomy
- genetics contain cells, and almost all functions of
- dominant and recessive human physiology are performed in
cells or are initiated by cells
8. HOMEOSTASIS - perform all functions of life
- balance between fluids/ chemical - it is the basic functional and structural
components within the body unit of body
- is the state of steady internal conditions
maintained by living things.
- Organelles = a variety of tiny functioning
units together with water-based cellular
fluid

- Tissue = is a group of many similar cells

(though sometimes composed of a few
related types) that work together to
perform a specific function

- Organ = is an anatomically distinct structure

of the body composed of two or more
tissue types
- each organ performs one or more
specific physiological functions

- Organ system = is a group of organs that

work together to perform major
functions or meet physiological needs of
the body.

- Organism = a individual living being

- consists of different systems

REFERENCES:

https://www.cuyamaca.edu/people/greg-brulte/
files/test-1/A-intro.pdf

https://www.academia.edu/33633526/Chapter_
1_Introduction_to_Human_Anatomy_physiology

NOTE: Some information were gathered online

and others were from PDFs downloaded years
ago
 Dorsal Back/ Toward the back
Proximal Nearest/ Closer to a
point of attachment
Distal Distant/ Farther from a
point of attachment
Medial Toward the midline
Lateral Away from the midline
ANATOMICAL POSITION Superficial Toward to the surface
- in the anatomical position, the body is of the body
standing erect and facing forward, the feet Deep Toward the interior of
are together, and the arms are hanging at the body
the sides with the palms facing forward

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

- used to designate specific areas within
The major body divisions

CENTAL REGION OF THE BODY (AXIAL PARTS)

1. Head
2. Neck
3. Trunk- can be divided into:
a) Throrax (Chest)
b) Abdomen (region between thorax and
pelvis)
c) Pelvis (inferior end of the trunk
associated with the hips)

UPPER LIMB (APPENDICULAR PARTS)

1. Arm- extends from the shoulder to the elbow
2. Forearm- extends from the elbow to wrist
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
3. Wrist
- describe parts of the body relative to each
4. Hand
other
LOWER LIMB (APPENDICULAR PARTS)
TERM DEFINITION 1. Thigh- extends from the hip to the knee
Supine Lying face upward 2. Leg- extends from the knee to the ankle
Prone Lying face downward 3. Ankle
Superior Higher/ above 4. Foot
Inferior Lower/ below
Anterior Front/ Toward the ABDOMEN (APPENDICULAR PARTS)
front of the body - often subdivided superficially into four
Posterior Back/ toward the back sections or quadrants by to imaginary lines
of the body that intersect at the navel
Ventral Belly/ Toward the belly
a. Quadrants- right-upper (RUQ), left-upper PLANES
(LUQ), right-lower (RLQ), and left-lower - imaginary flat surface
(LLQ) - the body is often cut, or sectioned, along
b. Regions- uses four imaginary lines that a flat surface
created an imaginary tic-tac-toe figure on
the abdomen, resulting nine regions: TERMS
1. Epigastric- located superior to the Sagittal Plane Runs vertically through
umbilical region the body and separates
2. Right hypochondriac- lie lateral to it into right and left
the epigastric region and deep to the parts
ribs (chondro = cartilage) Median Plane A sagittal plane that
3. Left hypochondriac- lie lateral to the passes though the
epigastric region and deep to the ribs midline of the body,
(chondro = cartilage) dividing it into equal
4. Umbilical- the centermost region right and left halves
deep to and surrounding the umbilicus Transverse/ Horizontal Runs parallel to the
(navel) Plane surface of the ground,
5. Right lumbar- lie lateral to the dividing the body into
umbilical region (lumbus = loin) superior and inferior
6. Left lumbar- lie lateral to the parts
umbilical region (lumbus = loin) Frontal/ Coronal Plane Runs vertically from
7. Hypogastric- located inferior to the right to left and divides
umbilical region the body into anterior
8. Right iliac- located lateral to the and posterior parts
hypogastric region (iliac = superior part Longitudinal Section A cut through the long
of the hip bone) axis of the organ
9. Left iliac- located lateral to the Transverse Section/ A cut at a right angle to
hypogastric region (iliac = superior part Cross Section the long axis
of the hip bone) Oblique Section A cut is made across
the long axis at other
than a right angle
 - The thoracic cavity is separated from
BODY CAVITIES the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity
- these cavities are closed to the outside and by the diaphragm, a dome-shaped
provide different degrees of protection to muscle important in breathing.
the organs contained within them.
b. ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
1. NASAL CAVITY - has two parts.
- Open to the outside of the body - these regions are not physically
- located within and posterior to the nose, the separated by a muscular or membrane wall
nasal cavity is part of the respiratory system - the abdominal and pelvic cavities are
passageways not aligned with each other. Instead, the
bowl-shaped pelvis tips away from the
perpendicular
2. DORSAL BODY CAVITY - the ventral body cavity houses internal
- which protects the fragile nervous system organs collectively called the viscera or
organs, has two subdivisions visceral organs.
a. CRANIAL CAVITY
- in the skull, encases the brain
b. VERTEBRAL OR SPINAL CAVITY 4. ABDOMINAL CAVITY
- runs within the bony vertebral - is bounded primarily by the abdominal
column, encloses the delicate spinal muscles and contains the stomach, the
cord. The spinal cord is essentially a intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas,
continuation of the brain, and the and the kidneys.
cranial and spinal cavities are
continuous with one another. 5. PELVIC CAVITY
- is a small space enclosed by the bones of the
pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part
3. VENTRAL BODY CAVITY of the large intestine, and the internal
- the more anterior and larger of the closed reproductive organs.
body cavities
- has two major subdivisions: 6. ORAL AND DIGESTIVE CAVITIES
- commonly called the mouth, contains the
a. THORACIC CAVITY teeth and tongue
- superior subdivision,is surrounded by - it is part of and continuous with the cavity of
the ribs and muscles of the chest the digestive organs, which opens to the
- It is further subdivided into lateral body exterior at the anus.
pleural cavities each enveloping a lung,
and the medial mediastinum. The 7. ORBITAL CAVITIES
mediastinum contains the pericardial - (orbits) in the skull house the eyes and
cavity, which encloses the heart, and it present them in an anterior position.
also surrounds the remaining thoracic
organs (esophagus, trachea, and 8. MIDDLE EAR CAVITIES
others). - the middle ear cavities in the skull lie just
medial to the eardrums. These cavities
 contain tiny bones that transmit sound - As an organ rubs against another organ or
vibrations to the hearing receptors in the against the body wall, the serous fluid and
inner ears smooth serous membranes reduce friction.
- Thoracic cavity contains three serous
9. SYNOVIAL CAVITIES membrane-lined cavities:
- are joint cavities
- they are enclosed within fibrous capsules 1. PERICARDIAL CAVITY
that surround freely movable joints of the - surrounds the heart . The visceral
body pericardium covers the heart, which is
- like the serous membranes, membranes contained within a connective tissue sac
lining synovial cavities secrete a lubricating lined with the parietal pericardium. The
fluid that reduces friction as the bones move pericardial cavity, which contains
across one another. pericardial fluid, is located between the
visceral pericardium and the parietal
pericardium
SEROUS MEMBRANES
- line the trunk cavities and cover the 2. TWO PLEURAL CAVITIES
organs of these cavities - surrounds each lung, which is
- to understand the relationship between covered by visceral pleura. Parietal
serous membranes and an organ, imagine pleura lines the inner surface of the
pushing your fist into an inflated balloon. thoracic wall, the lateral surfaces of
The inner balloon wall in contact with your the mediastinum, and the superior
fist (organ) represents the visceral serous surface of the diaphragm. The
membrane, and the outer part of the pleural cavity is located between
balloon wall represents the parietal serous the visceral pleura and the parietal
membrane pleura and contains pleural fluid.
- the part of the membrane lining the cavity
walls is called the parietal serosa . It folds in
on itself to form the visceral serosa, - Abdominopelvic cavity contains a
covering the organs in the cavity. serous membrane-lined cavity called the
- The cavity, or space, between the visceral peritoneal cavity. Visceral peritoneum
and parietal serous membranes is normally covers many of the organs of the
filled with a thin, lubricating film of serous abdominopelvic cavity. Parietal
fluid produced by the membranes peritoneum lines the wall of the
abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior
surface of the diaphragm.
- Peritoneal cavity is located between the
visceral peritoneum and the parietal
peritoneum and contains peritoneal fluid.
- Serous membranes can become
inflamed—usually as a result of an infection.
- Pericarditis is inflammation of the
pericardium
- Pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura
- Peritonitis is inflammation of the and abdomen,
peritoneum. supported by the ribs,
sternum and costal
cartilages; chest
POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS Umbilical Navel
Abdominal Anterior body trunk POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS
inferior to ribs Calcaneal Heel or foot
Acromial Point of shoulder Cephalic Head
Antebrachial Forearm Femoral Thigh
Antecubital Anterior surface of Gluteal Buttock
elbow Lumbar Area of back between
Axillary Armpit ribs and hips, loin
Brachial Arm Occipital Posterior surface of
Buccal Cheek area head or base of skull
Carpal Wrist Olacranal Posterior surface of
Cervical Neck region elbow
Coxal Hip Popliteal Posterior knee area
Crucal Anterior leg; shin Sacral Area between hips at
Deltoid Curve of shoulder base of spine
formed by large deltoid Scapular Shoulder blade region
muscle Sural Posterior surface of
Digital Fingers, toes leg; calf
Femoral Thigh (applies to both Vertebral Area of spinal column
anterior and posterior)
Fibular Lateral part of leg REFERENCE:
Frontal Forehead
Inguinal Area where thigh Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th Edition.
meets body trunk; Scanlon, V.C. & Sanders, T., 2007. F.A. Davis
groin Company, Philadelphia. (PDF)
Mental Chin
Nasal Nose area Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
Oral Mouth Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
Orbital Eye area Pearson. (PDF)
Patellar Anterior knee
Pectoral Relating to, or Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology,
occurring in or on, the Ninth Edition. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., Russo, A.,
chest 2016. McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New
Pelvic Area overlying the York, NY. (PDF)
pelvis anteriorly
Pubic Genital region
Sternal Breastbone area
Tarsal Ankle region
Thoracic Are between the neck
 e. 6 carbons= Hexoses

 GLUCOSE (C6H1206) (ENERGY)

- important source of energy for humans
- during cellular respiration, energy is
released from here and that energy is
used to help make ATP (adenosine
CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF THE CELL triphosphate)
- can be divided into two major groups: - plants synthesize Glucose using CO2 and
Organic and Inorganic compounds water and Glucose is used for energy
requirements for the plant
A. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - excess glucose is often stored as starch
- are chemical compounds that contain the that is catabolized by humans and other
element carbon -Organic compounds in the animals that feed on plants
cell include carbohydrates, protein, lipids - Aldose
and nuclei acids. Some of these compounds
are synthesised by the cell itself.  GALACTOSE (MILK SUGAR)
- are carbon containing compounds, and - part of lactose
make up about 95% of the dry weight of - Aldose
the protoplasm
 FRUCTOSE (FRUITS)
- found in sucrose
THE IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - Ketose
IN THE CELL:

A. CARBOHYDRATES 2. DISACCHARIDES
- components carbon “carbo” and - di= “two”
components of water “hydrate” - form when two monosaccharides undergo a
- Supply energy for cell processes dehydration reaction
- A means of storing energy - Dehydration Reaction- to put together while
- Give structural support to cell walls losing water
- classfified into 4 subtypes: -monomers combine with each other
using covalent bonds to form larger
1. MONOSACCHARIDES molecules known as Polymers and so
- mono= “one”; saccar= “sweet” monomers release water molecules as
- simple sugars, most common of which is byproducts
Glucose - Hydrolysis- Polymers are broken down into
- number of carbons usually ranges from 3-7 monomers
- most monosacc ends with the suffix -ose -a reaction in which a water molecule is
- If sugar has: used during breakdown
a. Aldehyde group= known as Aldose
b. Ketone group= Ketose  LACTOSE (MILK)
c. 3 carbons= Trioses - disaccharide consists of monomers Glucose
d. 5 carbons= Pentoses and Galactose
 MALTOSE (MALT SUGAR) B. LIPIDS
- formed by a dehydration reaction between - from the Greek word lipos, meaning "fat"
two glucose molecules - are naturally occurring, nonpolar substances
that are mostly insoluble in water (with
 SUCROSE (TABLE SUGAR) the exceptions being the short-chain volatile
- composed of monomers Glucose and fatty acids and ketone bodies), yet soluble in
Fructose nonpolar solvents (like chloroform and
ether)
- Store large amounts of energy over long
3. POLYSACCHARIDES periods of time
- poly= “many” - Act as an energy source
- a long chain of monossacharides linked by - Play a major role in the structure of the cell
glycosidic bonds membranes
- Act as a source of metabolic water
 STARCH (WATER) - Reduce the loss of water by evaporation
- stored from of sugars in plants - They serve as membrane components
- made up of a mixture of amylose and (cholesterol, glycolipids and phospholipids),
amylopectine storage forms of energy (triglycerides),
- plants are able to synthesize glucose precursors to other important biomolecules
- excess glucose is stored in different plant (fatty acids), insulation barriers (neutral fat
parts stores), protective coatings to prevent
- starch in seeds provide foods for the embryo infection and excessive gain or loss of water,
- starch consumed by humans are broken and some vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and
down by enzymes into smaller molecules hormones (steroid hormones)
such as maltose and glucose - major classes:
-made up of glucose monomores
1. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
 GLYCOGEN (HUMAN) (short, medium, and long-chain)
- storage form of glucose in humans and
other vertebrates 2. Triglycerides, lipoproteins {i.e.,
- made up of monomers of glucose chylomicrons (CMs)
- animal equivalent of starch and is highly
branched molecule usually stored in liver 3. Very low density (VLDL),low density (LDL),
and muscle cells intermediate density (IDL), and high
- whenever blood glucose levels decrease, density lipoproteins (HDL)}
glycogen is broken down to release glucose
with process glycogenolysis 4. Phospholipids and glycolipids, steroids
(cholesterol, progesterone, etc.), and
 CELLULOSE eicosanoids (prostaglandins,
- most abundant natural biopolymer thromboxanes, and leukotrienes)
- cell wall of plants is mostly made up of
cellulose; provides structural support to the - All lipids can be synthesized from acetyl-CoA,
cell which in turn can be generated from
numerous different sources, including
 carbohydrates, amino acids, short-chain  bilirubinbinding proteins in liver cells
volatile fatty acids (e.g., acetate), ketone - some act as storage proteins; ex:
bodies, and fatty acids.  myoglobin binds and stores O2 in
- Simple lipids include only those that are muscle cells)
esters of fatty acids and an alcohol (e.g., - others as defense proteins in blood or on
mono-, di- and triglycerides) the surface of cells; ex:
- Compound lipids include various materials clotting proteins and immunoglobulins
that contain other substances in addition to - others as contractile proteins; ex:
an alcohol and fatty acid (e.g.,  the actin, myosin and troponin of keletal
phosphoacylglycerols, sphingomyelins, and muscle fibers
cerebrosides) - others are merely structural in nature; ex:
- derived lipids include those that cannot be  collagen and elastin
neatly classified into either of the above
(e.g., steroids, eicosanoids, and the
fat-soluble vitamins) D. NUCLEIC ACIDS
- Play a vital role in protein synthesis
C. PROTEINS - are nucleotide polymers (from the Greek
- Act as building blocks of many structural word poly, meaning "several", and mer,
components of the cell ; required for growth meaning "unit"), that store and transmit
- Form enzymes which catalyse chemical genetic informatio of cell
reactions - Genetic information contained in nucleic
- Form hormones which control growth and acids is stored and replicated in
metabolism chromosomes, which contain genes (from
- are amino acid polymers responsible for the Greek word gennan, meaning "to
implementing instructions contained within produce")
the genetic code - A chromosome is a deoxyribonucleic acid
- Twenty different amino acids are used to (DNA) molecule, and genes are segments of
synthesize proteins, about half are formed intact DNA.
as metabolic intermediates, while the - When a cell replicates itself, identical copies
remainder must be provided through the of DNA molecules are produced, therefore
diet. the hereditary line of descent is conserved,
- Each protein formed in the body, unique in and the genetic information carried on DNA
its own structure and function, participates is available to direct the occurrence of
in processes that characterize the virtually all chemical reactions within the
individuality of cells, tissues, organs, and cell.
organ systems - The flow of information from nucleic acids
- A typical cell contains thousands of different to protein:
proteins, each with a different function, and
many serve as enzymes that catalyze (or DNA —> messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)
speed) reactions —> transfer RNA (tRNA) —> ribosomal RNA
- Other proteins transport different (rRNA) —> protein
compounds either outside or inside cells; ex:
 lipoproteins and transferrin (an - The nucleotide sequence in a gene of DNA
iron-binding protein) in plasma specifies the assembly of a nucleotide
 sequence in an mRNA molecule, which in - Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur,
turn directs the assembly of the amino acid and phosphorus normally makeup more
sequence in protein through a tRNA and than 99% of the mass of living cells.
rRNA molecule - Ninety-nine percent of the molecules inside
living cells are water molecules.
- Cells generally contain many more protein
B. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS molecules than DNA molecules, yet DNA is
- Water is an inorganic compound which is typically the largest biomolecule in the cell.
composed of hydrogen and oxygen. It is an
important compound in the cell.

THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN THE CELL REFERENCE:

- Water is important for life because its
chemical and physical properties allow it to Chapter 1, Introduction to Human
sustain life. Anatomy/physiology (PDF)
- Water is a polar molecule which consists of
2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. A Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body.
polar molecule is a molecule with an John P. Fisher, Adapted from Textbook of
unequal distribution of charges. Each Medical Physiology, 11th Ed. Arthur C. Guyton,
molecule has a positively charged and a John E. Hall, Chapter 1
negatively charged end. Polar molecules
attract one another as well as ions. Because The chemical components of the cell. Haixu Tang.
of this property, water is considered the School of Informatics (PPT)
solvent of life.
- It is the transport medium in the blood NOTE: Some information were gathered online
- It acts as a medium for biochemical and others were from PDFs downloaded years
reactions. ago.
- Water helps in the maintenance of a stable
internal environment within a living
organism. The concentration of water and
inorganic salts that dissolve in water is
important in maintaining the osmotic
balance between the blood and interstitial
fluid.
- It helps in lubrication.
- Water molecules have very high cohesion.
- Water molecules tend to stick to each other
and move in long unbroken columns
through the vascular tissues in plants.
 TYPE EXAMPLES FUNCTIONS
Digestive Amylase, Help in
Enzymes Lipase, Pepsin, digestion of
Trypsin food by
catabolizing
nutrients into
monomeric
units
Transport Hemoglobin, Carry
Albumin substances in
the blood or
lymph
throughout the
body
Structural Actin, Tubulin, Construct
Keratin different
structures like
the
cytoskeleton
Hormones Insulin, Coordinate the
Thyroxine activity of
different body
systems
Defense Immunoglobuli Protect the
ns body from
foreign
pathogens
Contractile Actin, Myosin Effect muscle
contraction
Storage Legume storage Provide
proteins, egg nourishment in
white (albumin) early
development of
the embryo and
the seedling
Percenta This element is common in
ge of Phosphor
Element Usage 1.0% the bones and teeth, as well
Body us
as nucleic acids.
Weight
Potassium is found in the
This element is obviously 0.4% Potassium muscles, nerves, and
the most important certain tissues.
element in the human
body. Oxygen atoms are Sodium is excreted in
present in water, which is 0.2% Sodium sweat, but is also found in
65% Oxygen the compound most muscles and nerves.
common in the body, and
other compounds that Chlorine is present in the
make up tissues. It is also 0.2% Chlorine skin and facilitates water
found in the blood and absorption by the cells.
lungs due to respiration.
Magnesium serves as a
Carbon is found in every Magnesiu
0.06% cofactor for various
organic molecule in the m
enzymes in the body.
body, as well as the waste
18.6% Carbon product of respiration Sulfur is present in many
0.04% Sulfur
(carbon dioxide). It is amino acids and proteins.
typically ingested in food
that is eaten. Iron is found mostly in the
0.007% Iron blood since it facilitates the
Hydrogen is found in all transportation of oxygen.
water molecules in the
9.7% Hydrogen body as well as many other Iodine is found in certain
compounds making up the 0.0002
Iodine hormones in the thyroid
various tissues. %
gland.
Nitrogen is very common in
proteins and organic
compounds. It is also
3.2% Nitrogen
present in the lungs due to
its abundance in the
atmosphere.

Calcium is a primary
component of the skeletal
system, including the teeth.
1.8% Calcium
It is also found in the
nervous system, muscles,
and the blood.
CELLS
- basic unit of life
- all organisms are composed of cells B. EUKARYOTIC CELL
- all living things are made up of cells - greek = true nucleus
- new cells arise only from preexisting cell - contain a well-defined nucleus surrounded by
- bounded by a selectively permeable a nuclear membrane
membrane - can be single celled, such as yeast and
paramecium, or multicellular, such as animals
A. PROKARYOTIC CELL and plants
- Greek = before the nucleus - Cytoskeleton= protein fibers that maintain cell
- single celled organism shape
- Bacteria and Cyanobacteria - Have membrane-bound nucleus and
- no nucleus organelles
- DNA is not separated from other components *Endomembrane system: endoplasmic
- Lack a membrane-bound nucleus reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes
- Smaller than eukaryotic cells *Energy-related organelles: mitochondria and
- Have a single chromosome, semifluid chloroplasts
cytoplasm, and thousands of ribosomes

The cell is the structural and functional unit of all

living organisms. It is made of three major parts:
THE CELL'S PARTS - they act as transporters or receptors
1. The plasma membrane
2. The cytoplasm b.) Integral proteins- which are attached to
3. The nucleus the hydrophobic portion.
- they act as cytoskeleton anchors or
A. THE PLASMA MEMBRANE (SKIN): enzymes
- Cell Membrane
- The plasma membrane (also called
plasmalemma) forms the outer boundary of 3. ) THE CARBOHYDRATES
the cell - consist of glycolipids and glycoproteins which
- semi-permeable form a filmy covering called the glycocalyx; it
- It is the outer protective layer of cell. It isolates acts as:
cell from neighbouring environment. a.) an adhesive between cells.
- composed of proteins (structural; proteins) b.) site for immunological response
- a selective barrier that allows sufficient c.) cell identity markers.
passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to
service the volume of every cell 4. ) CHOLESTEROL
- The general structure of a biological - attached to phospholipid chains; it determines
membrane is a double layer of phospholipids the fluidity of the plasma membrane.

FUNCTIONS:
- maintains shape MOVEMENT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANES:
- contains the contents inside - Two basic types of molecular traffic take place
- prevents cell from mixing in and out of cells: passive movement and
- controls entrance and exit of materials active movement
- protects the cell

STRUCTURE: 1. ) PASSIVE MOVEMENT

According to the "Fluid Mosaic Model Theory" - Molecules pass through the plasma membrane
postulated by Singer & Nicolson, the plasma according to their concentration gradient
membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, (meaning from areas of high concentration to
proteins, and carbohydrates. areas of low concentration without the use of
energy (ATP)). Passive movement includes the
1. ) THE PHOSPHOLIPIDS following:
- form a fluid "sea" made of a central
bimolecular layer; here the long hydrophobic a. ) DIFFUSION - random movement of
hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids (tails) are molecules from areas where they are highly
attached to the hydrophilic globular portions concentrated to areas where they are less
of phosphate (head). concentrated until a uniform distribution of
molecules is achieved.
2. ) THE PROTEINS - (e.g.) inhaled O2 -> Lung -> Bloodstream
- float like "icebergs"
- Depending on their position they can be b. ) FACILITATED DIFFUSION - when carrier
classified as: proteins in the plasma membrane combine
temporarily to molecules and allow them to
a.) Peripheral proteins- which associates to pass through membrane via protein channels;
the globular portions of phospholipids.
 they move from an area of high concentration d.) FILTRATION- Process that forces small
to an area of low concentration. particles dissolved in a solution to cross the s
- (e.g.) - absorption of glucose or amino emipermeable membrane with the help of
acids by the duodenum during digestion. hydrostatic pressure.
- (e.g.) Ultrafiltration of blood by the
c.) OSMOSIS - when water molecules move glomeruli of the kidneys
through a selectively permeable membrane
from an area of high concentration of water to e.) DIALYSIS- Exchange of solutes between two
an area of low concentration of water. solutions separated by a semipermeable
membrane
 Osmotic Pressure is the force exerted - (e.g.) Use of the cellophane sheets in the
by a highly concentrated solution "A" artificial kidney machine is based upon this
which prevents the net flow of water principle.
across the selectively permeable
membrane coming from a lower 2. ) ACTIVE MOVEMENT
concentrated solution "B". - When substances move across a selectively
 Osmotic pressure concept has its permeable membrane from areas of low
application in chemistry, biology, and concentration to areas of high concentration.
medicine, and allows one to Since active movement is against the
distinguish three types of solutions: concentration gradient, it requires energy in
the form of ATP.
 Hypotonic solution - Active movement includes the following:
- when the solute concentration is lower a.) active transport
outside the cell than it is inside the cell b.) exocytosis
- (e.g.) when pure water is exposed to red c.) endocytosis
blood cells (RBC), hemolysis occurs due
the swelling and bursting of RBCs a. ) ACTIVE TRANSPORT - uses energy from
the breakdown of ATP to move substances
 Isotonic solution across selectively permeable membrane
- when the water and solute concentration against a concentration gradient.
outside the cell is the same as inside the cell. - (e.g.) continuous transport of sodium out
- (e.g.) exposition of Red Blood Cells to a of resting cells by the "sodium-pump" even
solution containing 0.85g of sodium chloride though its concentration is much higher
per 100 ml. water (physiological solution) does outside of the cell.
not result in the net movement of water into
or out of the RBCs. b. ) EXOCYTOSIS - is the fusion of secretory
vesicles with the plasma membrane, followed
 Hypertonic solution by their expulsion from the cell through the
- when the solute concentration is higher plasma membrane.
outside of the cell than it is inside. - (e.g. ) release of neurotransmitters by the
- (e.g.) Exposition of RBCs in a solution neurons
containing 100g sodium chloride per 100 ml;
results in crenation due to the loss of water by c.) ENDOCYTOSIS - process during which
RBC and the shrinkage. particles are engulfed by cytoplasmic
extensions, thus forming membrane bound
vesicles within the cytoplasm.
- there are three types of endocytosis:
 Pinocytosis (carbon) and minerals (silver, lead
- (also called "Cell Drinking") etc.)
- is the process during which the plasma - It consists of an aqueous phase and an
membrane invaginates and encloses small particulate phase:
amounts of fluid droplets, thus forming small
pockets which are released into the a. ) AQUEOUS PHASE OR "FLUID PHASE"
cytoplasm. (e.g. Kidney cells take in tissue - consists of cytosol. The cytosol is
fluids to maintain fluid balance). composed of water (75% to 90%), proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis inorganic substances.
- when extracellular large molecules bind with
specific receptors on plasma membrane, b. ) PARTICULATE PHASE - consist of
causing the membrane to invaginate and draw organelles and inclusions:
them into the cytoplasm

 Phagocytosis  Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (Blood vessels)

- called "Cell Eating" - parallel arrays of canals
- is the ability of the plasma membrane to - attaches to the nuclear envelope
engulf large particles (foreign bodies, bacteria), - transport of substances
and digesting them by fusing the pocket into - a membranous system where ribosomes
which they are contained with lysosomal attach and aid in protein synthesis
enzyme. (e.g. neutrophils digest harmful - is a network of tubes and flattened sacs that
bacteria) channels the flow of substances around the
cytoplasm.
- is system that continues with infoldings of cell
B. CYTOPLASM (BLOOS) membrane and interlaces with the interior of
- Cyto= Cell cell
- Plasm= fluid - Two types of "ER" are distinguishable: Smooth
- living substance of cell Endoplasmic Reticulum "SER" and Rough
- rich in organic and inorganic compounds Endoplasmic Reticulum "RER".
- is the portion of the cell located between the
plasma membrane and the nucleus a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
- free floating - is a delicate branching network of tubules
- Contains Organelles free of ribosomes.
- Source of energy - lacks proteins and is where lipids are
- is the mass of living matter between cell wall made
and nucleus. - is the site of steroids synthesis, especially
- It contains stored foods, secretion granules, steroid hormones (e.g. progesterone,
pigments and crystals. Stored foods are estrogen, testosterone).
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and - is involved in the degradation of
vitamins. hormones and drugs in the liver cells.
- Pigments are two types: - stores calcium in striated muscles.
a. ) ENDOGENOUS - pigments are
haemoglobin and melanin b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
b. ) EXOGENOUS - pigments are - is a complex system of branching tubes
carotene from vegetables, dusts and flattened sacs covered by ribosomes
on their surface.
 - assists in protein synthesis and translation secretory vesicles, or other cytoplasmic
of language of nucleic acid components
- Involved in the formation of some large
 Cell Wall saccharide polymers bound with a small
- extracellular structure that distinguishes plant amount of protein, such as hyaluronic acid and
cells from animal cells chondroitin sulfate
- protects the plant cell, maintains its shape,
and prevents excessive uptake of water  Lysosomes (Stomach)
- Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers - membrane-bound vesicles produced by the
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein Golgi apparatus
- Important in recycling cellular material and
 Ribosomes digesting worn-out organelles
- creates protein - Suicide bags with enzymes
- non-membrane-bound particles where protein - secretes enzymes like hydrochloric acid to
synthesis occurs broken down nutrients and food materials and
- tiny spherical structures also viruses
- are sites of protein synthesis - Phagocytosis
- are spherical nonmembranous-bound - membrane-bound organelles that contain
organelles made of two subunits: digestive enzymes (acid hydrolase); act as the
(a.) The small ribosomal subunit. digestive system of the cell; also known as
(b.) The large ribosomal subunit "suicide bags".
- are usually grouped in clusters in the - They contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes
cytoplasm and are then called polysomes - are absent in RBC
- Breaking down of particles taken in to cell and
 Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex (Mouth) digestion
- series of smooth membrane - Autolysis
- continuous with endoplasmic reticulum - Phagocytosis
- prepare materials for digestion - Killing of cells (planned way)
- packaging of food materials in preparation for - Cell division
digestion
- series of five to seven flattened sacs, involved  Centrosome
in processing, storing, and packaging of - cell center
secretory proteins. - centrioles and asters (used for cell division)
- Composed of four or more stacked layers of - used in cell division
thin, flat enclosed vesicles lying near the
nucleus  Peroxisomes
- One side is directed toward the ER and t - small, membrane-bound organelles
- sorts and packages proteins and lipids in resembling empty lysosomes
vesicles - Contain enzymes to digest excess fatty acids
- Prominent in secretory cells where it is located *Produces products used by mitochondria
on the side of the cell from which secretory to make ATP
substances are released - Produce cholesterol and phospholipids found
- Golgi apparatus functions with the ER, where in brain and heart tissue
transport vesicles bud off the ER and diffuse to - similar to lysosome
the Golgi apparatus – the Golgi apparatus - purine (end product) catabolism
processes ER vesicles to form lysosomes, - converts fat into glucose (energy)
- membrane-bound organelles found mostly in - forms a supportive framework, assists in
the liver, in the kidney and the macrophages organelles movement, and provides a
- contain enzymes (peroxidase) which are transport system within the cell.
involved in the formation of hydrogen
peroxide as they oxidize various substances.  Centrioles
- A pair of cylindrical cytoplasmic organelles
 Mitochondrion/ Mitochondria (Liver- secretes located in a space near the nucleus called
energy) centrosome
- hotdog like, spherical, rod shaped, hollow - Assist in cell division by forming Mitotic
structure Spindle System
- are the "powerhouses" of the cell because of * Note that mitotic spindle is involved
ATP production. with chromosome movement during
- provide energy; convert sugar into ATP mitosis
(Adenosine Triphosphate) or enegry
- provide site for synthesis of RNA and DNA  Cilia
- were also derived from bacteria and therefore - Minute cytoplasmic extensions from the cell
have a double membrane which are involved in the transport of
- Double layered membrane organelle with its materials along the cell surface
inner layer thrown into folds called "cristae" - hair like
projecting into the inner cavity filled with - whiplike structures of cells
amorphous substance called "matrix" where - (e.g. mucus movement in the trachea;
different enzymes are found. movement of the ova in the fallopian tube.)
- are abundant in different types of cells such as
myofibers, neurons, spermatozoa
- Is the site of the final steps in cellular  Flagellum
respiration, which result in the production of - Cellular appendage which protrudes from the
ATP used in the cell metabolic activities. cell and allows its propulsion
- tail of sperm cell
 ATP - (e.g. Spermatozoa tail is made of flagellum)
- ATP means Adenosine Triphosphate
- ATP is the main energy supplier for most  Secretory Vesicles
biological activities in the cell. The phosphate - Membrane bound cytoplasmic chambers
bond (the P of ATP) is where most of the containing products of secretion such as
energy exists protein.
- Most of it is created in the cell's mitochondria.
 Microtubules (Spine)
 Microfilament (Fibers) - made up of protein molecules
- Microscopic tubes
- made of contractile protein  Cytoplasmic Inclusions
- Locomotion - There is a variety of cellular inclusions. -
Examples are:
 Cytoskeleton a. Lipid droplets - storage for energy
- Formed by: b. Glycogen - principal storage form of
a. Microtubules carbohydrates
b. Microfilaments c. Zymogen granules - secretory products
c. ntermediate filaments rich in inactive enzyme
 d. Melanin pigment - most abundant skin - The nucleus is the container of DNA in
pigment eukaryotic cells
e. Hemosiderin - yellowish brown pigment - Site where the genetic material is stored
resulting from degradation of hemoglobin - It consists of three components:

 Centrosome 1. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE OR NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

- Centrosome contains centrioles. Centrioles - Separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
control polarisation of spindle fibres. Centriole - Contains opening called nucleopores which are
is closely related to spindle formation during potential passageway for exchange of
cell division (Mitosis). substances (e.g.) Messenger Ribonucleic Acid
(mRNA)
 Plasmosin
- is constant constituent of cytoplasm. They 2. CHROMATIN
form Tonofibrils in epithelial cells, myofibrils in - Complex substance made up fibrous strands
muscles and neurofibrils in nerves. containing DNA and proteins. DNA controls:
- They consist of long protein molecules rich in a.) Cell's Heredity
deoxy -ribonucleoprotein. b.) Protein Structure
c.) Other nonmetabolic activity
 Vacuoles
- spherical empty sacs 3. NUCLEOLUS
- storage food - Dense nonmembranous mass where RNA is
- They are also cytoplasmic organelles. They are synthesized; location for the components
found covered by fat on staining with dilute found in ribosomes.
neutral red solution. * Note: Red Blood Cells (RBC) in circulation
- membranous sacs larger than vesicles and don't have a nucleus; therefore, they are
usually store substances unable to divide and they die after 4 months in
- Example: toxic substances used in plant circulation
defense
- Central vacuole – found in plants, contains ADDITIONAL:
watery sap and maintains turgor pressure
A. CHROMOSOMES
 Nasal bodies - Chromosomes are present as individual bodies
- They are found in nerve cells. in interphase as well as in mitosis.
Predominant component in chromosome is
 Secretory granules DNA.
- They store secretory products of cell and are - Genes are located in chromosome. They are
found in- Golgi apparatus and E.R discrete units of transmission of hereditary
characters.

C.THE NUCLEUS (BRAIN) B. CHLOROPLASTS

- rounded darkly stained object inside the cell - type of plastid, an organelle bounded by a
- key structure of living cell double membrane with a series of internal
- control center/ controls all the processes of membranes separated by a ground substance
organelles - site of photosynthesis
- controls protein synthesis (production of - Other plastids are:
protein)
 Chromoplast- contain variously colored NOTE: Some information were gathered online and others
pigments like red, blue, violet, yellow etc. were from PDFs downloaded years ago.
 Leukoplast- colorless plastid; storage depot of
starch

C. PRESENCE OF CAPSULE IN BACTERIA = harmful

D. KIDNEY - steriles; does not have bacteria
E. URINE - is sterile since it came from kidney

REFERENCE:

Chapter 1, Introduction to Human Anatomy/physiology (PDF)

Introduction to Human Anatomy. The Medical Lab Technician

(PDF)

Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body. John P. Fisher,

Adapted from Textbook of Medical Physiology, 11th Ed.
Arthur C. Guyton, John E. Hall, Chapter 1

https://twitter.com/student_nxrs/status/1036502465493889
024?s=21&fbclid=IwAR2licQH2zbPdPMLCIBX4BOWDgL6G9h
NBdtizO2-JF6fHEPBtxh_I452mPk
PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTE BOTH
Have
No nucleus With nucleus
ribosomes
DNA is not DNA is
separated from separated by
Have DNA
other membrane
components bound
Small and Have Have
simple organelles cytoplasm
Can be
Have cell
No organelles unicellular or
membrane
multicellular
Are very Have
Have flagella
abundant cytoskeleton
All are
Some have cilia
unicellular
Includes
Cells have a everything
sticky capsule that’s not
bacteria
All cells have Found in
cell walls humans
Reproduce/divi
Were the first
de by
cells
meiosis/mitosis
Live a wide
variety of
environments
All are bacteria
Not found in
humans
Reproduce/
divide by binary
fission
 THREE TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTIONS
A. ISOTONIC:
- equal. Water moves in and out of the
cell at an equal rate
B. HYPOTONIC
- water moves into the cell, making it
swell and get fat. There is a greater
concentration or number of solute
CELL PHYSIOLOGY particles inside a membrane than there
- is the biological study about the are outside.
activities that take place in a cell to keep C. HYPERTONIC
it alive. In the context of human
physiology, the term cell physiology - water moves outside the cell, making it
often specifically applies to the shrink. There is a greater concentration
physiology of membrane transport, or number of solute particles outside a
neuron transmission, and (less membrane than there are inside.
frequently) muscle contraction.

DIFUSSION
* Cells are the basic building blocks of all living
things. The human body is composed of trillions - Diffusion is the net movement of
of cells. They provide structure for the body, particles from an area of higher
take in nutrients from food, convert those concentration to lower concentration.
nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized
functions.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF DIFFUSION:
A. PASSIVE DIFFUSION
OSMOSIS
- is the movement of molecules across a
- Osmosis movement of a solvent (such as
semi-permeable membrane without the
water) through a semipermeable
help of protein channels.
membrane (as of a living cell) into a
solution of higher solute concentration B. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
that tends to equalize the
- is the flow of molecules down a
concentrations of solute on the two
concentration gradient, across a
sides of the membrane.
membrane, but requires the help of a
*It does not require energy to be applied protein. There are two categories of
proteins that assist facilitated diffusion:
 CARRIER PROTEINS- are like taxi cabs in
a cell membrane
  CHANNEL PROTEINS- are like tunnels  PINOCYTOSIS- brings liquids into the
that create a hole across a cell cell
membrane. Channels open to allow
 PHAGOCYTOSIS- is responsible for
molecules to flow through them.
transporting large particles or other
solids into the cell
C. EXOCYTOSIS
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSMOSIS AND - is very similar to endoxytosis except
DIFFUSION: that it deposits materials from inside
the cell on the outside instead of the
other way around
Osmosis- is a slow process and diffusion is the
fast process. Osmosis is dependent on one
solvent to the another for the reduction of free
energy
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Diffusion- the movement of molecules is from
the area of their higher free energy to the area - is a movement of ions and other atomic
of the lower free energy or molecular substances across cell
membranes without need of energy
input.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
THREE MAIN TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT:
- a protein pump uses energy, in the
A. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
form of ATP, to move molecules from an
area of low concentration to an area of - movement of small or lipophilic
high concentration. molecules
B. OSMOSIS
3 MAIN TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT: - movement of water molecules
A. SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP C. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- is a structure known as a cell-membrane - movement of large or charged
pump that uses energy to transport molecules via membrane proteins
Sodium and Potassium ions in and out
of the cell.
B. ENDOCYTOSIS
- is a process by which cells can take in CELL DIVISION
large particles and deposit them into - Cell division is the process by which a
the cell parent cell divides into two or more
- There are 2 sub-categories:
 daughter cells. Cell division usually THE CELL CYCLE
occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.
- It is the period between the beginning
of one cell division and the beginning of
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION: the next cell division.

A. MITOSIS - There are two types of cell division:

somatic and reproductive.
- is a fundamental process for life. During
mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its
contents, including its chromosomes,
A. SOMATIC CELL DIVISION (BODY CELL
and splits to form two identical
DIVISION)
daughter cells.
- Mitosis has five different stages: - It involves three major process:
Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis.
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
1. ) INTERPHASE
3. Metaphase
- Is a very active period of cell activity
4. Anaphase
during which DNA in the nucleus
5. Telophase doubles. The phenomenon is called
"Replication", meaning that DNA makes
- The process of cell division is only
complete after cytokinesis, which takes the copy of itself.
place during anaphase and telophase. 2. ) CYTOKINESIS
Each stage of mitosis is necessary for
cell replication and division - division of the cytoplasm into two
distinct daughter cells.
B. MEIOSIS
3. ) MITOSIS
- Meiosis ensures that humans have the
same number of chromosomes in each - is the process during which two diploid
generation. It is a two-step process that
reduces the chromosome number by (2n) daughter cells result from the
half—from 46 to 23—to form sperm division of a diploid (2n) parent cell.
and egg cells. When the sperm and egg
cells unite at conception, each - in human daughter cells, n = 23
contributes 23 chromosomes so the
resulting embryo will have the usual 46. chromosomes from each parent.
Meiosis also allows genetic variation - It is divided into four sequential stages:
through a process of DNA shuffling
while the cells are dividing.
 PROPHASE - Chromosomes uncoil and become
chromatin
- the first stage of mitosis; it is the
longest mitotic phase. - formation of nuclear membrane around
each set of chromatin.
a. Early Prophase- Chromatin
condenses and shortens into - appearance of nucleoli
chromosomes.
- Mitotic apparatus disappears.
-Each prophase chromosome has a pair
- formation of two daughter cells with 46
of identical, double-stranded DNAs
chromosomes each
called Chromatids

B. REPRODUCTIVE CELL DIVISION OR MEIOSIS

b. Late Prophase- Disappearance of the
Nucleoli - occurs only in the gonads (testes &
ovaries) and results in the formation of
- breakdown of the nuclear membrane
mature gametes (spermatozoa in the
- Movement of the two centrioles male and ova in the female)
toward opposite directions.
- starts at the onset of puberty and
- Appearance of mitotic apparatus continues during the entire lifetime in
the male; stops during menopause in
the female.
 METAPHASE
- unlike the somatic cell division, meiosis
- the second mitotic stage; the chromatid is characterized by the formation of
pairs line up at the center of mitotic haploid (n chromosome) daughter cells
apparatus. resulting from the division of the diploid
(2n chromosome) parent cell. Thus,
each daughter cell contains only 23
 ANAPHASE chromosomes.

- the third stage. - Meiosis consists of two steps: first

meiotic division (reduction) and second
- shortest mitotic phase
meiotic division (equatorial)
- movement of the two sister chromatids
of each chromosomes toward opposite
pole of the cell.

 TELOPHASE
- the fourth mitotic stage
1. ) FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION  METAPHASE II
- is composed of four sequential phases: - single chromosome lines up at the
center of the mitotic apparatus.

 PROPHASE I
 ANAPHASE II
- appearance of double stranded
chromosomes. Pairing of homologous - migration of the chromatid of each
chromosomes lie side by side chromosome to opposite poles.

 METAPHASE I  TELOPHASE II
- pairs of homologous chromosomes line - production of two haploid cells from
up at the center of mitotic apparatus each haploid cell of the telophase I.

 ANAPHASE I REFERENCE:
- one chromosome of each homologous Chapter 1, Introduction to Human
pair migrates to opposite poles. Anatomy/physiology (PDF)

Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body. John

P. Fisher, Adapted from Textbook of Medical
 TELOPHASE I Physiology, 11th Ed. Arthur C. Guyton, John E. Hall,
Chapter 1
- two haploid (n chromosome) daughter
cells result from the division of a diploid NOTE: Some information were gathered online and
(2n chromosome) parent cell others were from PDFs downloaded years ago.

2. ) SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

- is the continuation of the first meiotic
division and is also subdivided into four
phases

 PROPHASE II
- Each chromosome of the haploid
daughter cell resulting from the first
meiotic division has two chromatids
 - the membranes always have one free
(unattached) surface or edge. This apical
surface is exposed to the body’s exterior or
to the cavity of an internal organ. The
exposed surfaces of some epithelia are slick
and smooth, but others exhibit cell surface
modifications, such as microvilli or cilia.
TISSUE - the anchored (basal) surface of epithelium
- group of cells that are similar in structure rests on a basement membrane, a
and function and represent the next level of structureless material secreted by both the
structural organization epithelial cells and the connective tissue
- contributes to the functioning of the organs cells deep to the epithelium. Think of the
in which it is found. basement membrane as the “glue” holding
- are organized into organs such as the heart, the epithelium in place.
kidneys, and lungs - Epithelial tissues have no blood supply of
- the four primary tissue types interweave to their own (that is, they are avascular) and
form the fabric of the body depend on diffusion from the capillaries in
1. Epithelial (covering) the underlying connective tissue for food
2. Connective (support) and oxygen.
3. Muscle (movement) - If well nourished, epithelial cells regenerate
4. Nervous (control) themselves easily.

1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA

- or Epithelium
- the lining, covering, and glandular tissue of
the body CELL ARRANGEMENT (LAYERS)
- Covering and lining epithelium covers all Terms Description
free body surfaces, both inside and out, and Simple Epithelium One layer of cells
contains versatile cells. Stratified Epithelium More than one cell
- its functions include protection, absorption, layer
filtration, and secretion
SHAPE OF ITS CELLS
- Glandular epithelium forms various glands
Squamous Cells Flattened like fish scale
in the body
Cuboidal Cells Cube-shaped like dice
- Secretion is a specialty of the glands, which
Columnar Cells Shaped like columns
produce such substances as sweat, oil,
Transitional
digestive enzymes, and mucus

CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIUM The terms describing the shape and

- Except for glandular epithelium, epithelial arrangement are then combined to describe the
cells fit closely together to form continuous epithelium fully.
sheets. Neighboring cells are bound
together at many points by specialized cell
junctions, including desmosomes and tight
junctions
a. SIMPLE EPITHELIA  PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
- are most concerned with absorption, EPITHELIUM
secretion, and filtration - all of the cells rest on a basement
membrane. However, some of its cells are
 SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM shorter than others, and their nuclei appear at
- a single layer of thin squamous cells resting different heights above the basement
on a basement membrane membrane. As a result, this epithelium gives the
- the cells fit closely together false (pseudo) impression that it is stratified;
- it usually forms membranes where filtration hence its name
or exchange of substances by rapid diffusion - like simple columnar epithelium, this variety
occurs mainly functions in absorption and secretion
- it is in the air sacs of the lungs (called - a ciliated variety (more precisely called
alveoli), where oxygen and carbon dioxide pseudostratified ciliated columnar
are exchanged epithelium) lines most of the respiratory tract
- it forms the walls of capillaries, where - the mucus produced by the goblet
nutrients and gases pass between the blood in cells in this epithelium acts as a “sticky trap” to
the capillaries and the interstitial fluid catch dust and other debris, and the cilia propel
- it also forms serous membranes or serose the mucus upward and away from the lungs
which is the slick membranes that line the
ventral body cavity and cover the organs in the
cavity b. STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
- it consist of two or more cell layers consists
 SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM of many layers of mostly flat cells, although
- it rests on a basement membrane lower cells are rounded
- it makes up the functional units of the - being considerably more durable than the
thyroid gland and salivary glands simple epithelia, these epithelia function
- it is common in glands and their associated primarily in protection
small tubes called ducts
- it also forms the walls of the kidney tubules  STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
and covers the surface of the ovaries. - it is the most common stratified epithelium
in the body
 SIMPLE COLUMNAR EITHELIUM - it usually consists of many cell layers. The
- is made up of a single layer of tall cells that cells at the free edge are squamous cells,
fit closely together whereas those close to the basement membrane
- are specialized for secretion and absorption are cuboidal or columnar.
- Goblet cells, which produce a lubricating - it is found in sites that receive a good deal of
mucus, are often seen in this type of epithelium abuse or friction, such as the surface of the skin,
- it lines the entire length of the digestive the mouth, and the esophagus
tract from the stomach to the anus - this type of epithelium makes up the
- Epithelial membranes that line body cavities epidermis of the skin, where it is called
open to the body exterior are called mucosae or “keratinizing” because the protein keratin is
mucous membranes produced, and the surface cells are dead
- Stratified squamous epithelium of the - A gland consists of one or more cells that
non-keratinizing type lines the oral cavity, the make and secrete a particular product.
esophagus, and, in women, the vagina - This product, a secretion, typically contains
protein molecules in an aqueous (water
-based) fluid. The term secretion also
 STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL AND STRATIFIED indicates an active process in which the
COLUMNAR EPITHELIA glandular cells obtain needed materials from
- Stratified cuboidal epithelium typically has the blood and use them to make their
just two cell layers with (at least) the surface products, which they then discharge by
cells being cuboidal in shape. exocytosis.
- the surface cells of stratified columnar - Two major types of glands develop from
epithelium are columnar cells, but its basal cells epithelial sheets:
vary in size and shape
- both of these epithelia are fairly rare in the a. Endocrine glands
body, found mainly in the ducts of large glands - lose their ducts; thus they are often
called ductless glands. Their secretions
 TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM (all hormones) diffuse directly into the
- is a highly modified, stratified squamous blood vessels that weave through the
epithelium that forms the lining of only a few glands
organs—the urinary bladder, the ureters, and - Examples of endocrine glands include
part of the urethra the thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary
- As part of the urinary system, all of these
organs are subject to considerable stretching b. Exocrine glands
- cells of the basal layer are cuboidal - it retain their ducts, and their secretions
or columnar; those at the free surface vary in exit through the ducts to the epithelial
appearance. surface
- when the organ is not stretchd, the - Exocrine glands, which include the
membrane is many-layered, and the superficial sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas,
cells are rounded and domelike. are both internal and external.
- when the organ is distended with urine, the
epithelium thins like a rubber band being
stretched, and the surface cells flatten and  ENDOTHELIUM
become squamouslike - the inner lining of blood vessels, the heart,
- this ability of transitional cells to slide past and lymphatic vessels) is a specialized form
one another and change their shape (undergo of epithelium
“transitions”) allows the ureter wall to stretch as - with a single layer of squamous cells
a greater volume of urine flows through that attached to a basement membrane
tubelike organ. In the bladder, it allows more
urine to be stored
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
ADDITIONAL: - it is the most abundant and widely
distributed of the tissue types
 GRANDULAR EPITHELIUM
- it performs many functions, but they are - its major cell type is chondrocytes (cartilage
primarily involved in protecting, supporting, cells)
and binding together other body tissues - it is found in only a few places in the body.
- most widespread is hyaline (hi′ah-lin)
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE cartilage, which has abundant collagen fibers
- Variations in blood supply. Most connective hidden by a rubbery matrix with a glassy (hyalin
tissues are well vascularized (that is, they = glass), blue-white appearance
have a good blood supply), but there are - it forms the trachea, or windpipe, attaches
exceptions. Tendons and ligaments, for the ribs to the breastbone, and covers bone ends
example, have a poor blood supply, and at joints
cartilages are avascular. Consequently, all - although hyaline cartilage is the most
these structures heal very slowly when abundant type of cartilage in the body, there are
injured others
- Extracellular matrix. Connective tissues are - highly compressible fibrocartilage forms the
made up of many different types of cells cushionlike disks between the vertebrae of the
plus varying amounts of a nonliving spinal column
substance found outside the cells, called the - elastic cartilage is found in structures with
extracellular matrix. elasticity, such as the external ear

*Extracellular Matrix- the matrix, which is  DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

produced by the connective tissue cells and - also called dense fibrous tissue
then secreted to their exterior, has two main - the collagen fibers are the main matrix
elements, a structureless ground substance element - crowded between the collagen fibers
and fibers are rows of fibroblasts (fiber-forming cells) that
manufacture the building blocks of the fibers.
- it forms strong, ropelike structures such as
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE tendons and ligaments. Tendons attach skeletal
muscles to bones; ligaments connect bones to
 BONE bones at joints. Ligaments are more stretchy and
- sometimes called osseous tissue contain more elastic fibers than do tendons
- it is composed of osteocytes sitting in - this also makes up the lower layers of the
cavities called lacunae. These pits are skin (dermis), where it is arranged in sheets
surrounded by layers of a very hard matrix that
contains calcium salts in addition to large  LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
numbers of collagen fibers - are softer and have more cells and fewer
- because of its rocklike hardness, bone has fibers than any other connective tissue type
an exceptional ability to protect and support except blood
other body organs (for example, the skull - there are three main types of loose
protects the brain) connective tissue: areolar, adipose, and reticular.

a. Areolar connective tissue

 CARTILAGE - the most widely distributed connective
- is less hard and more flexible than bone. tissue variety in the body, is a soft, pliable,
“cobwebby” tissue that cushions and
 protects the body organs it wraps. It and many other substances throughout the
functions as a universal packing tissue and body.
connective tissue “glue” because it
helps to hold the internal organs together TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
and in their proper positions. TYPE STRUCTURE LOCATION AND
FUNCTION
Blood Plasma (matrix) Within blood vessels
b. Adipose Connective Tissue
and red blood
- is commonly called fat. It is an areolar cells, •Plasma—transports
tissue in which adipose (fat) cells white blood materials
predominate. Adipose tissue forms the cells, and • RBCs—carry
subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin, platelets oxygen
• WBCs—destroy
where it insulates the body and protects it
pathogens
from bumps and extremes of both heat and • Platelets—prevent
cold. Adipose tissue also protects some blood loss
organs. Areolar (loose) Fibroblasts and a Subcutaneous
matrix of tissue
c. Reticular Connective Tissue flfluid, collagen, • Connects skin to
and elastin muscles; WBCs
- it consists of a delicate network of fibers destroy pathogens
interwoven reticular fibers associated with Mucous membranes
reticular cells, which resemble fibroblasts. (digestive,
Reticular tissue is limited to certain sites: It respiratory, urinary,
forms the stroma (literally, “bed” or reproductive tracts)
• WBCs destroy
“mattress”), or internal framework of an pathogens
organ. The stroma can support many free Adipose Adipocytes that Subcutaneous
blood cells (largely white blood cells called store fat (little
lymphocytes) in lymphoid organs. It may matrix) • Stores excess
help to think of reticular tissue as “cellular energy
• Produces
bleachers” where other cells can observe chemicals that
their surroundings influence appetite,
use
 BLOOD of nutrients, and
- or vascular tissue, is considered a connective inflammation
Around eyes and
tissue because it consists of blood cells Kidneys
surrounded by a nonliving, fluid matrix • Cushions
called blood plasma, which is about 52% to Fibrous Mostly collagen Tendons and
62% of the total blood volume in the body fibers (matrix) ligaments (regular)
- the “fibers” of blood are soluble proteins with
few fibroblasts • Strong to
that become visible only during blood withstand forces of
clotting. Still, blood is quite atypical as movement of joints
connective tissues go. Dermis (irregular)
- blood is the transport vehicle for the • The strong inner
cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients, layer of the skin
Elastic Mostly elastin Walls of large
wastes, respiratory gases, white blood cells,
fibers (matrix) arteries
 with few - when the skeletal muscles contract, they
fibroblasts • Helps maintain pull on bones or skin. As a result, gross body
blood pressure
Around alveoli in
movements or changes in our facial expressions
lungs occur
• Promotes normal - the cells of skeletal muscle are long,
exhalation cylindrical, and multinucleate, and they have
Bone Osteocytes in a Bones obvious striations (stripes). Because skeletal
matrix of • Support the body
muscle cells are elongated to provide a long axis
calcium • Protect internal
salts and organs from for contraction, they are often called muscle
collagen mechanical injury fibers.
• Store excess
calcium  CARDIAC MUSCLE
• Contain and
- is found only in the heart wall. As it
protect red bone
marrow contracts, the heart acts as a pump to propel
Cartilage Chondrocytes in Wall of trachea blood through the blood vessels.
a flexible protein - like skeletal muscle, it has striations, but
matrix • Keeps airway open cardiac cells have only a single nucleus and are
On joint surfaces of
relatively short, branching cells that fit tightly
bones
• Smooth to prevent together (like clasped fingers) at junctions called
friction intercalated discs.
- Cardiac muscle is under involuntary control,
Tip of nose and which means that we cannot consciously control
outer ear
the activity of the heart.
• Support
Between vertebrae  SMOOTH (VISCERAL) MUSCLE
• Absorb shock - is so called because no striations are visible
- also called as involuntary muscle
- the individual cells have a single nucleus and
3. MUSCLE TISSUE are tapered at both ends.
- are highly specialized to contract, or shorten, - this is found in the walls of hollow organs
which generates the force required to such as the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels.
produce movement. - as smooth muscle in its walls contracts,
- There are three types of muscle tissue: the cavity of an organ alternately becomes
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth smaller (constricts when smooth muscle
contracts) or enlarges (dilates when smooth
muscle relaxes) so that substances are mixed
 SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE and/or propelled through the organ along a
- also called as striated or voluntary muscle specific pathway.
- is packaged by connective tissue sheets into - Smooth muscle contracts much more slowly
organs called skeletal muscles, which are than the other two muscle types, and these
attached to the skeleton’ contractions tend to last longer
- these muscles, which can be controlled - Peristalsis, a wavelike motion that keeps
voluntarily or consciously, form the flesh of the food moving through the small intestine, is
body, the so-called muscular system typical of its activity.
 tissue, that is, by the formation of scar tissue.
4. NERVOUS TISSUE - occurs depends on (1) the type of tissue
- All neurons receive and conduct damaged and (2) the severity of the injury.
electrochemical impulses from one part of - clean cuts (incisions) heal much more
the body to another; thus, irritability and successfully than ragged tears of the tissue.
conductivity are their two major functional - Tissue injury sets the following series of
characteristics events into motion:
- the structure of neurons is unique; their
cytoplasm is drawn out into long processes • Inflammation sets the stage
(extensions), as long as 3 feet or more in the • Granulation tissue forms
leg, which allows a single neuron to conduct • Regeneration and fibrosis effect
an impulse to distant body locations. permanent repair
- the nervous system is more than just
neurons. A special group of supporting cells
called neuroglia insulate, support, and REFERENCE
protect the delicate neurons in the
structures of the nervous system—the brain, Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
spinal cord, and nerves. Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
Pearson. (PDF)

TISSUE REPAIRING (WOUND HEALING) Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th Edition.
- Intact physical barriers such as the skin and Scanlon, V.C. & Sanders, T., 2007. F.A. Davis
mucous membranes, cilia, and the strong Company, Philadelphia. (PDF)
acid produced by stomach glands are just
three examples of body defenses exerted at
the tissue level
- When tissue injury does occur, it stimulates
the body’s inflammatory and immune
responses, and the healing process begins
almost immediately
- Inflammation is a general (nonspecific) body
response that attempts to prevent further
injury
- The immune response, in contrast, is
extremely specific and mounts a vigorous
attack against recognized invaders, including
bacteria, viruses, and toxins.
- Tissue repair, or wound healing, occurs in
two major ways:

 REGENERATION
- is the replacement of destroyed tissue by
the same kind of cells, whereas fibrosis
involves repair by dense (fibrous) connective
 organs of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive tracts
- the term mucosa refers only to the location of
the epithelial membranes, not their cellular
makeup, which varies.
- most mucosae contain either stratified
squamous epithelium or simple columnar
epithelium
- In all cases, they are moist membranes that are
BODY MEMBRANE almost continuously bathed in secretions or, in
- cover surfaces, line body cavities, and form the case of the urinary mucosae, urine.
protective (often lubricating) sheets around - The epithelium of mucosae is often adapted
organs for absorption or secretion. Although many
- fall into two major groups: mucosae secrete mucus, not all do. The
mucosae of the respiratory and digestive tracts
secrete large amounts of protective, lubricating
A. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES mucus; that of the urinary tract does not.
- also called covering and lining membranes
- include the cutaneous membrane (skin), the 3. SEROUS MEMBRANES
mucous membranes, and the serous - or serosa, is composed of a layer of simple
membranes squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of
- Although they all do contain an epithelial layer, areolar connective tissue
it is always combined with an underlying layer - serous membranes line body cavities that
of connective tissue. Hence these membranes are closed to the exterior (except for the dorsal
are actually simple organs body cavity and joint cavities)
- occur in pairs:
 Parietal layer- lines a specific portion of the
1. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE wall of the ventral body cavity. It folds in on
- generally called the skin or integumentary itself to form the
system  Visceral layer- covers the outside of the
- the outer covering that wee rely on for organ(s) in that cavity.
protection - In the body, the serous layers are separated
- membrane is exposed to air and is a dry not by air but by a scanty amount of thin, clear
membrane fluid, called serous fluid, which is secreted by
- composed of two layers: both membranes
- Although there is a potential space between the
 Epidermis- composed of stratified two membranes, they tend to lie very close to
squamous epithelium each other. The lubricating serous fluid allows
 Dermis- mostly dense (fibrous) connective the organs to slide easily across the cavity walls
tissue. and one another without friction as they carry
out their routine functions
2. MUCOUS MEMBRANES - the specific names of the serous membranes
- composed of epithelium (the type varies with depend on their locations. The serosa lining the
the site) resting on a loose connective tissue abdominal cavity and covering its organs is the
membrane called a lamina propria peritoneum
- this membrane type lines all body cavities that - In the thorax, serous membranes isolate the
open to the exterior, such as those of the hollow lungs and heart from one another. The
membranes surrounding the lungs are the pleurae; SKIN
those around the heart are the pericardia - has multiple layers that protect the body, help
regulate body temperature, and help excrete
wastes via sweat
B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES - is the first barrier to keep good things such as
water in, and bad things such as harmful
1. SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES bacteria out
- composed of loose areolar connective tissue - absolutely essential because it keeps water and
and contain no epithelial cells at all other precious molecules in the body
- these membranes line the fibrous capsules - it keeps excess water (and other things) out
surrounding joints, where they provide a - structurally, the skin is a marvel. It is pliable yet
smooth surface and secrete a lubricating fluid tough, which allows it to take constant
- they also line small sacs of connective tissue punishment from external agents
called bursae and the tubelike tendon sheaths
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM A. EPIDERMIS

- includes body membranes, skin, hair, fingernails, - made up of stratified squamous epithelium
and sweat and oil glands that is capable of becoming hard and tough
- also called the integument which simply means - Most of its cells are keratinocytes which
“covering” produce keratin, the fibrous protein that makes
- most, but not all, of which are protective the epidermis a tough protective layer in a
- It insulates and cushions the deeper body process called keratinization. These
organs and protects the entire body from keratinocytes are connected by desmosomes
 mechanical damage (bumps and cuts) throughout the epidermis
 chemical damage (such as from acids and - is avascular; that is, it has no blood supply of its
bases) own
 thermal damage (heat and cold) - composed of up to five layers, or strata
 ultraviolet (UV) radiation (in sunlight), and - From the inside out these are the stratum
 microbes basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and
- the uppermost layer of the skin is hardened, to corneum
help prevent water loss from the body surface
- the skin’s rich capillary network and sweat 1. STRATUM BASALE
glands (both controlled by the nervous system) - deepest cell layer of epidermis
play an important role in regulating heat loss - lies closest to the dermis and is connected
from the body surface to it along a wavy border that resembles
- the skin acts as a mini-excretory system; urea, corrugated cardboard
salts, and water are lost when we sweat - contains the most adequately nourished of
- a chemical plant; it manufactures several the epidermal cells because nutrients
proteins important to immunity and synthesizes diffusing from the dermis reach them first
vitamin D - stem cells in this layer are constantly
- also produces acidic secretions, called the acid dividing, and millions of new cells are
mantle, that protect against bacterial invasion. produced daily; hence its alternate name,
stratum germinativum
- of the new cells produced, some become
epidermal cells, and others maintain the
population of stem cells by continuing to
 divide. The daughter cells destined to the dandruff familiar to everyone
become epidermal cells are pushed upward, - this layer is replaced by cells produced by
away from the source of nutrition, to the division of the deeper stratum basale
become part of the epidermal layers closer cells
to the skin surface. - we have totally “new” epidermis every 25
to 45 days.
2. STRATUM SPINOSUM
- the cells which is move away from the *Melanin - a pigment that ranges in color from
dermis become part of this layer yellow to brown to black
- is produced by special spider-shaped cells
3. STRATUM GRANULOSUM called melanocytes found chiefly in the stratum
- epidermis cells becomes flatter and basale
increasingly keratinized - Freckles and moles are seen where melanin is
concentrated in one spot.
4. STRATUM LUCIDUM
- as the cells leave the stratum granulosum, *Epidermal dendritic cells- scattered in the
they die, then form the clear stratum epidermis which are important “sentries” that
lucidum alert and activate immune system cells to a threat
- not present in all skin regions. It occurs only such as bacterial or viral invasion
where the skin is hairless and extra thick,
that is, on the palms of the hands and soles *Merkel cells- seen here and there at the
of the feet epidermal-dermal junction which are associated
- the combination of accumulating keratin with sensory nerve endings and serve as touch
inside them, secreting a water-repellent receptors called Merkel discs
glycolipid into the extracellular space, and
their increasing distance from the blood
supply (in the dermis) effectively dooms the
stratum lucidum cells and the more B. DERMIS
superficial epidermal cells because they are - made up mostly of dense connective tissue
unable to get adequate nutrients and - varies in thickness
oxygen. - a strong, stretchy envelope that helps to bind
the body together
5. STRATUM CORNEUM - the epidermis and dermis are firmly connected
- is 20 to 30 cell layers thick, but it accounts and the dermis is fairly tear resistant. However,
for about three-quarters of the epidermal a burn or friction may cause them to separate,
thickness allowing interstitial fluid to accumulate in the
- the shinglelike dead cell remnants, cavity between the layers, which results in a
completely filled with keratin, are referred blister
to as cornified or horny cells - is abundantly supplied with blood vessels that
- the abundance of the tough keratin protein play a role in maintaining body temperature
in the stratum corneum allows that layer to homeostasis
provide a durable “overcoat” for the body, - When body temperature is high, the capillaries
which protects deeper cells from the hostile of the dermis become engorged, or swollen,
external environment and from water loss, with heated blood, and the skin becomes
and helps the body resist biological, reddened and warm. This allows body heat to
chemical, and physical assaults radiate from the skin surface. If the
- it rubs and flakes off slowly and steadily as environment is cool and body heat must be
 conserved, blood bypasses the dermis - both collagen and elastic fibers are found
capillaries temporarily, allowing internal body throughout the dermis.
temperature to remain high. *Collagen fibers- are responsible for the toughness
- has a rich nerve supply of the dermis; they also attract and bind water and
- made up of dense connective tissue which are thus help to keep the skin hydrated.
composed of areolar and dense irregular
connective tissue, respectively, and has 2 *Elastic fibers- give the skin its elasticity when we
regions: are young. As we age, the number of collagen and
elastic fibers decreases, and the subcutaneous tissue
loses fat. As a result, the skin loses its elasticity and
1. PAPILLARY begins to sag and wrinkle.
- the superficial dermal region
- It is uneven and has peglike projections from its
superior surface, called dermal papillae which SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE, or HYPODERMIS
indent the epidermis above. Many of the dermal - the deep part of the dermis which essentially is
papillae contain capillary loops, which furnish adipose (fat) tissue. It is not considered part of
nutrients to the epidermis the skin, but it does anchor the skin to
- On the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, underlying organs and provides a site for
the papillae are arranged in definite patterns nutrient storage.
that form looped and whorled ridges on the
epidermal surface that increase friction and
enhance the gripping ability of the fingers and SKIN COLOR
feet - three pigments:
- Papillary patterns are genetically determined.
The ridges of the fingertips are well provided 1. MELANIN
with sweat pores and leave unique, identifying - the amount and kind (yellow, reddish brown,
films of sweat called fingerprints on almost or black) of melanin in the epidermis
anything they touch - skin exposure to sunlight stimulates
melanocytes to produce more melanin pigment,
resulting in tanning of the skin.
2. RETICULAR - People who produce a lot of melanin have
- the deepest skin layer brown-toned skin, whereas people with less
- It contains dense irregular connective tissue, as melanin are light skinned.
well as blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and
deep pressure receptors called lamellar 2. CAROTENE
corpuscles - the amount of carotene deposited in the
- Other cutaneous sensory receptors, which are stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue
actually part of the nervous system, are also - is an orange-yellow pigment plentiful in carrots
located in the skin. These tiny sensors, which and other orange, deep yellow, or leafy green
include touch, pressure, temperature, and pain vegetables
receptors, provide us with a great deal of - In people who eat large amounts of carotene
information about our external environment -rich foods, the skin tends to take on a
- Phagocytes found here act to prevent microbes yellow-orange cast.
that have managed to get through the
epidermis from penetrating any deeper into the 3. HEMOGLOBIN
body - the amount of oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the
dermal blood vessels
- In light-skinned people, the crimson color of - as these glands are formed by the cells of the
oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the dermal blood stratum basale, they push into the deeper skin
supply flushes through the transparent cell regions and ultimately reside almost
layers above and gives the skin a rosy glow entirely in the dermis.
- Emotions also influence skin color, and many - they fall into two groups: sebaceous glands
alterations in skin color signal certain disease and sweat glands
states:
A. SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS
1. REDNESS, OR ERYTHEMA - or oil glands
- may indicate embarrassment (blushing), - are found all over the skin, except on the palms
fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy. of the hands and the soles of the feet.
- their ducts usually empty into a hair follicle but
2. PALLOR, OR BLANCHING (PALE) some open directly onto the skin surface
- Under certain types of emotional stress (fear, - becomes very active when androgens (male sex
anger, and others), some people become pale. hormones) are produced in increased amounts
- may also signify anemia, low blood pressure, or (in both sexes) during adolescence. Thus, the
impaired blood flow into the area skin tends to become oilier during this period of
life.
3. JAUNDICE OR A YELLOW CAST
- an abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies a *Sebum- product of the sebaceous glands
liver disorder in which excess bile pigments - is a mixture of oily substances and
accumulate in the blood, circulate throughout fragmented cells
the body, and become deposited in body - it is a lubricant that keeps the skin soft and
tissues moist and prevents the hair from becoming
brittle
4. BRUISES - contains chemicals that kill bacteria, so it
- the black-and-blue marks of bruising is important in preventing bacterial
reveal sites where blood has escaped from the infection of the skin.
circulation and has clotted in the tissue spaces.
- Such clotted blood masses are called B. SWEAT GLANDS
hematomas - also called sudoriferous glands
- an unusual tendency to bruise may signify a - are widely distributed in the skin
deficiency of vitamin C in the diet or hemophilia - their number is staggering—more than 2.5
(bleeder’s disease) million per person.
- there are two types of sweat glands:

APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN 1. ECCRINE GLANDS

- include cutaneous glands, hair and hair follicles, - are far more numerous and are found all over
and nails the body
- each of these appendages arises from the - they produce sweat, vitamin C, traces of
epidermis and plays a unique role in maintaining metabolic wastes (ammonia, urea, uric acid),
body homeostasis. and lactic acid (a chemical that accumulates
during vigorous muscle activity)
1. CUTAENOUS GLANDS
- are all exocrine glands that release their *sweat is acidic (pH from 4 to 6), a
secretions to the skin surface via ducts characteristic that inhibits the growth of
certain bacteria, which are always present
 on the skin surface. Typically, sweat reaches - hormones account for the development of hairy
the skin surface via a duct that opens regions—the scalp and, in the adult, the pubic
externally as a funnel-shaped sweat pore and axillary areas
- are an important and highly efficient part of the - is a flexible epithelial structure
body’s heat-regulating equipment. They are - Root = part of the hair enclosed in the hair
supplied with nerve endings that cause them to follicle
secrete sweat when the external temperature - Shaft = the part projecting from the
or body temperature is too high surface of the scalp or skin
- a hair forms by division of the well-nourished
2. APOCRINE GLANDS stratum basale epithelial cells in the matrix of
- are largely confined to the axillary (armpit) and the hair bulb at the deep end of the follicle
genital areas of the body - Medulla = where each hair is made up of, is a
- usually larger than eccrine glands, and their central core consisting of large cells and air
ducts empty into hair follicles spaces, surrounded by a bulky cortex layer
- their secretion contains fatty acids and proteins, composed of several layers of flattened cells
as well as all the substances present in eccrine - Cortex = enclosed by an outermost cuticle
sweat; consequently, it may have a milky or formed by a single layer of cells that overlap one
yellowish color. The secretion is odorless, but another like shingles on a roof
when bacteria that live on the skin use its - Cuticle = is the most heavily keratinized region;
proteins and fats as a source of nutrients for it provides strength and helps keep the inner
their growth, it can take on a musky, sometimes hair layers tightly compacted. Because it
unpleasant odor is most subject to abrasion, the cuticle tends to
- it begins to function during puberty under the wear away at the tip of the shaft, allowing the
influence of androgens. They play a minimal role keratin fibrils in the inner hair regions to frizz
in thermoregulation out, a phenomenon called “split ends
- their precise function is not yet known, but they - Hair pigment is made by melanocytes in the hair
are activated by nerve fibers during pain and bulb, and varying amounts of different types of
stress and during sexual arousal melanin combine to produce all varieties
of hair color from pale blond to red to pitch
black
2. HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLES - comes in a variety of sizes and shapes

A. HAIR B. HAIR FOLLICLES

- millions of hairs, produced by hair follicles, are - are actually compound structures
found all over the body surface except on the - the inner epithelial root sheath is composed of
palms of the hands, soles of the feet, nipples, epithelial tissue and forms the hair
and lips - the outer fibrous sheath is actually dermal
- hairs are among the fastest growing tissues in connective tissue. This dermal region supplies
the body blood vessels to the epidermal portion and
- serves a few minor protective functions, such as reinforces it
guarding the head against bumps, shielding the - Arrector pili = small bands of smooth muscle
eyes (via eyelashes), and helping to keep foreign cells connect each side of the hair follicle to the
particles out of the respiratory tract (via nose dermal tissue
hairs)
- may also help to attract sexual partners
3. NAILS the dorsal neck
- a scalelike modification of the epidermis that - Carbuncles are clusters of boils often caused by
corresponds to the hoof or claw of other the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus
animals
- each nail has a free edge, a body, and a root C. COLD SORES (FEVER BLISTERS)
- Nail folds = folds of skin that overlapped the - small fluid-filled blisters that itch and sting,
borders of the nail caused by human herpesvirus 1 infection. The
- Cuticle = the edge of the thick proximal nail fold virus localizes in a cutaneous nerve, where it
- Nail Bed = beneath the nail where the stratum remains dormant until activated by emotional
basale of the epidermis extends upset, fever, or UV radiation. It usually occur
- Nail matrix = the thickened proximal area; is around the lips and in the oral mucosa of the
responsible for nail growth. As the matrix mouth and nose
produces nail cells, they become heavily
keratinized and die. D. CONTACT DERMATITIS
- are mostly nonliving material - Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin,
- are transparent and nearly colorless, but progressing to blistering
they look pink because of the rich blood supply - It is caused by exposure of the skin to
in the underlying dermis. The exception to this chemicals
is the region over the thickened nail matrix that that provoke allergic responses in sensitive
appears as a white crescent and is called the individuals
lunule
- when the supply of oxygen in the blood is low, E. IMPETIGO
the nail beds take on a cyanotic (blue) cast. - pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions (commonly
around the mouth and nose) that develop a
yellow crust and eventually rupture caused by
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF SKIN highly contagious staphylococcus or
streptococcus infections
- skin can develop more than 1,000 different
ailments F. PSORIASIS
- most common skin disorder are infections with - characterized by reddened epidermal lesions
pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi covered with dry, silvery scales that itch, burn,
- Allergies = caused by abnormally strong crack, and sometimes bleed
immune responses; commonly seen in the skin - a chronic condition; it is believed to be an
- Burns and skin cancers = less common but far autoimmune disorder in which the immune
more damaging to body well-being system attacks a person’s own tissues, leading
to the rapid overproduction of skin cells. Attacks
are often triggered by trauma, infection,
1. INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES hormonal changes, or stress.
- when severe, psoriasis may be disfiguring
A. ATHLETE’S FOOT
- an itchy, red, peeling condition of the skin
between the toes, resulting from an 2. BURNS
infection with the fungus Tinea pedis - is tissue damage and cell death caused by
intense heat, electricity, UV radiation (sunburn),
B. BOILS AND CARBUNCLES or certain chemicals (such as acids), which
- Boils are caused by inflammation of hair denature proteins and cause cell death in the
follicles and surrounding tissues, commonly on affected areas
- when the skin is burned and its cells are C. THIRD-DEGREE (FULL-THICKNESS BURNS)
destroyed, two life-threatening problems result: - often extend into the subcutaneous tissue,
reflecting their categorization as full thickness
1st = Without an intact boundary, the body loses burns
its precious supply of fluids containing - blisters are usually present, and the burned area
proteins and electrolytes as these seep appears blanched (gray-white) or blackened
from the burned surfaces - because the nerve endings in the area are
2 = Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
nd
destroyed, the burned area is not painful
follow and can lead to a shutdown of the - regeneration is not possible, and skin grafting
kidneys and circulatory shock must be done to cover the underlying exposed
- to save the patient, lost fluids must be replaced tissues.
immediately. The volume of fluid lost can be
estimated indirectly by determining how much D. FOURTH-DEGREE (FULL-THICKNESS BURNS WITH
of the body surface is burned (extent of burns), DEEP-TISSUE INVOLVEMENT)
using the rule of nines - are also full-thickness burns, but they extend
- infection becomes the most important into deeper tissues such as bone, muscle, or
threat and is the leading cause of death in burn tendons
victims. Burned skin is sterile for about 24 - these burns appear dry and leathery, and they
hours. After that, pathogens easily invade areas require surgery and grafting to cover exposed
where the skin has been destroyed and multiply tissue
rapidly in the nutrient-rich environment of dead - in severe cases, amputation may be required to
tissues. The patient’s immune system becomes save the patient’s life
depressed within one to two days after severe
burn injury CONSIDERED CRITICAL
- burns are classified according to their severity • Over 30 percent of the body has second-degree
(depth) as: burns
• Over 10 percent of the body has third- or
A. FIRST-DEGREE (SUPERFICIAL) fourth-degree burns
- only the superficial epidermis is damaged • There are third- or fourth-degree burns of the
- the area becomes red and swollen face, hands, feet, or genitals
- It’s not usually serious and generally heal in • Burns affect the airway
two to three days • Circumferential (around the body or limb)
- Sunburn without blistering is a first-degree burn burns have occurred.

B. SECOND-DEGREE (SUPERFICIAL PARTIAL - Facial burns are particularly dangerous

-THICKNESS BURNS) because of the possibility of burns in respiratory
- involve injury to the epidermis and the passageways, which can swell and cause
superficial part of the dermis suffocation
- the skin is red, painful, and blistered - Joint injuries are troublesome because the
- because sufficient numbers of epithelial cells scar tissue that eventually forms can severely
are still present, regrowth of the epithelium can limit joint mobility
Occur - Circumferential burns can restrict movement,
- ordinarily, no permanent scars result if care and depending on location, can interfere with
is taken to prevent infection. normal breathing
3. SKIN CANCER - can begin wherever there is pigment; most such
- numerous types of neoplasms (tumors) arise in cancers appear spontaneously, but some
the skin. Most are benign and do not spread develop from pigmented moles
(metastasize) to other body area - It arises from accumulated DNA damage in
- is the single most common type of cancer in a skin cell and usually appears as a spreading
humans brown to black patch that metastasizes rapidly
- Frequent irritation of the skin by infections, to surrounding lymph and blood vessels
chemicals, or physical trauma also seems to be a - the chance for survival is about 50 percent,
predisposing factor and early detection helps
- three most common types of skin cancer: - the American Cancer Society suggests that
people who sunbathe frequently or attend
A. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA tanning parlors examine their skin periodically
- is the least malignant and most common skin for new moles or pigmented spots and apply the
cancer ABCDE rule for recognizing melanoma:
- Cells of the stratum basale, no longer honor the
boundary between epidermis and dermis. They (A) Asymmetry = Any two sides of the pigmented
proliferate, invading the dermis and spot or mole do not match
subcutaneous tissue (B) Border irregularity = The borders of the
- Cancerous lesions occur most often on sun lesion are not smooth but exhibit
-exposed areas of the face and often appear as indentations
shiny, dome-shaped nodules that later develop (C) Color = The pigmented spot contains areas
a central ulcer with a “pearly” beaded edge of different colors (black, brown, tan, and
- is relatively slow-growing, and metastasis sometimes blue or red)
seldom occurs before the lesion is noticed. (D) Diameter = The lesion is larger than 6
When the lesion is removed surgically, 99 millimeters (mm) in diameter (the size of a
percent of cases are completely cured. pencil eraser)
(E) Evolution = One or more of these characteristics
B. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA (ABCD) is evolving, or changing
- arises from the cells of the stratum spinosum
- the lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules - the usual therapy for malignant melanoma is
(small, rounded swellings) that gradually wide surgical excision along with
form shallow ulcers with firm, raised borders immunotherapy, a treatment that involves the
- appears most often on the scalp, ears, back of patient’s immune system. Large lesions may
the hands, and lower lip, but can appear also require radiation or chemotherapy after
anywhere on the skin surgical removal
- it grows rapidly and metastasizes to adjacent
lymph nodes if not removed REFERENCE:
- it is also believed to be induced by UV exposure.
If it is caught early and removed surgically or by Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
radiation therapy, the chance of complete cure Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
is good Pearson. (PDF)

C. MALIGNANT MELANOMA NOTE: Some information were gathered online and

- is a cancer of melanocytes others were from PDFs downloaded years ago
- It accounts for only about 5 percent of skin
cancers, but it is often deadly
 D. LIGAMENTS
- fibrous cords that bind the bones together at joints

FUNCTIONS OF BONES

A. SUPPORT
- form the internal framework and cradles soft organs
SKELETAL SYSTEM of the body and cradles its soft organs.
- Skeleton = from Greek word meaning “dried-up - the bones of the legs act as pillars to support the
body” body trunk when we stand
- includes bones, cartilages, joints, and ligaments - the rib cage supports the thoracic wall
- the internal frame of the body (is beautifully formed
and proportioned) B. PROTECTION
- strong yet light, perfectly adapted for its functions of - bones protect soft body organs
protecting the body and allowing motion - skull and vertebrae for brain and spinal cord
- is essential for protecting organs, producing blood - rib cage for thoracic cavity organs
cells, storing essential minerals, and anchoring
skeletal muscles so that their contractions C. ALLOW MOVEMENTS
cause body movements - skeletal muscle, attached to bones by tendons
(breath, walk, swim, throw a ball)

2 SUBDIVISIONS OF SKELETON: D. STORAGE

- joints give these parts of the skeleton flexibility - bone itself serves as a storehouse for minerals
and allow movement to occur. (Calcium and Phosphorus)
- Fat is stored the internal marrow cavities of bone
A. AXIAL SKELETON
- bones that form the longitudinal aspect of the body E. BLOOD CELL FORMATION (HEMATOPOIESIS)
- occurs within the marrow cavities of certain bones
B. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
- bones of the limbs and girdles attached to axial
skeleton
TYPES OF BONE TISSUE

A. COMPACT BONE
COMPONENTS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM - dense, looks smooth and homogeneous

A. BONES B. SPONGY BONE

- contributes to body structure - has spiky, open appearance like a sponge
- “steel girders” and “reinforced concrete” of the
body
- adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones

B. JOINTS
- sites where two or more bones meet and holds the
bone together securely

C. CARTILAGE
- reduce friction and model for bone formation
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES BASED ON SHAPES C. FLAT BONES
- thin, flattened, and usually curved
A. Long - have two thin layers of compact bone surround a
B. Short later of spongy bone
C. Flat - Ex: Skull, ribs, and Sternum (breastbone)
D. Irregular
D. IRREGULAR BONES
- irregular shape
- mainly spongy bone with outer layer of compact
bone
- Ex: Vertebrae and hip bones

ANATOMY OF LONG BONE

1. DIAPHYSIS (SHAFT)
- makes up most of the bone’s lengths
- composed of compact bone
- is covered and protected by Periosteum =a fibrous
connective tissue membrane
- Perforating fibers or Sharpeys fibers = hundreds of
connective tissue fibers which secures the
periosteum to the underlying bone

2. EPIPHYSES
- ends of the bone
- each consists of a thin layer of compact bone
enclosing an area filled of spongy bone
- Articular Cartilage = covers its external surface;
glassy hyaline cartilage; it provides a smooth surface
that decreases friction at the joint when covered by
lubricating fluid
A. LONG BONES - Epiphyseal line = a thin line of bony tissue spanning
- typically longer than they are wide the epiphysis that looks a bit different from the rest
- have shaft with enlarged ends of the bone in that area; remnant of the Epiphyseal
- contain mostly compact bones; spongy bone at the plate
ends - Epiphyseal plate = a flat plate of hyaline cartilage
- all of the bones of the limbs except the Patella
(kneecap), wrist, and ankle bone
- Ex: Femur and Humerus

B. SHORT BONES
- generally cube-shaped
- contain mostly spongy bone with an outer layer if
compact bone
- includes bones of the wrist and ankle
- Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone which
form within tendols (Patella)
- Ex: Carpals and Tarsals
3. MEDULLARY CAVITY
- cavity of the shaft on infants
- storage are for red marrow which produce blood cell
formation in infants; which gradually replaced by
yellow marrow
- Endosteum = a delicate connective tissue that
covers the inner bony surface of the shaft

4. BONE MARKINGS
- surfaces are not smooth but scarred with
bumps, holes and ridges
- sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and
ligaments
- passages for nerves and blood vessels
- two categories:

A. PROJECTIONS OR PROCESSES
- grow out from the bone surface
- terms often begin with “T”

B. DEPRESSIONS OR CAVITIES
- indentations in the bone
- terms often begin with “F” except facet

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONE

1. OSTEON (HAVERSIAN SYSTEM)

- a unit of bone containing central canal and matrix
rings

2. OSTEOCYTES
- found within the bone matrix in tiny cavities called
Lacunae

3. CENTRAL (HAVERSIAN) CANAL

- opening in the center of an osteon
- carries blood vessels and nerves

4. LACUNAE
- cavities containing bone cells (Osteocytes)
-arranged in concentric rings called Lamellae

5. LAMELLAE
- rings around the central canal
- sites of Lacunae

6. CANALICULI
- tiny canals
- radiate from the central canal to lacunae BONE FORMATION, GROWTH, AND REMODELING
- form a transport system connecting all bone cells to
a nutrient supply - Skeletons’ strongest and most supportive tissues
 Cartilage
7. PERFORATING CANALS (VOLKMANN’S CANALS)  Bone
- communication pathway from the outside of the - In embryos, the skeleton is primarily made of
bone to its interior hyaline cartilage. During development, much of this
- run in the compact bone at right angles to the shaft cartilage is replaced by bone
(diaphysis) and central canals - Cartilage remains in isolated areas
 Bridge of the nose
 Parts of ribs
 Joints

BONE GROWTH (OSSIFICATION)

- also called as bone formation
- a process where most bones are develop using
hyaline cartilage structures as their “models.”

- Epiphyseal plates- allow for lengthwise growth of

long bones during childhoof
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
 Cartilage is broken down
 Enclosed cartilage is digested
away, opening up a medullary
cavity
 Bone replaces cartilage through
the action of Osteoblasts
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened until
growth stops
 Bones are remodeled in response
to two factors:
1. Blood calcium levels
2. Pull gravity and muscles on the
skeleton
 Bones grow in diameter/ width
(called appositional growth)
 FRACTURE
- break in a bone
- two kinds:
 CLOSED (SIMPLE) FRACTURE
- break that does not penetrate the skin

 OPEN (COMPOUND) FRACTURE

- broken bone penetrates through the skin

COMMON TYPES OF FRACTURE

1. Comminuted
- bone breaks into 3 or more fragments
2. Compression
- bone is crushed
3. Depressed
- broken bone portion is pressed inward
TYPE OF BONE CELLS 4. Impacted
- broken bone ends are forced into each other
1. OSTEOCYTES 5. Spiral
- mature bone cells - ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces
are applied to a bone
2. OSTEOBLASTS 6. Greenstick
- bone-forming cells - bone breaks incompletely
- a bone-building cell which covered the hyaline
cartilage model with bone matrix (a bone “collar”)

3. OSTEOCLASTS
- giant bone- destroying cells
- breaks down bone matrix for remodeling and
release of calcium in response to parathyroid
hormone

BONE REMODELING
- is performed by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
- is essential if bones are to retain normal proportions
and strength during long-bone growth as the body
increases in size and weight

BONE FRACTURES
- bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization REPAIR OF BONE FRACTURES
 CLOSED REDUCTION- the bone ends are coaxed 1. Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
back into their normal position by the 2. Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
physician’s hands 3. Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
 OPEN REDUCTION- surgery is performed, and 4. Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
the bone ends are secured together with pins or
wires
AXIAL SKELETON
- forms the longitudinal axis of the body
-divided into three parts:
 Skull
 Vertebral Column
 Thoracic Cage

SKULL
- formed by two sets of bones
 Cranium- encloses and protects the fragile
brain tissue
 Facial bones- form a cradle for the eyes that is
open to the anterior and allow the facial
muscles to show our feelings through smiles
and frowns
- Only the mandible is attached freely movable joint
CRANIUM - joins the parietal bones anteriorly at the lambdoid
- composed of eight large flat bones suture
- except for two sets of paired bones (the - In the base is a large opening, the foramen magnum,
parietal and temporal), they are all single bones which surrounds the lower part of the brain and
allows the spinal cord to connect with the brain
 FRONTAL BONE - Lateral to the foramen magnum on each side are the
- forms the forehead, the bony projections under rockerlike occipital condyles, which rest on the first
the eyebrows, and the superior part of each eye’s vertebra of the spinal column
orbit
 SPHENOID BONE
 PARIETAL BONES - the butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width
- the paired parietal bones form most of the of the skull and forms part of the floor of the cranial
superior and lateral walls of the cranium cavity
- the sagittal suture is formed at the midline - in the midline is a small depression, the sella turcica
where the two parietal bones meet and the or Turk’s saddle, which forms a snug enclosure for
coronal suture is formed where the paired the pituitary gland
parietal bones meet the frontal bone - Foramen ovale, a large oval opening in line with the
posterior end of the sella turcica allows fibers of
 TEMPORAL BONES cranial nerve V (the trigeminal nerve) to pass to the
- lie inferior to the parietal bones and join them chewing muscles of the lower jaw (mandible)
at the squamous sutures - part of the eye orbits have two important openings
- several important bone markings appear here  Optic canal- allows the optic nerve to pass to
 External acoustic meatus- a canal that the eye,
leads to the eardrum and the middle ear. It is  Superior orbital fissure- through which the
the route by which sound enters the ear. cranial nerves controlling eye movements (III,
 Styloid process- a sharp, needlelike projection, IV, and VI) pass
is just inferior to the external auditory meatus. - Sphenoidal sinuses- the central part is riddled with
Many neck muscles use the styloid process as air activities
an attachment point
 Zygomatic process- a thin bridge of bone that  ETHMOID BONE
joins with the cheekbone (zygomatic bone) - is very irregularly shaped and lies anterior to the
anteriorly sphenoid
 Mastoid process- full of air cavities (the mastoid - It forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part of the
sinuses), is a rough projection posterior and medial walls of the orbits
inferior to the external - Crista Galli- Projecting from its superior surface; on
acoustic meatus. It provides an attachment each side of it are many small holes. These holey
site for some muscles of the neck. areas, the cribriform plates, allow nerve fibers
- the mastoid sinuses are so close to the middle carrying impulses from the olfactory (smell)
ear—a high-risk spot for infections— that they receptors of the nose to reach the brain
may become infected too, a condition called
mastoiditis. It is so close to the brain that
mastoiditis may spread to the brain. FACIAL BONES
 Jugular foramen- at the junction of the - 14 bones make up the face
occipital and temporal bones, allows passage of - 12 are paired; only the mandible and vomer are
the jugular vein, the largest vein of the head, single
which drains blood from the brain
 MAXILLAE
 OCCIPITAL BONE - two maxillae or maxillary bones, fuse to form the
- is the most posterior bone of the cranium upper jaw
- It forms the base and back wall of the skull - all facial bones except the mandible join the
maxillae
- maxillae carry the upper teeth in the alveolar - the lower teeth lie in alveoli (sockets) in the alveolar
process process at the superior edge of the mandibular
- extensions of the maxillae called the palatine body
processes form the anterior part of the hard palate
of the mouth ADDITIONAL:
- maxillae contain sinuses, which drain into the nasal
passages  PARANASAL SINUSES
- hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal
 PALATINE BONES cavity
- lie posterior to the palatine processes of the - functions of paranasal sinuses
maxillae 1. Ligthen the skull
- forms the posterior part of the hard palate 2. Give resonance and amplification to voice

 ZYGOMATIC BONES
- commonly referred to as the cheekbones
- form a good-sized portion of the lateral walls
of the orbits

 LACRIMAL BONES
- are fingernail-sized bones forming part of the medial
wall of each orbit
- each has a groove that serves as a passageway for
tears

 NASAL BONES
- the small rectangular bones forming the bridge of
the nose are
- the lower part of the skeleton of the nose
is made up of hyaline cartilage

 VOMER BONE
- the single bone in the median line of the nasal cavity
- vomer forms the inferior part of the bony nasal
septum, which separates the two nostrils

 INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE

- are thin, curved bones projecting medially from the
lateral walls of the nasal cavity
HYOID BONE
 MANDIBLE - serve as a moveable base for the tongue
- or lower jaw - aids in swallowing and speech
- is the largest and strongest bone of the face - not really part of the skull
- it joins the temporal bones on each side of the face, - it is the only bone of the body that does not
forming the only freely movable joints in the skull articulate (form a joint) with any other bone
- the horizontal part of the mandible forms the chin. - - it is suspended in the midneck region about 2 cm (1
two upright bars of bone (the rami) extend from the inch) above the larynx (voicebox), where it is
body to connect the mandible with the temporal anchored by ligaments to the styloid processes of
bone the temporal bones
- horseshoe-shaped, with a body and two pairs of
horns
- serves as a movable base for the tongue and as an
attachment point for neck muscles that raise and
lower the larynx when we swallow and speak

THE FETAL SKULL

- large compare to the infant’s total body length
- Fetal skulls is 1/4 body length compared to adult
skull which is 1/8 body length

FONTANELS
- fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones
 Allow skull compression during birth
 Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy
and infancy
 Convert to bone within 24 months after birth
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
- also known as Spine
- each vertebrae is given a name according to its
location
- There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by
intervertebral discs
 seven cervical vertebrae are in the neck
 twelve thoracic vertebrae are in chest
region
 five lumbar vertebrae are associated with
the lower back
- extends from the skull, which it supports, to the
pelvis, where it transmits the weight of the body to
the lower limbs

 Sacrum- formed in the fusion of 5 vertebrae

 Coccyx- formed in the fusion of 3-4 tiny
irregular shaped vertebrae
 Primary curvatures- spinal curvatures of the
thoracic and sacral regions
-form a C- shaped curvature as in
newborns
 Secondary curvatures- spinal curvatures of the
cervical and lumbar regions
-develop after birth
-form an S- shaped curvature as in
adults
TYPICAL VERTEBRAE
REGIONS
1. BODY OR CERTRUM
- weight bearing part of the vertebra facing anteriorly
1. CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
in the vertebral column
- seven cervical vertebrae (identified as C1 to
- disclike
C7) form the neck region of the spine
- Atlas and Axis - first two vertebrae; are different
2. VERTEBRAL ARCH
because they perform functions not shared by the
- arch formed from the joining of all posterior
other cervical vertebrae
extensions, the laminae and pedicles, from the
vertebral body
2. THORACIC VERTEBRAE
- 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) are all typical
3. VERTEBRAL FORAMEN
- they are larger than the cervical vertebrae and are
- canal through which the spinal cord passes.
distinguished by the fact that they are the only
vertebrae to articulate with the ribs.
4. TRANSVERSE PROCESSES
- the body is somewhat heart-shaped and has two
- two lateral projections from the vertebral arch.
costal facets (articulating surfaces) on each side,
which receive the heads of the ribs
5. SPINOUS PROCESS
- transverse processes of each thoracic vertebra
- single projection arising from the posterior aspect of
articulate with the knoblike tubercles of the ribs
the vertebral arch
- the spinous process is long and hooks sharply
downward, causing the vertebra to look like a
6. SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR ARTICULAR PROCESSES
giraffe’s head viewed from the side
- paired projections lateral to the vertebral foramen,
allowing a vertebra to form joints with adjacent
3. LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
vertebrae
- five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) have massive,
blocklike bodies that are somewhat kidney
bean–shaped
- their short, hatchet-shaped spinous processes make
them look like a moose head from the lateral aspect
- because most of the stress on the vertebral column
occurs in the lumbar region, these are the sturdiest
of the vertebrae

4. SACRUM
- is formed by the fusion of five vertebrae
- it articulates with L5, and inferiorly it connects with blood-forming (hematopoietic) tissue for the
the coccyx diagnosis of suspected blood diseases
- forms the posterior wall of the pelvis
- its posterior midline surface is roughened by the
median sacral crest, the fused spinous processes of 2. RIBS
the sacral vertebrae - True ribs (pairs 1-7); attach directly to the sternum
by costal cartilages
5. COCCYX - False ribs (pairs 8-12) the next five pairs ,either
- is formed from the fusion of three to five tiny, attach indirectly to the sternum or are not attached
irregularly shaped vertebrae to the sternum at all
- it is the human “tailbone,” a remnant of the - Floating ribs (pairs 11-12); lack the sternal
tail that other vertebrate animals have attachments
- twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the bony
Thorax
BONY THORAX - all the ribs articulate with the vertebral
- forms a cage to protect major organs column posteriorly and then curve downward and
- routinely called the thoracic cage because it toward the anterior body surface
forms a protective cage of slender bones and - Intercostal spaces- spaces between the ribs; are
cartilages around the organs of the thoracic cavity filled with the intercostal muscles, which aid in
(heart, lungs, and major blood vessels). breathing
- consists of three parts:
3. THORACIC VERTEBRAE
1. STERNUM (BREASTBONE)
- flat bone
- the result of the fusion of three bones—the
manubrium, body, and xiphoid process
- it is attached directly to the first seven pairs of ribs
via costal cartilages
- has three important bony landmarks:

 JUGULAR NOTCH
- can be palpated easily
- it is at the level of the third thoracic
vertebra

 STERNAL ANGLE
- results where the manubrium and body meet at
a slight angle to each other, so that a transverse
ridge is formed at the level of the second ribs
- It provides a handy reference point for counting APPENDICULAR SKELETON
ribs to locate the second intercostal space for - composed of 126 bones
listening to certain heart valves
1. PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE
 XIPHISTERNAL JOINT
- composed of two bones:
- the point where the sternal body and xiphoid
process fuse, lies at the level of the ninth a. CLAVICLE
thoracic vertebra - collarbone
- slender, doubly curved bones
- because the sternum is so close to the body - articulates with the ternum medially and with
surface, it is easy to obtain samples from it of the scapula laterally
 b. SCAPULA
- or as shoulder blade
- commonly called as “wings”
- articulates with the clavicle at the
acromioclavicular joint
- articulates with the arm bone at the glenoid
cavity

- these bones allow the upper limb to have

exceptionally free movement

BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS

C. HAND
1. ARM  Carpals- forms the wrist
- 8 bones arranged in two irregular rows of
A. HUMERUS four bones in each hand
- forms the arm - are bound together by ligaments that
- single bone restrict movements between them
- proximal end articulation (head articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula)  Metacarpals- palm
- distal end articulation (trochlea and capiulum - are numbered 1 to 5 from the thumb side
articulate with the bones of the forearm) of the hand toward the little finger
- when the fist is clenched, the heads of the
B. FOREARM
metacarpals become obvious as the
- has two bones: “knuckles”
 Ulna- medial bone in anatomical position
- proximal end articulation (coronoid
process and olecranon articulate with the  Phalanges- bones of fingers and thumb
humerus) - 14 phalanges in each hand
- in each finger, there are 3 bones
 Radius- lateral bone in anatomical position - in each thumb, there are 2 bones
- proximal end articulation (head articulates
with the capitulum of the humerus)
 3. Part of the large intestine

- bony pelvis is divided into two regions:

1. FALSE PELVIS
- is superior to the true pelvis
- it is the area medial to the flaring portions of
the ilia
2. TRUE PELVIS
- is surrounded by bone and lies inferior to the
flaring parts of the ilia and the pelvic brim

BONES OF PELVIC GIRDLE

- formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones, commonly
called hip bones, and the sacrum
- Pelvis = Coccyx + pelvic girdle
- the total weight of the upper body rests on the
pelvis GENDER DIFFERENCES OF THE PELVIS
- composed of three pairs of fused bones: 1. The female inlet is larger and more circular
2. The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the
1. ILIUM bones are lighter and thinner
- which connects posteriorly with the sacrum at 3. The female ilia flare more laterally
the sacroiliac joint 4. The female sacrum is shorter and less curved
- a large, flaring bone that forms most of the hip 5. The female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart,
bone thus the outlet is larger
- when you put your hands on your hips, they are 6. The female pubic arch is more rounded because the
resting over the alae, or winglike portions, of angle of the pubic arch is greater
the ilia
- Iliac crest = is an important anatomical
landmark BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
- carry our total body weight when we are erect
2. ISCHIUM - three segments:
- is the “sit-down bone,” so called because it
forms the most inferior part of the coxal bone 1. FEMUR
- or thigh bone; the only bone in the thigh
3. PUBIS - heaviest, strongest bone in the body
- is the most anterior and inferior part of a coxal - proximal end articulation (head articulates with the
bone acetabulum of the coxal (hip) bone)
- distal end articulation (lateral and medial condyles
- it protects several organs: articulate with the tibia in the lower leg)
1. Reproductive system
2. Urinary bladder
 3. FOOT
- supports our body weight and serves as a lever that
allows us to propel our bodies forward when we
walk run
- composed of:

1. TARSALS
- forms the posterior half of foot
- composed of 7 tarsal bones
- Calcaneus (heel bone) and Talus = two largest
tarsals which carries our body weight the most

2. METATARSALS
- 5 bones form the sole of the foot

3. PHALANGES
- 14 bones which form the toes
- each toe has three phalanges, except the great
toe, which has two

2. LEG
- connected along their length by an interosseous
membrane
- has two bones:

1. TIBIA
- or shinbone
- larger and medially oriented
- proximal end articulation (medial and lateral
condyles articulate with the femur to form the
knee joint)

2. FIBULA
- thin and sticklike, lateral to the tibia
- has no role in forming the knee joint

ARCHES OF THE FOOT

-bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong
arches:

1. Two longitudinal
2. One transverse

 Ligaments - which bind the foot bones together

 Tendons - of the foot muscles help to hold the bones
firmly in the arched position but still allow a certain
amount of give, or springiness
JOINTS
- also called articulations
- with one exception (the hyoid bone of the neck),
every bone in the body forms a joint with at least 2. CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
one other bone - immovable or slightly moveable
- hold bones together - bones connected by cartilage
- allow for mobility - types:
- two ways to classify:
a. SYNCHONDROSES (SYNARTHROTIC)
1. FUNCTIONALLY - immovable joints (ex: bones on ribs 1-7 and
- focuses on the amount of movement the joint sternum)
allow
b. SYMPHYSES (AMPHIARTHROTIC)
2. STRUCTURALLY - slightly movable
- there are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial - ex: pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints
joints
- are based on whether fibrous tissue, cartilage,
or a joint cavity separates the bony regions
at the joint

STRCUTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

1. FIBROUS JOINTS
- generally immovable
- bones united by collagenic fibers
- types:
a. SUTURES
- immobile
 Syndesmoses - allows more movement than
sutures but still immobile ex: Distal end of
tibia nad fibula

 Gomphosis- immobile
 c. JOINT CAVITY
- is filled with synovial fluid

d. REINFORCING LIGAMENTS
- the fibrous layer of the capsule is usually
reinforced with ligaments

3. SYNOVIAL JOINTS
- freely moveable
- articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
- synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
- features:

a. ARTICULAR CARTILAGE (HYALINE CARTILAGE)

- covers the ends of bones

b. ARTICULAR CAPSULE
- encloses joint surfaces and lined with synovial
membrane
 TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS BASED ON SHAPES

STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE SYNOVIAL JOINT - shapes of the articulating bone surfaces determine
what movements are allowed at a joint
1. BURSAE
- flattened fibrous sacs 1. PLANE JOINT
 Lined with synovial membranes - the articular surfaces are essentially flat, and only
 Filled with synovial fluid short slipping or gliding movements are allowed
 Not strictly part of the synovial joint but often - movements are nonaxial (gliding back and forth does
found closely associated not involve rotation around any axis
- ex: intercarpal joints of the wrist
2. TENDON SHEATH
- elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon 2. HINGE JOINT
- the cylindrical end of one bone fits into a
trough-shaped surface on another bone
INFALAMMATORY CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH - angular movement is allowed in just one plane
JOINTS - ex: elbow joint, ankle joint, and the joints between
the phalanges of the fingers
1. BURSITIS - classified as uniaxial ( movement around one axis
- inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or only)
friction
3. PIVOT JOINT
2. SPRAIN - the rounded end of one bone fits into a sleeve or
- ligaments or tendons are damaged ring of bone (and possibly ligaments
- classified as uniaxial
3. ARTHRITIS
- inflammatory or degenerative disease of joints 4. CONDYLAR JOINT
- over 100 different types - “knucklelike”
- most widespread crippling disease in the US - the eggshaped articular surface of one bone fits into
- Initial symptoms: pain, stiffness, swelling of the joint an oval concavity in another
- both of these articular surfaces are oval
- movement occurs around two axes; hence, these
joints are biaxial as in knuckle (metacarpophalangeal)
joints

5. SADDLE JOINTS
- each articular surface has both convex and concave
areas, like a saddle for a horse
- biaxial joints
- ex: carpometacarpal joints in the thumb, which are
responsible for our opposable thumbs

6. BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT
- the spherical head of one bone fits into the round
socket in another
- multiaxial joints allow movement in all axes,
including rotation,and are the most freely moving
synovial joints
- ex: shoulder and hip

REFERENCE:

Essentials of Human Anatomy, 12th Edition. Marieb,

E.N. & K. S.M., 2016. Pearson, NY. (PDF)

NOTE: Some information were gathered online and

others were from PDFs downloaded years ago
 COMPARISON OF SKELETAL, CARDIAC, AND
SMOOTH

CHARACTERISTICS SKELETAL CARDIAC SMOOTH

Body location Attached to Walls of the Mostly in walls

MUSCULAR SYSTEM bone or skin heart of visceral
(for some organs (other
facial muscles) than the
FUNCTIONS: heart)

1. Responsible for body movement

2. Maintain posture Cell shape and Single, very Branching Single,
3. Respiration appearance long, chains of cells, fusiform,
4. Production of body heat cylindrical uninucleate, uninucleate,
multinucleate strations, no striations
5. Communication
cells with very intercalated
6. Heartbeat obvious discs
7. Contraction of organs and vessels striations
8. Muscles are responsible for all types of
body movement

Connective Endomysium, Endomysium Endomysium

3 TYPES: tissue Perimysium,
components and
1. Skeletal Epimysium
2. Cardiac
3. Smooth
Regulation of Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
SIMILARITIES OF THESE 3 TYPES: contraction
- Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are
Speed of Slow to fast Slow Very slow
elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber) contraction
- the ability of muscle to shorten, or
contract, depends on two types of Rhythmic No Yes Yes, in some
myofilaments, the muscle cell equivalents contractions
of the microfilaments of the cytoskeleton
- share some terminology
 Prefixes myo- and mys refer to “muscle”
 Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh” 1. SKELETAL MUSCLE
- Muscle fibers, which are large,
cigar-shaped, multinucleate cell, are packed
into organs that attach to the skeleton
- most are attached by tendons to bones
- also known as:
  Striated— its fibers have obvious stripe/
have visible banding SKELETAL MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS
 Voluntary—subject to conscious control - Sites of muscle attachment
- can be activated by reflexes (without our 1. Bones
“willed command 2. Cartilages
- covers our bone and cartilage framework 3. Connective tissue coverings
- helps form the smooth contours of the body
- its tissue can contract rapidly and with great
force, but it tires easily and must rest after 2. SMOOTH MUSCLE
short periods of activity - no striations
- its fibers are soft and fragile - Involuntary—no conscious control
- produce movement - found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
- maintain Posture and Body Position - fibers are spindle-shaped cells, uninucleate,
- Generate Heat and surrounded by scant endomysium
- fibers are arranged in layers, and most often
there are two such layers, one running
CONNECTIVE TISSUE WRAPPINGS OF SKELETAL circularly and the other longitudinally
MUSCLE - contraction is slow and sustained
- Cells are surrounded and bundled by
connective tissue: 3. CARDIAC MUSCLE
- Found only in the walls of the heart
1. ENDOMYSIUM - striated, uninucleate, and involuntary
- encloses a single muscle fiber - cardiac cells are cushioned by small amounts
2. PERIMYSIUM of endomysium and are arranged in spiral or
- wraps around a several sheathed muscle figure 8–shaped bundles
fibers - fibers are branching cells joined by special
3. EPIMYSIUM gap junctions called intercalated discs
- covers the entire skeletal muscle - usually contracts at a fairly steady rate set
by the heart’s “in-house” pacemaker

SKELETAL MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS

- the ends of Epimysium blends into a
connective tissue attachment MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

1. TENDONS SARCOLEMMA
- cord-like structures - A specialized plasma membrane where
- provides durability and conserving many oval nuclei can be seen beneathe it
space
- are mostly tough collagen fibers MYOFIBRILS
- long ribbonlike organelles inside muscle cell
2. APONEUROSES - pushes nuclei aside
- sheet-like structures - are aligned to give distinct bands
- Attach muscles indirectly to bones,  I band = light band
cartilages, or connective tissue covering - Contains only thin filaments
  A band = dark band CONTRACTILITY
- Contains the entire length of the - ability to forcibly shorten when an adequate
thick filaments stimulated

SARCOMERE EXTENSIBILITY
- contractile unit of a muscle fiber - ability of muscle cells to be stretched

MYOFILAMENTS ELASTICITY
- two types: - ability to recoil and resume resting length
after being stretched
1. THICK FILAMENTS
- made mostly of bundled molecules of
myosin filaments NERVE STIMULUS AND ACTION POTENTIAL
- has ATPase enzymes - Skeletal muscle fibers must be stimulated by
- have heads (extensions, or cross bridges) a motor neuron (nerve cell) to contract
- Myosin and actin overlap somewhat - Motor unit—one motor neuron and all the
skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that
2.THIN FILAMENTS neuron
- composed of actin filaments - Neuromuscular junction - association site of
- anchored to the Z disc axon terminal of the motor neuron and
- at rest, within the A band there is a zone muscle
that lacks actin filaments - Synaptic cleft - gap between nerve and
- called either the H zone or bare zone muscle
- area between nerve and muscle is
filled with interstitial fluid
SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM - action potential reaches the axon terminal
- specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the motor neuron
- stores and releases calcium - Calcium channels open and calcium
- surrounds the myofibril ions enter the axon terminal

TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSE TO MUSCLE

- Calcium ion entry causes some synaptic
SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY vesicles to release their content
(acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter) by
STIMULATION AND CONTRACTION OF SINGLE exocytosis
SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS - Neurotransmitter—chemical released by
nerve upon arrival of nerve impulse in the
IRRITABILITY axon terminal
- responsiveness; the ability to receive and - neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle is
respond to a stimulus acetylcholine (ACh)
- Acetylcholine attaches to receptors on the
sarcolemma of the muscle cell
- In response to the binding of ACh to a - Summing of contractions = one contraction
receptor, the sarcolemma becomes is immediately followed by another
permeable to sodium (Na+) - the muscle does not completely return
- Sodium rushes into the cell generating an to a resting state due to more frequent
action potential and potassium leaves the stimulations
cell - the effects are added
- Once started, muscle contraction cannot be - Unfused (incomplete) tetanus - some
stopped relaxation occurs between contractions but
nerve stimuli arrive at an even faster rate
than during summing of contractions
THE SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY OF MUSCLE - Unless the muscle contraction is
CONTRACTION smooth and sustained, it is said to
be in unfused tetanus
- Activation by nerve causes myosin heads - Fused (complete) tetanus - no evidence of
(cross bridges) to attach to binding sites on relaxation before the following contractions
the thin filament - Frequency of stimulations does not
- Myosin heads then bind to the next site of allow for relaxation between
the thin filament and pull them toward the contractions
center of the sarcomere - the result is a smooth and sustained
- This continued action causes a sliding of the muscle contraction
myosin along the actin
- The result is that the muscle is shortened 2. MUSCLE RESPONSE TO STRONG STIMULI
(contracted) - Muscle force depends upon the number of
fibers stimulated
- More fibers contracting results in greater
CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE muscle tension
- Muscles can continue to contract unless
GRADED RESPONSES they run out of energy
- different degrees of shortening, which
generate different amounts of force TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS
- can be produced in two ways:
 Changing the he frequency of muscle 1. ISOTONIC CONTRACTIONS
stimulation - Myofilaments are able to slide past each
 Changing the number of muscle cells other during contractions
being stimulated at one time - The muscle shortens and movement occurs
- types of graded responses - Example: bending the knee; rotating the arm

2. ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS
1. MUSCLE RESPONSE TO INCREASINGLY RAPID - contraction in which the muscles do not
STIMULATION shorten
- Muscle twitches = Single, brief contraction - Tension in the muscles increases
- sometimes result from certain nervous - Example: push against a wall with bent
system problems elbows
- not a normal muscle function
MUSCLE TONE
- some of the fibers are contracted even in a
relaxed muscle
- Different fibers contract at different times to
provide muscle tone and to be constantly
ready

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON MUSCLES

- it increases muscle size, strength, and
endurance
1. AEROBIC/ ENDURANCE EXERCISE
- results in stronger, more flexible muscles
with greater resistance to fatigue TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS
- makes body metabolism more efficient
- Improves digestion, coordination 1. FLEXION
- helps us reach a steady rate of ATP - Decreases the angle of the joint
production and improves the efficiency of - Brings two bones closer together
aerobic respiration - Typical of bending hinge joints or
ball-and-socket joints
2. RESISTANCE/ ISOMETRIC EXERCISE 2. EXTENSION
- increases muscle size and strength - Opposite of flexion
- movement that increases the angle or
distance between two bones or parts of the
body
MUSCLES AND BODY MOVEMENTS - Typical of straightening the elbow or knee
- Movement is attained due to a muscle - Extension beyond 180° is hypertension
moving an attached bone
- Muscles are attached to at least two points 3. ROTATION
- Movement of a bone around its longitudinal
1. ORIGIN axis
- attachment to the immovable or less - Common in ball-and-socket joints
movable bone - Ex: when you move atlas around the dens
of axis (shake your head “no”)
2. INSERTION
- attachment to an movable bone. When the 4. ABDUCTION
muscle contracts, the insertion moves - movement of a limb away from the midline
toward the origin of the body

5. ADDUCTION
- Opposite of abduction
- Movement of a limb toward the midline
6. CIRCUMDUCTION
- Combination of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction
- Commonly seen n in ball-and-socket joints
 INTERACTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES IN THE
BODY (TYPES OF MUSCLES)

1. PRIME MOVER
- muscle that has the major responsibility for
a certain movement (agonist)

2. ANTAGONIST
- muscle that opposes or reverses a prime
move
- can be prime movers in their own right
SPECIAL MOVEMENT
3. SYNERGISTS
1. DORSIFLEXION
- help prime movers by producing the same
- Lifting the foot so that the superior surface
movement or by reducing undesirable
approaches the shin (toward the dorsum)
movements
- corresponds to extension and
hyperextension of the hand at the wrist
4. FIXATOR
- specialized synerigists
2. PLANTAR FLEXION
- stabilizes the origin of a prime mover
- pointing the toes away from your head
- “Planting” the foot toward the sole
- corresponds to flexion of the hand
NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES
3. INVERSION
1. BY DIRECTION OF MUSCLE FIBERS
- Turn sole of foot medially
- Example: Rectus (straight)
- When a muscle’s name includes the term
4. EVERSION
rectus (straight), its fibers run parallel to
- Turn sole of foot laterally
that imaginary line
5. SUPINATION
- forearm rotates laterally so palm faces
2. BY RELATIVE SIZE OF THE MUSCLE
anteriorly
- Such terms as maximus (largest), minimus
- Radius and ulna are parallel
(smallest), and longus (long)
6. PRONATION
- Forearm rotates medially so palm faces
3. BY LOCATION OF THE MUSCLE
posteriorly
- Example: Temporalis (temporal bone)
- Radius and ulna cross each other like an X
4. BY NUMBER OF ORIGINS
7. OPPOSITION
- Example:the biceps muscle of the arm has
- Move thumb to touch the tips of other
two heads, or origins, and the triceps muscle
fingers on the same hand
has three
5. BY LOCATION OF THE MUSCLE’S ORIGIN AND
INSERTION
- Example: Sterno (on the sternum) clavicle CHEWING MUSCLES
(cleido) and inserts on the mastoid process
of the temporal bone 1. MASSETER
- covers the angle of the lower jaw
6. BY SHAPE OF THE MUSCLE - closes the jaw and elevates mandible
- Example: Deltoid (triangular)
2. TEMPORALIS
7. BY ACTION OF THE MUSCLE - fan-shaped muscle overlying the temporal
- Example: Flexor and extensor (flexes or bone
extends a bone) - It inserts into the mandible
- synergist of the masseter, closes jaw

GROSS ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLES NECK MUSCLES

HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES 1. PLATYSMA

- a single sheetlike muscle that covers the
anterolateral neck
FACIAL MUSCLES - pulls the corners of the mouth inferiorly

1. FRONTALIS
- covers the frontal bone 2. STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID
- raises eyebrows and wrinkle your forehead - two-headed muscles, one found on each
side of the neck
2. ORBICULARIS OCULI - of the two heads of each muscle, one arises
- run in circles around the eyes from the sternum, and the other arises from
- closes eyes, squints, blinks, winks the clavicle
- flexes the neck, rotates the head
3. ORBICULARIS ORIS
- the circular muscle of the lips
- Often called the “kissing” muscle
- closes mouth and protrudes the lips MUSCLES OF TRUNK, SHOULDER, ARM

4. BUCCINATOR ANTERIOR MUSCLES

- muscle runs horizontally across the cheek
and inserts into the orbicularis oris 1. PECTORALIS MAJOR
- flattens the cheek, chews - major is a large fan-shaped muscle covering
the upper part of the chest.
5. ZYGOMATICUS - adducts and flexes the humerus
- extends from the corner of the mouth to the
cheekbone
- raises corners of the mouth
INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES 2. LATISSIMUS DORSI
- two large, flat muscles that cover the lower
1. EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALS back
- raise rib cage during inhalation - extends and adducts the humerus

2. INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS 3. ERECTOR SPINAE

- depress the rib cage to move air out of the - Each erector spinae is a composite muscle
lungs when you exhale forcibly consisting of three muscle columns
(longissimus, iliocostalis, and spinalis) that
collectively span the entire length of the
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL GIRDLE vertebral column
- back extension
1. RECTUS ABDOMINIS
- paired straplike rectus abdominis muscles 4. QUADRATUS LUMBORUM
- flexes vertebral column and compresses - form part of the posterior abdominal wall
abdominal contents (defecation, childbirth, - flexes the spine laterally
forced breathing)
5. DELTOID
2. EXTERNAL OBLIQUE - fleshy, triangle-shaped muscles that form
- paired superficial muscles that make the rounded shape of your shoulders
up the lateral walls of the abdomen - arm abduction
- flex vertebral column; rotate trunk and bend
it laterally - Muscles that arise from the shoulder girdle
and cross the shoulder joint to insert into
3. INTERNAL OBLIQUE the humerus include:
- paired muscles deep to the external  Pectoralis major
obliques  Latissimus dorsi
- flex vertebral column; rotate trunk and bend  Deltoid
it laterally

4. TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS
- the deepest muscle of the abdominal wall MUSCLES OF THE UPPER LIMB
- compresses abdominal contents
1. BICEPS BRACHII
- the most familiar muscle of the arm because
it bulges when you flex your elbow
POSTERIOR MUSCLES - supinates forearm, flexes elbow

1. TRAPEZIUS 2. BRACHIALIS
- the most superficial muscles of the posterior - lies deep to the biceps brachii and, like the
neck and upper trunk biceps, is a prime mover in elbow flexion
- elevates, depresses, adducts, and stabilizes - lifts the ulna as the biceps lifts the radius
the scapula
3. BRACHIORADIALIS 2. GLUTEUS MEDIUS
- a fairly weak muscle that arises on the - runs from the ilium to the femur, beneath
humerus and inserts into the distal forearm the gluteus maximus for most of its length
- it resides mainly in the forearm - hip abduction, steadies pelvis when walking
3. ILIOPSOAS
4. TRICEPS BRACHII - a fused muscle composed of two muscles,
- the only muscle fleshing out the posterior the iliacus and the psoas major
humerus - hip flexion, keeps the upper body from
- elbow extension (antagonist to biceps falling backward when standing erect
brachii)
- straightens the arm—for instance, to 4. ADDUCTOR MUSCLES
deliver a strong jab in boxing - forms the muscle mass at the medial side of
each thigh
- adduct the thighs
Muscles of the forearm, which insert on the
hand bones and cause their movement include: Muscles causing movement at the knee joint:

1. FLEXOR CARPI 1. HAMSTRING GROUP

- wrist flexion - muscles forming the muscle mass of the
posterior thigh
2. FLEXOR DIGITORUM - thigh extension and knee flexion
- finger flexion - consists of three muscles:
 biceps femoris
3. EXTENSOR CARPI  Semimembranosus
- wrist extension  Semitendinosus
which originate on the ischial tuberosity and
4. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM run down the thigh to insert on both sides of
- finger extension the proximal tibia

2. SARTORIUS
MUSCLES OF THE LOWER LIMB - . It runs obliquely across the thigh from the
anterior iliac crest to the medial side of the tibia
Muscles causing movement at the hip joint - It is a weak thigh flexor
include: - commonly referred to as the “tailor’s”
muscle because it acts as a synergist to help
1. GLUTEUS MAXIMUS tailors sit with both legs crossed in front of
- superficial muscle of the hip that forms most them
of the flesh of the buttock
- It is a powerful hip extensor that acts to 3. QUADRICEPS GROUP
bring the thigh in a straight line with the - group consists of four muscles:
pelvis  rectus femoris
- hip extension  three vastus muscles
that flesh out the anterior thigh
- extends the knee
Muscles causing movement at ankle and foot: REFERENCE:

1. TIBIALIS ANTERIOR Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th

- a superficial muscle on the anterior leg Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
- It arises from the upper tibia and then Pearson. (PDF)
parallels the anterior crest as
- it runs to the tarsal bones, where it inserts
by a long tendon
- dorsiflexion, foot inversion

2. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS

- arises from the lateral tibial condyle and
proximal three-quarters of the fibula and
inserts into the phalanges of toes 2 to 5
- toe extension and dorsiflexion of the foot

3. FIBULARIS MUSCLES
- The three fibularis muscle:
 Longus
 Brevis
 Tertius
are found on the lateral part of the leg
- They arise from the fibula and insert into the
metatarsal bones of the foot
- plantar flexion, foot eversion

4. GASTROCNEMIUS
- a two-bellied muscle that forms the curved
calf of the posterior leg
- a prime mover for plantar flexion of the
foot
- often called the “toe dancer’s” muscle.

5. SOLEUS
- Deep to the gastrocnemius
- it does not affect knee movement
- it inserts into the calcaneal tendon
- plantar flexion
NERVOUS SYSTEM

- provides for higher mental function and

emotional expression
- maintains homeostasis
- regulates the activities of muscles and
glands
- communication by this involves a
combination of electrical and chemical
signals
- all body systems are under control or
regulation of this system
- works with endocrine system in maintaining
homeostasis and regulating systems
- has three overlapping functions:

1. It uses millions of sensory receptors to

monitor changes occurring both inside and
outside the body
 Stimuli = the changes
 Sensory input = gathered information

2. It processes and interprets the sensory input

and decide what should be done at each ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
moment = Integration
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
- has two subdivisions:
3. It then causes a response or effect by
activating muscles or glands via Motor Input
1.CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
- consists of the brain and spinal
- occupies the dorsal body cavity
- act as the integrating and command
centers of nervous system
- interprets incoming sensory information
- issues instructions based on past - not all skeletal muscle activity
experience and current conditions controlled by this is voluntary

2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)  Autonomic/ Involuntary Nervous

- includes all parts of nervous system outside System
the CNS (nerves that extend from spinal - regulates events that are involuntary
cord and brain) - has two parts:
 Sympathetic
 Spinal nerves  Parasympathetic
- carry impulses to and from the spinal - what one stimulates, the other
cord inhibits

 Cranial nerves
- carry impulses to and from the brain NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- both serve as communication lines - has two principal types of cells

1. SUPPORTING CELLS
PNS FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION - has two major varieties:
- divides into two principal subdivisions:
 Schwann Cells
1. SENSORY/ AFFERENT DIVISION - form the myelin sheathes around nerve
- consists of nerves that convey carries fibers in the PNS
impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors
- keeps the CNS constantly informed of events  Satellite Cells
going inside and outside the body - act as protective, cushioning cells for
peripheral neuron cell bodies
 Somatic Sensory Fibers
- delivers impulses from the skin, skeletal NEUROGLIA
muscles, and joints - also called as glial cells or glia
- supporting cells in CNS that are “lumped
 Visceral Sensory Fibers together”
- transmit impulses from the visceral - not able to transmit nerve impulses
organs - include many types of cells:

 Astrocytes
2. MOTOR/ EFFERENT DIVISION - abundant star -shaped cells that
- carries impulses from CNS to effector organs account for nearly half of neural tissue
(muscles and glands) - form a living barrier between capillaries
- impulses causes a motor response and neurons
- has two subdivisions: - help determine capillary permeability
- play a role in making exchanges
 Somatic/ Voluntary Nervous System between capillaries and neurons
- allows us to voluntarily control our - helps control the chemical environment
skeletal muscles in the brain
  Microglia  Processes
- spinderlike phagocytes that monitor - armlike fibers very in length
the health of nearby neurons dispose of  Dendrites - conveys incoming
debris messages toward the cell body
 Axons - generates nerve impulses
 Ependymal cells and conduct them away from the
- lines the central cavities of the brain cell body
and spinal cord  Axon Hillock - conelike region of
the cell body where axon arises
 Oligodendrocytes  Axon terminals - contains hundreds
- wraps their flat extensions tightly of tiny vesicles, or membranous
around the nerve fibers, producing fatty sacs, that
insulating coverings called Myelin contain chemicals called
Sheaths neurotransmitters
 Synaptic cleft - a tiny gap which
separates each axon terminal from
2. NEURONS the next neuron
- also called as nerve cells  Synapse - a functional junction
- highly specialized to transmit message/ where an impulse is transmitted
nerve impulses from one part of the body to from one neuron to another
another
- differ structurally from one another but all  Myelin Sheaths
have cell body - a whitish, fatty material which has a
waxy appearance, covers most of the
 Cell body long fibers
- the metabolic center of the neuron - protects and insulates the fibers
- cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus - increases the transmission rate of nerve
contains the usual organelles, except impulses
that it lacks centrioles
- abundant in cell body:  Terminology
 Nissl Bodies - rough ER - Nuclei - clusters in CNS where cell
 Neurofibrils - intermediate bodies are found
filaments that are important in - Ganglia - small collections of cell bodies
maintaining cell shape that are found in a few sites outside the
CNS in the PNS
- Tracts - bundles of nerve fibers running
through the CNS
- Nerves - bundles of nerve fibers running
through the PNS

 Functional Classification
 - Sensory/ Afferent neurons - neurons - as this develop and grow, they enclose and
carrying impulses from sensory obscure most of the brain, so many brain
receptors to the CNS stem structures cannot normally be seen
- Cutaneous Sense Organs - simpler unless a sagittal section is made
types of sensory receptors in the skin - Gyri - elevated ridges of tissue that exhibits
- Proprioceptors - simpler types of the entire surface of cerebrum
sensory receptors in the muscles and - Sulci - shallow grooves that separates gyri
tendons that detects the amount of
stretch or tension in skeletal muscles  Cerebral Cortex
- Motor/ Efferent neurons - neurons - speech, memory, logical and emotional
carrying impulses from the CNS to the responses, consciousness, the
viscera and/or muscles and glands interpretation of sensation, and
- Interneurons/ Association neurons - voluntary movement
connects the motor and sensory
neurons in neural pathways  Cerebral White Matter
- most of the remaining cerebral
 Structural Classification hemisphere tissue
- based on the number of processes, - composed of fiber tracts carrying
including both dendrites and axons, impulses to, from, or within the cortex
extending from the cell body
- Multipolar neuron - several process  Basal Nuclei
- Bipolar neurons - with two process - several “islands” of gray matter
—one axon and one dendrite - buried deep within the white matter of
- Unipolar neurons - single process the cerebral hemispheres
emerging from the cell body - help regulate voluntary motor activities

2. DIENCEPHALON/ INTERBRAIN
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - sits atop the brain stem
- enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
- major structures are:
 Thalamus - encloses the shallow third
ventricle of the brain
- relay station for sensory impulses
passing upward to the sensory
cortex
 Hypothalamus - makes up the floor of
the diencephalon
- important autonomic center
FUNCTION ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN - has a role in regulating body
- has four major regions: temperature, water balance, and
metabolism
1. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES - center for many drives and
- collectively called as Cerebrum emotions
- the most superior part of the brain
  Epithalamus - forms the roof of the
third ventricle
- Pineal gland and Choroid plexus
are the important parts of
epithalamus

3. BRAIN STEM
- about the size of a thumb in diameter and
approximately 3 inches long
- has many small gray matter areas
- its structures are:
 Midbrain - a relatively small part of the
brain stem
- extends from the mammillary
bodies to the pons inferiorly
 Pons - a rounded structure that
protrudes just below the midbrain
- have important nuclei involved in
the control of breathing
 Medulla Oblongata - the most inferior
part of the brain stem
- contains centers that control heart
rate, blood pressure, breathing, - provides the precise timing for skeletal
swallowing, and vomiting muscle activity and controls our balance
- an important fiber tract area
- the area where important SPINAL CORD
pyramidal tracts cross over to the - a glistening white continuation of the brain
opposite side stem
- provides a two-way conduction pathway to
 Reticular Formation - a diffuse mass of and from the brain
gray matter that extends the entire - a major reflex center
length of the brain stem - extends from the foramen magnum of the
- neurons of this are involved in skull to the 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebra
motor control of the visceral organs - cushioned and protected by meninges

GRAY MATTER OF THE SPINAL CORD AND

4. CEREBELLUM SPINAL ROOTS
- large, cauliflower-like that projects dorsally - looks like a butterfly or letter H in cross
from under the occipital lobe of the section
cerebrum - Dorsal/ Posterior Horns - two posterior
- has two hemispheres and a convoluted projections
surface - Ventral/ Anterior Horns - two anterior
projections
- gray matter surrounds the central canal of
the cord which contains CSF

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

- consists of nerves and scattered ganglia

STRUCTURE OF A NERVE
- Nerve - a bundle of neuron fibers found
outside the CNS
- Endoneurium - a delicate connective tissue
sheath that surrounds each fiber
- Perineurium - a coarser connective tissue
that wrap groups of fibers to form Fascicles
(fiber bundles)
- Epineurium - a tough fibrous sheath that
bound all the fascicles together to form the
cordlike nerve

CRANIAL NERVES
- 12 pairs of this primarily serve the head and
neck
- only the vagus nerves extends to the
thoracic and abdominal cavities
- most of it are mixed nerves
- Optic, Olfactory, & Vestibulocohlear nerves -
purely sensory in function

SPINAL NERVES AND NERVE PLEXUSES

- each spinal nerve divides into
 Dorsal Ramus
 Ventral Ramus
- rami contain both motor and sensory
fibers
 Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
Pearson. (PDF)
AUTONOMIC/ INVOLUNTARY NERVOUS
SYSTEM
- the motor subdivision of the PNS that
controls body activities automatically
- composed of a specialized group of neurons
that regulate cardiac muscle, smooth
muscles, and glands
- signals flood from the visceral organs into
the CNS, and the ANS makes adjustments as
necessary to best support body activities
- has two arms:

 Sympathetic/ Thoracombular Division

- “fight-or-flight” system
- mobilizes the body during extreme
situations
- working at full speed not only when you
are emotionally upset but also when
you are physically stressed

 Parasympathetic/ Craniosacral Division

- ”rest-and-digest”
- allows us to unwind and conserve
energy
- neurons of the cranial region send their
axons out in cranial nerves to serve the
head and neck organs
- chiefly concerned with promoting
normal digestion

- serves body organs by receiving fibers from

both divisions
- exceptions are most blood vessels and most
structures of the skin, some glands, and the
adrenal medulla (only receive sympathetic
fibers)

REFERENCE:
SPECIAL SENSES
- respond to stimuli involved in vision, hearing, balance,
smell, and taste
- a variety of receptors, housed in special senses
organs such as the eye, ear, and nose, help detect stimuli
in your surroundings
- four traditional senses: smell, taste, sight, and hear
- Equilibrium = housed in the ear; fifth special sense
- Special sense receptors = either large,complex
sensory organs (eyes and ears) or localized clusters of
receptors (taste buds and olfactory epithelium)

 Eyelids - protects the eye

- Eyelashes - projecting from the
border of each eyelid

- Tarsal Glands - modified sebaceous

glands associated with the eyelid
edges; produce an oily secretion
that lubricates the eye

 Conjunctiva
EYE AND VISION - delicate membrane; lines the eyelids
- nearly 70% of all sensory receptors in the body are
and covers part of the outer surface
here
of the eyeball
- secretes mucus which helps to
EXTERNAL AND ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
lubricate the eyeball and keep it moist
- Adult eye - 1 inch in diameter
- 1/6 of the eye’s surface is normally seen
 Lacrimal apparatus
- Accessory structures:
- consists of the lacrimal gland and a
number of ducts that drain lacrimal
 6 Extrinsic eye muscles - attached to the
secretions into the nasal cavity
outer surface of each eye
- Lacrimal Glands - release a dilute salt
- produce gross eye movements and make it
solution/ tears onto the anterior
possible for the eyes to follow a moving surface of the eyeball through several
object
small ducts
- Lacrimal canaliculi - tears flush across
the eyeball into here medially
 - Lacrimal sac - provides passage of - Outer pigment layer - composed of pigmented cells
lacrimal fluid towards nasal cavity that absorb light and prevent light from scattering
- Nasolacrimal duct - empties lacrimal inside the eye
fluid into the nasal cavity - Inner neural layer - contains millions of receptor cells
- Tears - contains mucus, antibodies, - Photoreceptors - responds to light
and lysozyme  Rods
 Cones
- two neuron chain where electrical signals pass from
INTERNAL STRUCTURE the photoreceptors:
 Bipolar cells
EYEBALL  Ganglion cells
- a hallow sphere where its wall is composed of three - Optic nerve - where electric signals pass to leave the
layers and its inferior is filled with humors, a fluid that help retina
to maintain its shape
- Lens - main focusing apparatus of the eye; supported B. LENS
upright within the eye cavity dividing it into two chambers - divides the eye into two segments or chambers:

A. LAYERS FORMING THE WALL: 1. ANTERIOR (AQUEAOUS) SEGMENT

- anterior to the lens
1. FIBROUS LAYER - contains Aqueous humor (clear watery fluid) which is
- outermost layer similar to blood plasma and is continually secreted by a
- consists of the sclera and cornea special area of the choroid

 Schlera 2. POSTERIOR (VITREOUS) SEGMENT

- thick white connective tissue - posterior to the lens
- seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye” - filled with Vitreous humor or vitreous body (gel-like
substance) which helps prevent the eyeball from
 Cornea collapsing inward by reinforcing it internally
- well supplied with nerve endings
- where light enters the eye
- most exposed and very vulnerable to damage OPHTHALMOSCOPE
- has the ability to repair itself - an instrument that illuminates the interior of the
- beyond the reach of immune system eyeball, allowing the retina, optic disc, and internal
blood vessels at the fundus, or posterior wall of
2. VASCULAR LAYER the eye, to be viewed and examined
- middle of the the eyeball
- has three distinguish regions PATHWAY OF LIGHT

 Choroid REFRACTED
- a blood-rich nutritive tunic that contains a dark - when light passes from one substance to another
pigment, which prevents light from scattering substance that has a different density, its speed
inside the eye changes and its rays are bent
- modified to form two smooth muscle structures: - Light rays are bent in the eye as they encounter the
 Ciliary body cornea, aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor
- attached to the lens by ciliary zonule
 Iris ACCOMMODATION
- has pupil through which light passes - ability of the eye to focus specifically for close objects

3. SENSORY LAYER REAL IMAGE

- innermost of the eye - image formed on the retina as a result of the
- delicate two-layered retina, which extends anteriorly light-bending activity of the lens, that is reversed
only to the ciiary body
 from left to right, inverted, and smaller than the accommodation pupillary reflex
object - the pupils also constrict reflexively when we view
close objects
OVERCONVERGING - provides more acute vision
- vision problems when lens is too strong

UNDERCONVERGING EAR: HEARING AND BALANCE

- vision problems when lens is too week
MECHANORECEPTORS
- receptors that respond to physical forces such as
VISION FIELDS AND VISUAL PATHWAYS TO THE BRAIN sound vibrations

- Axons carrying impulses from the retina are bundled HEARING APPARATUS
together at the posterior aspect of the eyeball - allows us to hear an extraordinary range of sound
and leave the back of the eye as the optic nerve
HIGHLY SENSITIVE EQUILIBRIUM RECEPTORS
OPTIC CHIASMA - keep our nervous system continually up to date on
- fibers from the medial side of each eye cross the position and movements of the head
over to the opposite side of the brain

OPTIC TRACTS ANATOMY OF THE EAR

- the fiber tracts that result are the optic tracts. - divided into three major areas

- the optic tract fibers synapse with neurons in the 1. EXTERNAL (OUTER) EAR
thalamus, whose axons form the optic radiation, - involved with hearing only
which runs to the occipital lobe of the brain. There - composed of:
they synapse with the cortical cells, and visual
interpretation, or seeing, occurs A. AURICLE/ PINNA
- what most people call the “ear”
- Each side of the brain receives visual input from both - shell-shaped structure surrounding the auditory
eyes. Each eye “sees” a slightly different view but canal opening
that their visual fields overlap quite a bit. As a result
of these two phenomena, humans have binocular B. EXTERNAL ACOUSTIC MEATUS
vision (two-eyed vision) provides for depth - or auditory canal
perception, also called “three-dimensional” vision, as - short, narrow chamber carved into the temporal
our visual cortex fuses the two slightly different bone of the skull
images delivered by the two eyes into one “picture.”  Ceruminous gland - secretes earwax,
which provides a sticky trap for foreign
bodies and repels insects

EYE REFLEXES TYMPANIC MEMBRANE (EARDRUM)

- hit by sound waves after entering the auditory canal,
CONVERGENCE that will cause it to vibrate
- the reflexive movement of the eyes medially when - canal ends of this separates the external from the
we view close objects middle ear

PHOTOPUPILLARY REFLEX
- when the eyes are suddenly exposed to bright light,
the pupils immediately constrict
- prevents excessively bright light from damaging the
delicate photoreceptors
 - movement at the oval window sets the fluids of the
inner ear into motion, eventually exciting the hearing
receptors.

3. INTERNAL (INNER) EAR

- a maze of bony chambers called the bony labyrinth,
or osseous labyrinth
- located deep within the temporal bone behind the
eye socket
- three subdivisions of the bony labyrinth:

A. COCHLEA
- Spiraling, pea-sized
B. VESTIBULE
- situated between the semicircular canals and
2. MIDDLE EAR the cochlea
- or tympanic cavity C. SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
- small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the
temporal bone
- flanked laterally by the eardrum and medially by a BONY LABYRINTH
bony wall with two openings, oval window and the - filled with a plasmalike fluid called Perilymph
inferior, membrane-covered round window membranous labyrinth
- Suspended in the Perilymph
PHARYNGOTYMPANIC TUBE - a system of membrane sacs that more or less follows
- auditory tube the shape of the bony labyrinth
- runs obliquely downward to link the middle ear cavity - contains a thicker fluid called Endolymph
with the throat, and the mucosae lining the two
regions are continuous
- is normally flattened and closed, but swallowing or EQUILIBRIUM
yawning can open it briefly to equalize the pressure - equilibrium receptors of the inner ear, collectively
in the middle ear cavity with the external, or called the vestibular apparatus
atmospheric, pressure - can be divided into two branches:
- when the pressures are unequal, the eardrum bulges
inward or outward, causing hearing difficulty and A. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
sometimes earaches. - static = rest

TYMPANIC CAVITY MACULAE

- is spanned by the three smallest bones in the body - receptors within the membrane sacs of the
- Ossicles = transmit the vibratory motion of the vestibule that are essential to our sense of static
eardrum to the fluids of the inner ear equilibrium
- report on changes in the position of the head in
A. HAMMER, OR MALLEUS space with respect to the pull of gravity when the
- when the eardrum moves, it moves the hammer body is not moving
- Because they provide information on which way is up
B. ANVIL, OR INCUS or down, they help us keep our head erect
- vibration from hammer transfers here - are extremely important to divers swimming in the
dark depths, enabling them to tell which way is up (to
C. STIRRUP, OR STAPES the surface)
- anvil passes the vibration here, which presses on the - Each macula is a patch of receptor (hair) cells with
oval window of the inner ear their “hairs” embedded in the otolithic membrane (a
gelatinous mass studded with otoliths)
- As the head moves, the otoliths roll in response to from the eardrum to the oval window, their force
changes in the pull of gravity. Bending activates the (amplitude) is increased by the lever activity of
hair cells, which send impulses along the vestibular the ossicles
nerve to the cerebellum of the brain, informing it of - nearly the total force exerted on the much larger
the position of the head in space eardrum reaches the tiny oval window, which in turn
sets the fluids of the inner ear into motion, and these
B. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM pressure waves set up vibrations in the basilar
- found in the semicircular canals, respond to angular membrane
or rotational movements of the head rather than to - The receptor cells, positioned on the basilar
straight-line movements membrane in the spiral organ of Corti, are stimulated
- the semicircular canals are oriented in the three by the vibrating movement of the basilar membrane
planes of space against the gel-like tectorial membrane that lies over
- within the ampullae, swollen regions at the base of them
each membranous semicircular canal, are multiple - The “hairs” of the receptor cells are embedded
receptor regions, each called a Crista Ampullaris or in the stationary tectorial membrane such that when
simply Crista, which consists of a tuft of hair cells the basilar membrane vibrates against it, the “hairs”
covered with a gelatinous cap called the Cupula bend
- Because sound usually reaches the two ears at
- When your head moves in an arclike or angular different times, we could say that we hear “in
direction, the endolymph in the canal lags behind stereo.” Functionally, this helps us to determine
the movement. Then, as the cupula drags against the where sounds are coming from in our environment.
stationary endolymph, the cupula bends with the - When the same sounds, or tones, keep reaching the
body’s motion. This stimulates the hair cells, and ears, the auditory receptors tend to adapt,or stop
impulses are transmitted up the vestibular nerve to responding, to those sounds, and we are no longer
the cerebellum. Bending the cupula in the opposite aware of them
direction reduces impulse generation - hearing is the last sense to leave our awareness
- When you are moving at a constant rate, the when we fall asleep or receive anesthesia and is the
receptors gradually stop sending impulses, and you first to return as we awaken.
no longer have the sensation of motion until your
speed or direction of movement changes

- Although the receptors of the semicircular canals and SMELL AND TASTE
vestibule are responsible for dynamic and static
equilibrium, respectively, they usually act together. - CHEMORECEPTORS
sight and the proprioceptors of the muscles and - the receptors for taste and olfaction are classified
tendons are also important in providing the because they respond to chemicals in solution
cerebellum with information used to control balance.
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS AND THE SENSE OF SMELLS

HEARING OLFACTORY RECEPTORS

- receptors for the sense of smell
SPIRAL ORGAN OF CORTI - occupy a postage stamp–sized area in the roof of
- the endolymph-containing membranous labyrinth of each nasal cavity
the cochlea within the cochlear duct - air entering the nasal cavities must make a 90° turn
- contains the hearing receptors, or hair cells to enter the respiratory passageway below, so
sniffing, which causes more air to flow superiorly
- the chambers (scalae) above and below the cochlear across the olfactory receptors, intensifies the sense
duct contain perilymph of smell
- sound waves that reach the cochlea through - olfactory receptor cells are neurons equipped with
vibrations of the eardrum, ossicles, and oval window olfactory hairs, long cilia that protrude from the nasal
set the cochlear fluids into motion epithelium and are continuously bathed by a layer of
- As the sound waves are transmitted by the ossicles mucus secreted by underlying glands
- olfactory nerve conducts the impulses to the
olfactory cortex of the brain
- olfactory pathways are closely tied into the limbic
System, thus, olfactory impressions are long-lasting
and very much a part of our memories and emotions
- olfactory receptors are exquisitely sensitive—just a
few molecules can activate them.
- olfactory neurons tend to adapt rather quickly when
they are exposed to an unchanging stimulus, in this
case, an odor

TASTE BUDS AND THE SENSE OF TASTE

- word taste comes from the Latin word taxare,

which means “to touch, estimate, or judge.”

TASTE BUDS
- receptors for the sense of taste, are widely scattered
in the oral cavity
- of the 10,000 or so taste buds that we have, most are
on the tongue. A few are scattered on the soft palate,
superior part of the pharynx, and inner surface of
the cheeks
- The taste buds are found on the sides of the large
round vallate papillae, or Circumvallate Papillae, on
the tops of the more numerous Fungiform Papillae
and in the Foliate Papillae on the sides of the tongue
- specific receptor cells that respond to chemicals
dissolved in the saliva are epithelial cells called
Gustatory cells
- The dorsal tongue surface is covered with small
peglike projections, or papillae
  Activate or inactive enzymes
 Stimulate or inhibit cell division
 Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
 Turn on or turn off transcription of certain genes
(such as those encoding proteins or regulatory
molecules)
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
DIRECT GENE ACTIVATION
- releases chemicals called hormones that regulate - there are really only two mechanisms by which
complex body processes. hormones trigger changes in cells
- Hormones released by endocrine glands travel - Steroid hormones (and, strangely, thyroid hormone)
through the blood and alter the activity of target can use the mechanism of direct gene activation
cells - Because they are lipid-soluble molecules, the
steroid hormones can diffuse through the plasma
- regulates complex processes such as growth and membranes of their target cells
development, metabolism, and reproduction. - Once inside, the steroid hormone enters the
- Along with the nervous system, it coordinates and nucleus, and binds to a specific hormone receptor,
directs the activity of the body’s cells. the hormone-receptor complex then binds to
specific sites on the cell’s DNA activating certain
- the major processes that hormones control are genes to transcribe messenger RNA (mRNA). The
reproduction; growth and development; mobilizing mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm resulting in the
body defenses against stressors; maintaining synthesis of new proteins
electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance of the
blood; and regulating cellular metabolism and SECOND-MESSENGER SYSTEM
energy balance - Steroid hormones can influence cell activity either
by direct gene activation or by the indirect pathway
THE CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES of activating a second messenger
- Protein and peptide hormones are not water-
HORMONES soluble and are unable to enter target cells directly
- are chemical substances secreted by endocrine cells - they bind to hormone receptors situated on
into the extracellular fluids that regulate the the target cell’s plasma membrane and use a
metabolic activity of other cells in the Body second-messenger system
- nearly all of them can be classified chemically as - the hormone (first messenger) binds to the
either amino acid–based molecules (including receptor protein on the membrane, and the
proteins, peptides, and amines) or steroids. activated receptor sets off a series of reactions (a
cascade) that activates an enzyme. The enzyme, in
HORMONE ACTION turn, catalyzes reactions that produce second
- Although hormones circulate to all the organs of -messenger molecules (in this case, cyclic AMP, also
the body via blood, a given hormone affects only known as cAMP, or cyclic adenosine
certain tissue cells or organs, referred to as its monophosphate) that oversee additional
target cells or target organs. intracellular changes that promote the typical
- For a target cell to respond to a hormone, specific response of the target cell to the hormone.
protein receptors to which that hormone can attach
must be present on the cell’s plasma membrane or
in its interior
- term hormone comes from a Greek word meaning
“to arouse.” body’s hormones “arouse,” or bring
about their effects on, the body’s cells primarily by
altering cellular activity—that is, by increasing or
decreasing the rate of a normal, or usual, metabolic
process rather than by stimulating performance of
a new one
- Hormones can:

 Change plasma membrane permeability or

membrane potential (electrical state) by opening or
closing ion channels
STIMULI FOR CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
- What prompts the endocrine glands to release or - major endocrine organs of the body include
not release their hormones? the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus
and adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads (ovaries
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS and testes)
- the chief means of regulating blood levels of nearly - Hypothalamus which is part of the nervous system,
all hormones is also recognized as a major endocrine organ
- The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall into because it produces several hormones
three major categories - Some hormone-producing glands (the anterior
- These three mechanisms represent the most pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, and adrenals) have
common systems that control hormone release, but purely endocrine functions, but others (pancreas
they by no means explain all of them. Some and gonads) have both endocrine and exocrine
endocrine organs respond to many different stimuli functions and are thus mixed glands
- Both types of glands are formed from epithelial
1. HORMONAL tissue, but the endocrine glands are ductless glands
- most common stimulus in which endocrine organs that produce hormones that they release into the
are prodded into action by other hormones blood or lymph
- For example, hormones of the hypothalamus - exocrine glands release their products at the body’s
stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete its surface or into body cavities through ducts (they
hormones, and many anterior pituitary hormones have an exit)
stimulate other endocrine organs to release their
hormones into the blood
- As the hormones produced by the final target PITUITARY GLAND AND HYPOTHALAMUS
glands increase in the blood, they “feed back” to
inhibit the release of anterior pituitary hormones PITUITARY GLAND
and thus their own release. - approximately the size of a pea
- Hormone release promoted by this mechanism - hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the
tends to be rhythmic, with hormone blood levels hypothalamus of the brain, where it is snugly
rising and falling again and again. surrounded by the sella turcica (“Turk’s saddle”) of
the sphenoid bone
- It has two functional lobe:
2. HUMORAL  Anterior pituitary (glandular tissue)
- Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients  Posterior pituitary (nervous tissue)
may also stimulate hormone release
- term humoral refers to the ancient use of the word
humor to indicate the various body fluids (blood, PITUITARY-HYPOTHALAMUS RELATIONSHIPS
bile, and others)
- For example, a decreasing blood calcium ion level in ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
the capillaries serving the parathyroid glands - controls the activity of so many other endocrine
prompts the release of parathyroid hormone (PTH). glands that it has often been called the “master
- Because PTH acts by several routes to reverse that endocrine gland”
decline, the blood Ca2+ level soon rises, ending the - Its removal or destruction has a dramatic effect on
stimulus for PTH release the body
- Other hormones released in response to humoral - the adrenal and thyroid glands and the gonads
stimuli include calcitonin, released by the thyroid atrophy, and results of hyposecretion by those
gland, and insulin, produced by the pancreas glands quickly become obvious
- the release of each of its hormones is controlled by
3. NEURAL releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones
- In isolated cases, nerve fibers stimulate hormone produced by the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus
release, and the endocrine cells are said to respond liberates these regulatory hormones into the blood
to neural stimuli of the portal circulation, which connects the blood
- example is sympathetic nervous system stimulation supply of the hypothalamus with that of the
of the adrenal medulla to release the anterior pituitary
catecholamines norepinephrine and epinephrine
during periods of stress
HYPOTHALAMUS
- also makes two additional hormones, oxytocin and ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
antidiuretic hormone, which are transported along - produces several hormones that affect many
the axons of the hypothalamic neurosecretory cells body organs
to the posterior pituitary for storage. They are later - there are six anterior pituitary hormones
released into the blood in response to nerve  Growth hormone and Prolactin - exert their
impulses from the hypothalamus major effects on nonendocrine targets

 Follicle-stimulating hormone, Luteinizing

POSTERIOR PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMIC hormone, Thyrotropic hormone, and
HORMONES Adrenocorticotropic hormone - tropic
hormones
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
- is not an endocrine gland in the strict sense because TROPIC HORMONES
it does not make the peptide hormones it releases - stimulate their target organs, which are also
- it acts as a storage area for hormones made by endocrine glands, to secrete their hormones, which
hypothalamic neurons in turn exert their effects on other body organs and
tissues
OXYTOCIN
- is released in significant amounts only during - All anterior pituitary hormones are:
childbirth and nursing  proteins (or peptides)
- it stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine  act through second-messenger systems
muscle during sexual relations, during labor, and  are regulated by hormonal stimuli and, in most
during breastfeeding cases, negative feedback
- It also causes milk ejection (the let-down reflex) in a
nursing woman GROWTH HORMONE (GH)
- Both natural and synthetic oxytocic drugs are used - a general metabolic hormone
to induce labor or to hasten labor that is - its major effects are directed to the growth of
progressing at a slow pace skeletal muscles and long bones of the body, and
- oxytocics are used to stop postpartum bleeding (by thus it plays an important role in determining final
causing constriction of the ruptured blood vessels body size
at the placental site) and to stimulate the let-down - a protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that causes
Reflex the building of amino acids into proteins and
stimulates most target cells to grow in size and
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH) divide
- the second hormone released by the posterior - causes fats to be broken down and used for energy
pituitary while it spares glucose, helping to maintain blood
- Diuresis- urine production sugar homeostasis
- antidiuretic is a chemical that inhibits or prevents
urine production PROLACTIN (PRL)
- causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water from - is a protein hormone structurally similar to growth
the forming urine; as a result, urine volume hormone
decreases, and blood volume increases - only known target in humans is the breast
- Water- powerful inhibitor of ADH release - After childbirth, it stimulates and maintains
- in larger amounts, ADH also increases blood milk production by the mother’s breasts
pressure by causing constriction of the arterioles
(small arteries). It is sometimes referred to as
Vasopressin GONADOTROPIC HORMONES
- Drinking alcoholic beverages inhibits ADH secretion - regulates the hormonal activity of the gonads
and results in output of large amounts of urine (ovaries and testes)
- Certain drugs, classed together as diuretics,
antagonize the effects of ADH, causing water to be FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
flushed from the body. These drugs are used to - stimulates follicle development in the ovaries
manage the edema typical of congestive heart - as the follicles mature, they produce estrogen, and
failure eggs are readied for ovulation
- stimulates sperm development by the testes
 together, but thyroxine has four bound iodine
LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH) atoms, whereas triiodothyronine has three
- triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary and  Thyroxine (T4)
causes the ruptured follicle to produce  Triiodothyronine (T3)
progesterone and some estrogen
- stimulates testosterone production by the THYROXINE
interstitial cells of the testes. - major hormone secreted by the thyroid follicles

THYROTROPIC HORMONE (TH) TRIIODOTHYRONINE

- also called Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - mostly formed at the target tissues by conversion
- influences the growth and activity of the thyroid of thyroxine to triiodothyronine
gland

ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH) CALCITONIN

- regulates the endocrine activity of the cortex - decreases the blood calcium ion level by causing
portion of the adrenal gland calcium to be deposited in the bones
- acts antagonistically to parathyroid hormone
- made by the parafollicular cells found in the
connective tissue between the follicles
PINEAL GLAND - released directly to the blood in response to an
- a small, coneshaped gland that hangs from the roof increasing level of blood calcium ions
of the third ventricle of the brain - Few effects of hypo- or hypersecretion of calcitonin
- many chemical substances have been identified in are known, and calcitonin production is meager or
the pineal gland, only the hormone Melatonin ceases entirely in adults
appears to be secreted in substantial amounts - hypocalcemic hormone
- Melatonin is believed to be a “sleep trigger” that
plays an important role in establishing the body’s
sleep-wake cycle
- coordinates the hormones of fertility and to inhibit PARATHYROID GLANDS
the reproductive system (especially the ovaries of - are tiny masses of glandular tissue most often
females) until the body matures. found on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
- there are two parathyroid glands on each thyroid
lobe, that is, a total of four parathyroids
- secretes:
THYROID GLAND
- located at the base of the throat, just inferior to the PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)
Adam’s apple - the most important regulator of calcium ion (Ca2+)
- a fairly large gland consisting of two lobes joined homeostasis of the blood
by a central mass, or isthmus - when the blood calcium ion concentration drops
- makes two hormone below a certain level, the parathyroids release PTH,
 Thyroid hormone which stimulates bone destruction cells (osteoclasts)
 Calcitonin - produced by the parafollicular to break down bone matrix and release calcium
cells ions into the blood
- composed of hollow structures called follicles which - a hypercalcemic hormone
store a sticky colloidal material - also stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium ions
THYROID HORMONE
- often referred to as the body’s major metabolic
hormone THYMUS
- controls the rate at which glucose is “burned,” or - located in the upper thorax, posterior to the
oxidized, and converted to body heat and chemical sternum
energy (ATP) - it decreases in size throughout adulthood
- important for normal tissue growth and - by old age, it is composed mostly of fibrous
development, especially in the reproductive and connective tissue and fat
nervous systems
- two active iodine-containing hormones where each
is constructed from two tyrosine amino acids linked
THYMOSIN - are released from the adrenal cortex in response to
- hormone produced by Thymus a rising blood level of ACTH
- appear to be essential for normal development
of a special group of white blood cells (T
lymphocytes) and the immune response HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL MEDULLA

ADRENAL MEDULLA
ADRENAL GLANDS - like the posterior pituitary, is a knot of nervous
- two adrenal glands curve over the top of the tissue
kidneys like triangular hats - When the medulla is stimulated by sympathetic
- it is structurally and functionally two endocrine nervous system neurons, its cells release two
organs in one similar hormones into the bloodstream
- it has parts made of glandular (cortex) and neural  Epinephrine - also called adrenaline
tissue (medulla). The central medulla region is  Norepinephrine - noradrenaline
enclosed by the adrenal cortex, which contains - Collectively, these hormones are called
three separate layers of cells catecholamines (increase heart rate, blood
pressure, and the blood glucose level and dilate
the small passageways of the lungs)
HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX - When you are (or feel) threatened physically
or emotionally, your sympathetic nervous system
ADRENAL CORTEX brings about the “fight-or-flight” response to help
- produces three major groups of steroid hormones, you cope with the stressful situation. One of the
which are collectively called corticosteroids organs it stimulates is the adrenal medulla, which
- mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex literally pumps its hormones into the bloodstream
hormones to enhance and prolong the effects of the
neurotransmitters of the sympathetic nervous
MINERALOCORTICOIDS system
- mainly aldosterone
- produced by the outermost adrenal cortex cell layer
- are important in regulating the mineral (or salt) PANCREATIC ISLETS
content of the blood, particularly the
concentrations of sodium and potassium ion PANCREAS
- targets the kidney tubules that selectively reabsorb - located close to the stomach in the abdominal
the minerals or allow them to be flushed out of the cavity, is a mixed gland
body in urine
- help regulate both water and electrolyte balance in - also called the islets of Langerhans
body fluids - are little masses of endocrine (hormone-producing)
tissue scattered among the exocrine (enzyme
GLUCOCORTICOIDS -producing) tissue of the pancreas.
- is what the middle cortical layer mainly produces
- includes cortisone and cortisol EXOCRINE, OR ACINAR
- promote normal cell metabolism and help the body - part of the pancreas acts as part of the digestive
to resist long-term stressors, primarily by increasing system
the blood glucose level
- when blood levels of glucocorticoids are high, fats - two important hormones produced by the islet cells
and even proteins are broken down by body cells are insulin and glucagon
and converted to glucose, which is released to the - Islet cells act as fuel sensors, secreting insulin and
blood glucagon appropriately during fed and fasting states
- are said to be hyperglycemic hormones
- controls the more unpleasant effects of
inflammation by decreasing edema, and they INSULIN
reduce pain by inhibiting the pain-causing - A high level of glucose in the blood stimulates the
prostaglandins release of insulin from the beta cells of the islets
- Because of their anti-inflammatory properties, they - acts on just about all body cells, increasing their
are often prescribed as drugs to suppress ability to import glucose across their plasma
inflammation for patients with rheumatoid arthritis. membranes. Once inside the cells, glucose is
 oxidized for energy or converted to glycogen or fat uterine lining (the menstrual cycle, or
for storage menstruation)
- Insulin also speeds up these “use it” or “store it”
activities. Because insulin sweeps the glucose out PROGESTERONE
of the blood, its effect is said to be hypoglycemic. - acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
- As the blood glucose level falls, the stimulus for cycle
insulin release ends—another classic case of - during pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the
negative feedback control. Many hormones have uterus so that an implanted embryo will not be
hyperglycemic effects (glucagon, glucocorticoids, aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for
and epinephrine, to name a few), but insulin is the lactation
only hormone that decreases the blood glucose - Ovaries are stimulated to release their estrogens
level and progesterone in a cyclic way by the anterior
- Insulin is absolutely necessary for the use of pituitary gonadotropic hormones
glucose by body cells. Without it, essentially no
glucose can get into the cells to be used
HORMONES OF THE TESTES
GLUCAGON - paired oval testes of the male are suspended in a
- acts as an antagonist of insulin sac, the scrotum, outside the pelvic cavity
- it helps to regulate the blood glucose level but - the testes also produce male sex hormones, or
in a way opposite that of insulin androgens, of which testosterone is the most
- Its release by the alpha cells of the islets is important
stimulated by a low blood level of glucose
- its action is basically hyperglycemic TESTOSTERONE
- its primary target organ is the liver, which it - at puberty, it promotes the growth and maturation
stimulates to break down stored glycogen to of the reproductive system organs to prepare the
glucose and to release the glucose into the blood young man for reproduction
- no important disorders resulting from hypo- or - causes the male’s secondary sex characteristics
hypersecretion of glucagon are known (growth of facial hair, development of heavy bones
and muscles, and lowering of the voice) to appear
and stimulates the male sex drive
GONADS - In adults, it is necessary for continuous production
- female and male gonads produce sex cells (an of sperm
exocrine function
- produce sex hormones that are identical to those
produced by adrenal cortex cells OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING TISSUES AND ORGANS
- major differences from the adrenal sex hormone
production are the source and relative amounts of PLACENTA
hormones produced - is a remarkable organ formed temporarily in the
uterus of pregnant women
- respiratory, excretory, and nutrition-delivery
HORMONES OF THE OVARIES systems for the fetus
- female gonads, or ovaries, are paired, slightly larger - produces several protein and steroid hormones
than almond-sized organs located in the pelvic that help to maintain the pregnancy and pave the
cavity way for delivery of the baby
- ovaries produce two groups of steroid hormones,
estrogens and progesterone HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN (hCG)
- during very early pregnancy, this hormone is
ESTROGENS produced by the developing embryo and then by
- are responsible for the development of sex the fetal part of the placenta
characteristics in women (primarily growth and - stimulates the ovaries to continue producing
maturation of the reproductive organs) and the estrogen and progesterone so that the lining of the
appearance of secondary sex characteristics (for uterus is not sloughed off in menses
example, hair in the pubic and axillary regions) at - In the third month, the placenta assumes the job of
puberty producing estrogen and progesterone, and the
- acting with progesterone, estrogens promote ovaries become inactive for the rest of the
breast development and cyclic changes in the pregnancy
- the high estrogen and progesterone blood levels
maintain the lining of the uterus (thus, the
pregnancy) and prepare the breasts for producing
milk

HUMAN PLACENTAL LACTOGEN (hPL)

- works cooperatively with estrogen and
progesterone in preparing the breasts for lactation

RELAXIN
- placental hormone
- causes the mother’s pelvic ligaments and the pubic
symphysis to relax and become more flexible, which
eases birth passage

REFERENCE:
Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th Edition.
Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston : Pearson. (PDF)
 COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD

- although blood appears to be a thick, homogeneous

liquid, the microscope reveals that it has both solid
and liquid components.

BLOOD COMPONENTS
- Blood is a complex connective tissue in which living
- river of life blood cells, the formed elements, are suspended in
- transports substances such as oxygen plasma (a nonliving fluid matrix)
and nutrients throughout the body and participates - the collagen and elastin fibers typical of
in processes such as clotting and fighting infections other connective tissues are absent from blood
- is moved through blood vessels by the pumping - dissolved proteins become visible as fibrin strands
action of the heart. This fluid contains red blood cells during blood clotting
to carry oxygen, clotting proteins to stop bleeding, - if a sample of blood is separated, the plasma rises to
and white blood cells to fight infections the top, and the formed elements, being heavier, fall
- transportation via blood is the only way substances to the bottom. Most of the reddish “pellet” at the
can be moved to distant body locations. In addition, bottom of the tube is erythrocytes or red blood cells,
clotting proteins are found only in blood the formed elements that function in oxygen
- it is the only fluid tissue in the body transport. There is a thin, whitish layer called the
buffy coat at the junction between the erythrocytes
and the plasma. This layer contains the remaining
formed elements, leukocytes, white blood cells
that act in various ways to protect the body; and
platelets, cell fragments that help stop bleeding
- Erythrocytes normally account for about 45% of the
total volume of a blood sample, a percentage known
as the hematocrit (“blood fraction”). White blood
cells and platelets contribute less than 1%, and
plasma makes up most of the remaining 55% of
whole blood

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND VOLUME

- blood is a sticky, opaque fluid that is heavier than
water and about five times thicker, or more viscous,
largely because of its formed elements
- Color: Depending on the amount of oxygen it is
carrying, varies from scarlet (oxygen-rich) to a dull
red or purple (oxygen-poor)
- blood has a characteristic metallic, salty taste
- Slightly alkaline, with a pH between 7.35 and 7.45
- Temperature: (38°C, or 100.4°F) is always slightly
higher than body temperature because of the friction
produced as blood flows through the vessels
- blood accounts for approximately 8% of body weight,
and its volume in healthy adults is 5 to 6 liters, or
about 6 quarts.
PLASMA - because erythrocytes lack mitochondria and make
- straw-colored fluid ATP by anaerobic mechanisms, they do not use up
- approximately 90% water, is the liquid part of the any of the oxygen they are transporting, making them
blood very efficient oxygen transporters indeed
- Over 100 different substances are dissolved here - are small, flexible cells shaped like biconcave
- examples of dissolved substances include nutrients, discs—flattened discs with depressed centers on both
salts (electrolytes), respiratory gases, hormones, sides
plasma proteins, and various wastes and products of - because of their thinner centers, erythrocytes look
cell metabolism like miniature doughnuts when viewed with a
- Plasma proteins are the most abundant solutes in microscope
plasma - their small size and peculiar shape provide a large
- Except for antibodies and protein-based hormones, surface area relative to their volume, making them
the liver makes most plasma proteins. ideally suited for gas exchange
- plasma proteins serve a variety of functions, Albumin - outnumber white blood cells by about 1,000 to 1 and
acts as a carrier to shuttle certain molecules through are the major factor contributing to blood viscosity
the circulation, is an important blood buffer, and - although the numbers of RBCs in the circulation do
contributes to the osmotic pressure of blood, which vary, there are normally about 5 million cells per
acts to keep water in the bloodstream. Clotting cubic millimeter of blood
proteins help stem blood loss when a blood vessel is - when the number of RBC/mm3 increases, blood
injured, and antibodies help protect the body from viscosity, or thickness, increases
pathogens - as the number of RBCs decreases, blood thins and
- Plasma proteins are not taken up by cells to be used flows more rapidly
as food fuels or metabolic nutrients, as are other - it is the amount of hemoglobin in the bloodstream
solutes such as glucose, fatty acids, and oxygen at any time that really determines how well the
- composition of plasma varies continuously as cells erythrocytes are performing their role of oxygen
exchange substances with the blood. transport
- the composition of plasma is kept relatively constant - the more hemoglobin molecules the RBCs contain,
by various homeostatic mechanisms of the body the more oxygen they will be able to carry
- various body organs make dozens of adjustments day - a single red blood cell contains about 250 million
in and day out to maintain the many plasma solutes hemoglobin molecules, each capable of binding 4
at life-sustaining levels molecules of oxygen, so each of these tiny cells can
- plasma helps to distribute body heat, a by-product of carry about 1 billion molecules of oxygen
cellular metabolism, evenly throughout the body - normal blood contains 12–18 grams (g) of
hemoglobin per 100 milliliters (ml) of blood. The
hemoglobin content is slightly higher in men (13–18
FORMED ELEMENTS g/ml) than in women (12–16 g/ml).

ERYTHROCYTES LEUKOCYTES
- or red blood cells (RBCs) - white blood cells (WBCs)
- function primarily to ferry oxygen to all cells of the - are far less numerous than red blood cell
body - are crucial to body defense
- differ from other blood cells because they are - on average, there are 4,800 to 10,800 WBCs/mm3 of
anucleate (they lack a nucleus) blood, and they account for less than 1 percent of
- they contain very few organelles total blood volume
- mature RBCs circulating in the blood are literally - contains nuclei and the usual organelles, which
“bags” of hemoglobin molecules makes them the only complete cells in blood
- form a protective, movable army that helps defend
HEMOGLOBIN the body against damage by bacteria, viruses,
- Hemoglobin (Hb), an iron-bearing protein, transports parasites, and tumor cell
most of the oxygen that is carried in the blood. - are able to slip into and out of the blood vessels—a
process called diapedesis
- circulatory system is simply their means of - their number increases rapidly during infections by
transportation to areas of the body where their parasitic worms (tapeworms, etc.) ingested in food
services are needed for inflammatory or immune such as raw fish or entering through the skin
responses - when eosinophils encounter a parasitic worm, they
- can locate areas of tissue damage and infection in the gather around and release enzymes from their
body by responding to certain chemicals that diffuse cytoplasmic granules onto the parasite’s surface,
from the damaged cells (positive chemotaxis) digesting it away
- Once they have “caught the scent,” the WBCs move
through the tissue spaces by amoeboid motion (they C. BASOPHILS
form flowing cytoplasmic extensions that help move - the rarest of the WBCs, have large histamine
them along). By following the diffusion gradient, they -containing granules that stain dark blue. Histamine is an
pinpoint areas of tissue damage and rally round in inflammatory chemical that makes blood vessels leaky and
large numbers to destroy microorganisms and attracts other WBCs to the inflamed site
dispose of dead cells
- Whenever they mobilize for action, the body speeds 2. AGRANULOCYTES
up their production, and as many as twice the normal - lack visible cytoplasmic granules
number of WBCs may appear in the blood within a - their nuclei are closer to the norm—that is, they are
few hours spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
- A total WBC count above 11,000 cells/mm3 is - include lymphocytes and monocytes
referred to as leukocytosis (cytosis = an increase in
cells). Leukocytosis generally indicates that a A. LYMPHOCYTES
bacterial or viral infection is stewing in the body - have a large, dark purple nucleus that occupies most
- Leukopenia count (penia = deficiency). It is commonly of the cell volume
caused by certain drugs, such as corticosteroids and - only slightly larger than RBCs, lymphocytes tend to
anti- cancer agents. take up residence in lymphatic tissues, such as the
- are classified into two major groups—depending tonsils, where they play an important role in the
on whether or not they contain visible granules immune response
in their cytoplasm: - the second most numerous leukocytes in the blood

1. GRANULOCYTES B. MONOCYTES
- granule- containing WBCs. They have lobed nuclei, - are the largest of the WBCs
which typically consist of several rounded nuclear - except for their more abundant cytoplasm and
areas connected by thin strands of nuclear material. - distinctive U- or kidney-shaped nucleus, they
The granules in their cytoplasm stain specifically with resemble large lymphocytes
Wright’s stain Includes Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and - when they migrate into the tissues, they change into
Basophils macrophages with huge appetites. Macrophages are
important in fighting chronic infections, such as
A. NEUTROPHILS tuberculosis, and in activating lymphocytes
- are the most numerous WBCs
- have a multilobed nucleus and very fine granules that Students are often asked to list the WBCs in order of
respond to both acidic and basic stains relative abundance in the blood—from most to least. The
- the cytoplasm as a whole stains pink following phrase may help you with this task: Never let
- are avid phagocytes at sites of acute infection monkeys eat bananas (neutrophils, lymphocytes,
- they are particularly partial to bacteria and fungi, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils).
which they kill during a respiratory burst that deluges
the phagocytized invaders with a potent brew of
oxidizing substances (bleach, hydrogen peroxide, and
others)

B. EOSINOPHILS
- have a blue-red nucleus that resembles earmuffs and
brick-red cytoplasmic granules
 1. LYMPHOID STEM CELL
- produces lymphocytes

2. MYELOID STEM CELL

- can produce all other classes of formed elements

FORMATION OF RED BLOOD CELLS

- Because they are anucleate, they are unable to
synthesize proteins, grow, or divide. As they age,
RBCs become rigid and begin to fall apart in 100 to
120 days
- their remains are eliminated by phagocytes in the
spleen, liver, and other body tissues
- components are salvaged. Iron is bound to
protein as ferritin, and the balance of the heme
group is degraded to bilirubin, which is then
secreted into the intestine by liver cells. There it
PLATELETS becomes a brown pigment called stercobilin that
- are not technically cells leaves the body in feces. Globin is broken down to
- are fragments of bizarre multinucleate cells called amino acids, which are released into the circulation.
megakaryocytes, which pinch off thousands of - Lost blood cells are replaced more or less
anucleate platelet “pieces” that quickly seal continuously by the division of hemocytoblasts in the
themselves off from the surrounding fluids red bone marrow. The developing RBCs divide many
- appear as darkly staining, irregularly shaped bodies times and then begin synthesizing huge amounts of
scattered among the other blood cells hemoglobin. When enough hemoglobin has been
- normal platelet count in blood is about 300,000 cells accumulated, the nucleus and most organelles are
per mm3 ejected, and the cell collapses inward. The result is
- are needed for the clotting process that stops blood the young RBC, called a reticulocyte because it still
loss from broken blood vessels contains some rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The
reticulocytes enter the bloodstream to begin their
task of transporting oxygen. Within 2 days of release,
HEMATOPOIESIS (BLOOD CELL FORMATION) they have ejected the remaining ER and have become
- occurs in red bone marrow, or myeloid tissue. In fully functioning erythrocytes
adults, this tissue is found chiefly in the axial skeleton, - The entire developmental process from
pectoral and pelvic girdles, and proximal epiphyses of hemocytoblast to mature RBC takes 3 to 5 days.
the humerus and femur - The rate of erythrocyte production is controlled by a
- Each type of blood cell is produced in different hormone called erythropoietin. Normally a small
numbers in response to changing body needs and amount of erythropoietin circulates in the blood at all
different stimuli. After they mature, they are times, and red blood cells are formed at a fairly
discharged into the blood vessels surrounding the constant rate. Although the liver produces some, the
area. On average, the red marrow turns out an ounce kidneys play the major role in producing this
of new blood containing 100 billion new cells every hormone. When the blood level of oxygen begins to
day. decline for any reason, the kidneys step up their
release of erythropoietin. Erythropoietin targets the
HEMOCYTOBLAST bone marrow, prodding it into “high gear” to turn out
- a common stem cell where all the formed elements more RBCs.
arise from which resides in red bone marrow. Their - an overabundance of erythrocytes, or an excessive
development differs, however, and once a cell is amount of oxygen in the bloodstream, depresses
committed to a specific blood pathway, it cannot erythropoietin release and red blood cell production.
change However, RBC production is controlled not by the
- forms two types of descendants relative number of RBCs in the blood, but by the
 ability of the available RBCs to transport enough and the bone marrow steps up blood cell formation
oxygen to meet the body’s demands. in an attempt to maintain circulation
- the body can compensate for a loss of blood volume
FORMATION OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS AND PLATELETS only up to a certain limit.
- formation of leukocytes and platelets is stimulated by  Losses of 15 to 30 percent lead to pallor and
hormones. These colony stimulating factors (CSFs) weakness
and interleukins not only prompt red bone marrow to  Loss of over 30 percent causes severe shock,
turn out leukocytes, but also enhance the ability of which can be fatal
mature leukocytes to protect the body  Whole blood transfusions are routinely given to
- they are released in response to specific chemical replace substantial blood loss and to treat severe
signals in the environment, such as inflammatory anemia or thrombocytopenia
chemicals and certain bacteria or their toxins. The - the usual blood bank procedure involves collecting
hormone thrombopoietin accelerates the production blood from a donor and mixing it with an
of platelets from megakaryocytes, but little is known anticoagulant to prevent clotting
about how that process is regulated
- when bone marrow problems or a disease condition HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS
such as leukemia is suspected, a special needle is
used to withdraw a small sample of red marrow from ANTIGEN
one of the flat bones (ilium or sternum) close to the - is a substance that the body recognizes as foreign
body surface. This procedure provides cells for a - stimulates the immune system to mount a defense
microscopic examination called a bone marrow against it
biopsy - most antigens are foreign proteins, such as those that
are part of viruses or bacteria that have managed to
invade the body
HOMEOSTASIS - although each of us tolerates our own cellular (self)
- blood flows smoothly past the intact lining antigens, one person’s RBC proteins will be
(endothelium) of blood vessel walls. But if a blood recognized as foreign if transfused into another
vessel wall breaks, a series of reactions starts the person with different RBC antigens
process of hemostasis (hem = blood; stasis = standing - “recognizers” are antibodies present in plasma that
still), or stopping the bleeding attach to RBCs bearing surface antigens different
- his response involves many substances normally from those on the patient’s (recipient’s) RBCs
present in plasma, as well as some that are released - binding of the antibodies causes the foreign RBCs to
by platelets and injured tissue cells clump, a phenomenon called agglutination which
leads to the clogging of small blood vessels
PHASES OF HEMOSTASIS throughout the body.
- involves three major phases, which occur in rapid
sequence: vascular spasms, platelet plug formation, - there are over 30 common RBC antigens in humans,
and coagulation, or blood clotting so each person’s blood cells can be classified into
- blood loss at the site is prevented when fibrous tissue several different blood groups
grows into the clot and seals the hole in the blood - it is the antigens of the ABO and Rh blood groups that
vessel cause the most vigorous transfusion reactions

1. Vascular spasms occur ABO BLOOD GROUPS

2. Platelet plug forms - are based on which of two antigens, type A or type B,
3. Coagulation events occur a person inherits
- absence of both antigens results in type O blood,
presence of both antigens leads to type AB, and the
BLOOD GROUPS AND TRANSFUSIONS presence of either A or B antigen yields type A or B
blood, respectively. In the ABO blood group,
- blood is vital for transporting substances through the antibodies form during infancy against the ABO
body. When blood is lost, the blood vessels constrict, antigens not present on your own RBCs
 matching is also done. Cross matching involves
RH BLOOD GROUPS testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the
- are so named because one of the eight Rh antigens recipient’s serum and of the recipient’s RBCs by the
(agglutinogen D) was originally identified in Rhesus donor serum
monkeys - typing for the Rh factors is done in the same manner
- the same antigen was discovered in humans as ABO blood typing
- Unlike the antibodies of the ABO system, anti-Rh
antibodies are not automatically formed by Rh− (“Rh
negative”) individuals
- however, if an Rh− person receives Rh+ blood, shortly REFERENCE:
after the transfusion his or her immune system
becomes sensitized and begins producing anti-Rh+ Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th Edition.
antibodies against the foreign blood type Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston : Pearson. (PDF)

HEMOLYSIS (rupture of RBCs)

- does not occur in an Rh− person with the first
transfusion of Rh+ blood because it takes time for
the body to react and start making antibodies
- the second time and every time thereafter, a typical
transfusion reaction occurs in which the patient’s
antibodies attack and rupture the donor’s Rh+ RBCs

BLOOD TYPING
- the importance of determining the blood group of
both the donor and the recipient before blood is
transfused is glaringly obvious
- the general procedure for determining ABO blood
type essentially involves testing the blood by mixing
it with two different types of immune serum—anti-A
and anti-B
- Agglutination occurs when RBCs of a group A person
are mixed with the anti-A serum but not when they
are mixed with the anti-B serum. Likewise, RBCs of
type B blood are clumped by anti-B serum but not
by anti-A serum
- in order to double check compatibility, cross
 - its pointed apex is directed toward the left
hip and rests on the diaphragm,
approximately at the level of the fifth
intercostal space
- its broad posterosuperior aspect, or base,
from which the great vessels of the body
emerge, points toward the right shoulder
and lies beneath the second rib.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

- delivers oxygen and nutrients to the body

COVERINGS AND WALLS OF THE HEART
tissues and carries away wastes such as
carbon dioxide via blood
PERICARDIUM
- heart pumps blood throughout the body
- a sac which encloses the heart
in blood vessels. Blood flow requires both
- made up of three layers:
the pumping action of the heart and
 outer fibrous layer
changes in blood pressure
 inner serous membrane pair
- major function: transportation
- using blood as the transport vehicle, the
FIBROUS PERICARDIUM
system carries oxygen, nutrients, cell wastes,
- loosely fitting superficial part of this sac
hormones, and many other substances vital
- a fibrous layer that helps protect the heart
for body homeostasis to and from the cells
and anchors it to surrounding structures,
- the force to move the blood around the
such as the diaphragm and sternum
body is provided by the beating heart and by
blood pressure
SEROUS PERICARDIUM
- includes a muscularpump equipped with
- a slippery, two-layered which is deep to the
one-way valves and a system of large and
fibrous pericardium
small “plumbing” tubes within which the
- parietal layer of the serous pericardium, or
blood travels
parietal pericardium, lines the interior of the
fibrous pericardium.
HEART
VISCERAL LAYER OF THE SEROUS PERICARDIUM
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
- or visceral pericardium
- also called the epicardium
SIZE, LOCATION, AND ORIENTATION
- part of the heart wall
- the innermost layer of the pericardium and
- approximately the size of a person’s fist, the
the outermost layer of the heart wall
hollow, cone-shaped heart weighs less than
- at the superior aspect of the heart, this
a pound
attaches to the large arteries leaving the
- snugly enclosed within the inferior
heart and then makes a U-turn and
mediastinum, the medial section of the
continues inferiorly over the heart surface
thoracic cavity, the heart is flanked on each
side by the lungs
LUBRICATING SEROUS FLUID ATRIA
- produced by the serous pericardial - superior atria are primarily receiving
membranes and collects in the pericardial chambers
cavity between these serous layers - they are not important in the pumping
- allows the heart to beat easily in a relatively activity of the heart
frictionless environment as the serous - they assist with filling the ventricles. Blood
pericardial layers slide smoothly across each flows into the atria under low pressure from
other the veins of the body and then continues on
to fill the ventricles
- heart walls are composed of three layers:
VENTRICLES
1. OUTER EPICARDIUM - the inferior, thick-walled ventricles are the
- the visceral pericardium just described discharging chambers, or actual pumps of
the heart
2. MYOCARDIUM - when they contract, blood is propelled out
- consists of thick bundles of cardiac muscle of the heart and into circulation
twisted and whorled into ringlike - right ventricle forms most of the heart’s
arrangements anterior surface
- the layer that actually contracts - left ventricle forms its apex
- Myocardial cells are linked together by
intercalated discs, which contain both INTERATRIAL SEPTUM
desmosomes and gap junctions - the septum that divides the heart
- is reinforced internally by a network of longitudinally
dense fibrous connective tissue called the - divides the atria
“skeleton of the heart.”
INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM
- where it divides the ventricles

3. INNERMOST ENDOCARDIUM HOW HEART FUNCTIONS:

- a thin, glistening sheet of endothelium that - heart functions as a double pump
lines the heart chambers  arteries carrying blood away from the
- is continuous with the linings of the blood heart
vessels leaving and entering the heart  veins carrying blood toward the heart

- Right side = Pulmonary circuit pump

CHAMBERS AND ASSOCIATED GREAT VESSELS  receives oxygen-poor blood from the
- the heart has four hollow cavities, or veins of the body through the large
chambers: superior vena cava and inferior vena
 two atria (singular atrium) cava
 two ventricles  pumps it out through the pulmonary
- each of these chambers is lined with trunk
endocardium, which helps blood flow  pulmonary trunk splits into the right
smoothly through the heart and left pulmonary arteries, which
carry blood to the lungs, where oxygen
 is picked up and carbon dioxide is atrium flows into the left ventricle and is
unloaded pumped out into the aorta, from which
 Oxygen-rich blood drains from the lungs the systemic arteries branch to supply
and is returned to the left side of the essentially all body tissues
heart through the four pulmonary veins  After oxygen is delivered to tissues,
 Pulmonary circulation - circuit from the oxygen -poor blood circulates from the
right ventricle (the pump) to the lungs tissues back to the right atrium via the
and back to the left atrium (receiving systemic veins, which empties their
chamber) cargo into either the superior or inferior
 Function: carry blood to the lungs for vena cava
gas exchange and return it to the heart  Systemic circulation - circuit from the
left ventricle through the body tissues
 Oxygen-rich blood returned to the left and back to the right atrium
 Function: supplies oxygen- and
nutrient-rich blood to all body organs
HEART VALVES into the atria when the ventricles are
- heart is equipped with four valves, which contracting
allow blood to flow in only one direction
through the heart chambers—from the atria
through the ventricles and out the great SEMILUNAR VALVES
arteries leaving the heart - second set of valves
- guards the bases of the two large arteries
ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) VALVES leaving the ventricular chambers:
- are located between the atria and ventricles  pulmonary semilunar valve
on each side  aortic semilunar valve
- these valves prevent backflow into the atria - each semilunar valve has three cusps that fit
when the ventricles contract tightly together when the valves are closed
- when the ventricles are contracting and
BICUSPID/ MITRAL VALVE forcing blood out of the heart, the cusps are
- left AV valve forced open and flattened against the walls
- consists of two flaps, or cusps, of of the arteries by the force of rushing blood
endocardium - when the ventricles relax, the blood begins
to flow backward toward the heart, and the
TRICUSPID VALVE cusps fill with blood, closing the valves
- right AV valve - this prevents arterial blood from reentering
- has three cusps the heart

CHORDAE TENDINEAE - AV valves

- Tiny white cords  open during heart relaxation
- tendinous cords (“heart strings”)  closed when the ventricles are
- anchor the cusps to the walls of the contracting
ventricles - semilunar valves
 closed during heart relaxation
- when the heart is relaxed and blood is  forced open when the ventricles
passively filling its chambers, the AV valve contract
cusps hang limply into the ventricles
- as the ventricles contract, they press on the
blood in their chambers, and the pressure CARDIAC CIRCULATION
inside the ventricles (intraventricular - the blood contained in the heart does not
pressure) begins to rise nourish the Myocardium
- this forces the AV valve cusps upward, - the functional blood supply that oxygenates
closing the valves. At this point the chordae and nourishes the myocardium is provided
tendineae tighten and anchor the cusps in a by the right and left coronary arteries
closed position
- if the cusps were unanchored, they would CORONARY ARTERIES
blow upward into the atria like an umbrella - branch from the base of the aorta and
being turned inside out by a gusty wind. In encircle the heart in the coronary sulcus
this manner, the AV valves prevent backflow (atrioventricular groove) at the junction of
the atria and ventricles
- Coronary arteries and their major branches - causes heart muscle depolarization
are compressed when the ventricles are in only one direction— from the
contracting and fill when the heart is relaxed atria to the ventricles
- major branches: - enforces a contraction rate of
approximately 75 beats per minute
 Anterior interventricular artery and on the heart
circumflex artery on the left - Components include:
 Sinoatrial (SA) node - one of the
 Posterior interventricular artery and most important part; a crescent
marginal artery on the right -shaped node of tissue located in
the right atrium
CORONARY SINUS  Atrioventricular (AV) node at the
- an enlarged vessel on the posterior of the junction of the atria and ventricles
heart which empties Myocardium when  Atrioventricular (AV) bundle
drained by several cardiac veins (bundle of His)
- empties into the right atrium  Right and left bundle branches
located in the interventricular
septum
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART  Purkinje fibers - spread within the
- as the heart beats, or contracts, the blood myocardium of the ventricle walls
makes continuous round-trips—into and out
of the heart, through the rest of the body, TACHYCARDIA
and then back to the heart - a rapid heart rate (over 100 beats per
minute)

INTRINSIC CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART: BRADYCARDIA

SETTING THE BASIC RHYTHM - a heart rate that is substantially slower than
normal (less than 60 beats per minute)
- Atrial cells beat about 60 times per minute
- Ventricular cells contract 20–40 times per - neither condition is pathological, but
minute prolonged tachycardia may progress to
- two systems act to regulate heart activity: fibrillation

 Nerves of the autonomic nervous

system - act like brakes and gas pedals CARDIAC CYCLE AND HEART SOUNDS
to decrease or increase the heart rate,
depending on which division is activated SYSTOLE AND DIASTOLE
- heart contraction and relaxation respectively
 Intrinsic conduction system - or nodal - these terms refer to the contraction and
system, that is built into the heart tissue relaxation of the ventricles unless otherwise
and sets its basic rhythm stated
- is composed of a special tissue found
nowhere else in the body
CARDIAC CYCLE
- events of one complete heartbeat, during BLOOD VESSELS
both atria and ventricles contract and relax
- average heart beats approximately 75 times VASCULAR SYSTEM
per minute; length of the cardiac cycle is - a close transport system formed when blood
normally about 0.8 second circulates inside the blood vessels
- when using a stethoscope, you can hear two - has its freeways, secondary roads, and alleys
distinct sounds during each cardiac cycle - as the heart beats, it propels blood into the
- often described by the two syllables “lub” large arteries leaving the heart
and “dup,” and the sequence is lubdup, - as the large arteries branch, blood moves
pause, lub-dup, pause, and so on into successively smaller arteries and then
into the arterioles, which feed thecapillary
LUB beds in the tissues
- is caused by the closing of the AV valves. - Capillary beds - drained by venules, which in
turn empty into veins that merge and empty
DUP into the great veins entering the heart
- occurs when the semilunar valves close at - Arteries and veins are simply conducting
the end of ventricular systole vessels
- Capillaries - side streets/ alleys that
- the first heart sound is longer and louder intertwine among the body cells and provide
than the second heart sound, which tends to access to individual “homes”
be short and sharp

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF BLOOD VESSELS

CARDIAC OUTPUT
TUNICS
- the amount of blood pumped out by each - the walls of blood vessels have three layers,
side of the heart (each ventricle) in 1 minute or tunics
- the product of the heart rate (HR) and the
stroke volume (SV) 1. TUNICA INTIMA
- Stroke volume - volume of blood pumped - lines the lumen, or interior, of the vessels, is
out by a ventricle with each heartbeat a thin layer of endothelium (squamous
- increases as the force of ventricular epithelial cells) resting on a basement
contraction increases membrane
- Normal adult blood volume - about 6,000 - its cells fit closely together and form a slick
ml surface that decreases friction as blood
- Cardiac output varies with the demands of flows through the vessel lumen.
the body:
 Rises when the stroke volume is 2. TUNICA MEDIA
increased or the heart beats faster or - is the bulky middle layer, made up mostly of
both smooth muscle and elastic fibers
 Drops when either or both of these - the smooth muscle, which is controlled by
factors decrease the sympathetic nervous system, is active in
changing the diameter of the vessels
 the heart, and because blood returning to
3. TUNICA EXTERNA the heart often flows against gravity
- is the outermost tunic - veins are modified to ensure that the
- composed largely of fibrous connective amount of blood returning to the heart
tissue, and its function is to support and (venous return) equals the amount being
protect the vessels pumped out of the heart (cardiac output) at
any time
- the lumens of veins tend to be much larger
than those of corresponding arteries, and
they tend to have a thinner tunica media but
a thicker tunica externa
- the larger veins have valves that prevent
backflow of blood like those in the heart

SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY

- known as the muscular pump
- enhances venous return
- as the muscles surrounding the veins
contract and relax, the blood is squeezed
through the veins toward the heart
- respiratory pump also helps return blood to
the heart

STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES IN ARTERIES, VEINS,

AND CAPILLARIES GROSS ANATOMY OF BLOOD VESSELS
- walls of arteries are usually much thicker
than those of veins MAJOR ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION
ARTERIES
- carry blood away from the heart AORTA
- able to expand as blood is forced into them - largest artery of the body
and then recoil passively as the blood flows - springs upward from the left ventricle of the
off into the circulation during diastole heart as the ascending aorta, arches to the
- their walls must be strong and stretchy left as the aortic arch, and then plunges
enough to take these continuous changes in downward through the thorax, following the
pressure without stretching out spine (thoracic aorta) finally to pass through
permanently the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic
cavity, where it becomes the abdominal
VEINS aorta
- carry blood back toward the heart, and the
pressure in them tends to be low all the time ARTERIAL BRANCHES OF THE ASCENDING
- have thinner walls AORTA
- because the blood pressure in veins is
usually too low to force the blood back to 1. RIGHT (R.) CORONARY ARTERY
2. LEFT (L.) CORONARY ARTERY ARTERIAL BRANCHES OF THE THORACIC AORTA
- both serves the heart
1. INTERCOSTAL ARTERIES
ARTERIAL BRANCHES OF THE AORTIC ARCH - 10 pairs
- supply the muscles of the thorax wall
1. BRACHIOCEPHALIC TRUNK - other branches of the thoracic aorta
- the first branch of the aortic arch supplies the:
- splits into  Lungs (bronchial arteries)
 Esophagus (esophageal arteries)
 R. common carotid artery - further  Diaphragm (phrenic arteries)
branches into the:
 R. Internal
 R. external carotid arteries ARTERIAL BRANCHES OF THE ABDOMINAL
AORTA
 R. subclavian artery
1. CELIAC TRUNK
2. L. COMMON CAROTID ARTERY - first branch of the abdominal aort
- second branch of the aortic arch - a single vessel that has three branches:
- divides and forming:
 L. internal carotid - serves the brain  L. gastric artery - supplies the stomach

 L. external carotid - serves the skin and  Splenic artery - supplies the spleen
muscles of the head and neck
 Common hepatic artery - supplies the
3. L. SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY liver
- third branch of the aortic arch
- gives of an important branch: 2. UNPAIRED SUPERIOR MESENTERIC ARTERY
- supplies most of the small intestine and the
 Vertebral artery - serves part of the first half of the large intestine, or colon
brain
3. RENAL (R. AND L.) ARTERIES
 Axillary artery -known as the subclavian - serve the kidneys
artery in the axilla
4. GONADAL (R. AND L.) ARTERIES
 Brachial artery - known as the - supply the gonads
subclavian artery that continues into the - area called the ovarian arteries in females
arm which supplies the arm (serving the ovaries) and the testicular
- splits at the elbow to form: arteries in males (serving the testes)
 Radial artery
 Ulnar artery 5. LUMBAR ARTERIES
- both serves the forearm - several pairs of arteries serving the heavy
muscles of the abdomen and trunk walls
6. INFERIOR MESENTERIC ARTERY - unite to form the deep brachial vein, which
- a small, unpaired artery supplying the drains the arm and empties into the axillary
second half of the large intestine vein in the axillary region

7. COMMON ILIAC (R. AND L.) ARTERIES 2. CEPHALIC VEIN

- the final branches of the abdominal aorta - provides for the superficial drainage of the
- divides into: lateral aspect of the arm and empties into
 Internal iliac artery - supplies the pelvic the axillary vein
organs (bladder, rectum, and so on)
3. BASILIC VEIN
 External iliac artery - enters the thigh, - a superficial vein that drains the medial
where it becomes the femoral artery aspect of the arm and empties into the
brachial vein proximally
- Femoral artery and its branch: - basilic and cephalic veins are joined at the
 Deep artery of the thigh - serve the anterior aspect of the elbow by the median
thigh cubital vein
 Popliteal artery - known as the femoral - median cubital vein is often chosen as the
artery in the knee, which then splits site for withdrawing blood for the purpose
into: of blood testing
 Anterior tibial artery - supplies the
leg and foot; terminates in the 4. SUBCLAVIAN VEIN
dorsalis pedis artery - receives venous blood from the arm through
 Posterior tibial artery - supply the the axillary vein and from the skin and
leg and foot muscles of the head through the external
jugular vein
MAJOR VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
5. VERTEBRAL VEIN
- major systemic arteries branch of the aorta, - drains the posterior part of the head
whereas the veins converge on the venae
cavae, which enter the right atrium of the 6. INTERNAL JUGULAR VEIN
heart - drains the dural sinuses of the brain
- veins draining the head and arms empty into
the superior vena cava, and those draining 7. BRACHIOCEPHALIC (R. AND L.) VEINS
the lower body empty into the inferior vena - are large veins that receive venous drainage
cava from the subclavian, vertebral, and internal
jugular veins on their respective sides
VEINS DRAINING INTO THE SUPERIOR VENA - join to form the superior vena cava, which
CAVA enters the heart
- listed in a distal-to-proximal direction; that is,
in the same direction the blood flows into 8. AZYGOS VEIN
the superior vena cava - is a single vein that drains the thorax and
enters the superior vena cava just before it
1. RADIAL VEIN AND ULNAR VEIN joins the heart
- are deep veins draining the forearm
VEINS DRAINING INTO THE INFERIOR VENA 6. HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN
CAVA - a single vein that drains the digestive tract
organs and carries this blood through the
INFERIOR VENA CAVA liver before it enters the systemic circulation
- much longer than the superior vena cava
- returns blood to the heart from all body 7. HEPATIC (R. AND L.) VEINS
regions inferior to the diaphragm - drain the liver

1. ANTERIOR TIBIAL VEIN AND POSTERIOR

TIBIAL SPECIAL CIRCULATIONS
- vein and the fibular vein
- drain the leg (calf and foot) ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF THE BRAIN AND THE
- posterior tibial vein becomes the popliteal CIRCLE OF WILLIS
vein at the knee and then the femoral vein
in the thigh - brain is supplied by two pairs of arteries:
- femoral vein becomes the external iliac vein
as it enters the pelvis 1. INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERIES
- branches of the common carotid arteries
2. GREAT SAPHENOUS VEINS - run through the neck and enter the skull
- the longest veins in the body through the temporal bone
- receive the superficial drainage of the leg - once inside the cranium, each divides into:
- begin at the dorsal venous arch in the foot  Anterior cerebral artery
and travel up the medial aspect of the leg to  Middle cerebral artery
empty into the femoral vein in the thigh - both supply most of the cerebrum

3. COMMON ILIAC (R. AND L.) VEIN 2. PAIRED VERTEBRAL ARTERIES

- formed by the union of the external iliac - pass upward from the subclavian arteries at
vein and the internal iliac vein on its own the base of the neck
side - within the skull, the vertebral arteries join
- join to form the inferior vena cava, which to form the single basilar artery
then ascends superiorly in the abdominal
cavity BASILAR ARTERY
- serves the brain stem and cerebellum as it
4. GONADAL VEIN travels upward
- Right: drains the right ovary in females and - at the base of the cerebrum it divides to
the right testicle in males form:
- Left: empties into the left renal vein  Posterior cerebral arteries
superiorly - supply the posterior part of the
Cerebrum
5. RENAL (R. AND L.) VEINS - anterior and posterior blood supplies of the
- drain the kidneys brain are united by small communicating
arterial branches
CEREBRAL ARTERIAL CIRCLE/CIRCLE OF WILLIS
- a complete circle of connecting blood
vessels
- surrounds the base of the brain
- protects the brain by providing more than
one route for blood to reach brain tissue in
case of a clot or impaired blood flow
anywhere in the system

HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION

- veins of h.p.c. drain the digestive organs,
spleen, and pancreas and deliver this blood
to the liver through the h.p. vein
- major vessels composing the hepatic portal
circulation include:

 Inferior mesenteric veins - draining the

terminal part of the large intestine, drains
into the splenic vein, which itself drains the
spleen, pancreas, and the left side of the
stomach

 Superior mesenteric veins - drains the small

intestine and the first part of the colon

 Splenic vein - joins with superior mesenteric

veins to form the hepatic portal vein

 Left gastric vein - drains the right side of the

stomach, drains directly into the hepatic
portal vein
PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION SYSTEMIC ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE
- is measured indirectly by the auscultatory
VITAL SIGNS method. This procedure is used to measure
- referred in clinical settings blood pressure in the brachial artery of the
- arterial pulse and blood pressure arm
measurements, along with those of
respiratory rate and body temperature
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON BLOOD
PRESSURE
ARTERIAL PULSE
- the alternating expansion and recoil of an ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE (BP)
artery that occurs with each beat of the left - is directly related to cardiac output (CO) and
ventricle creates a pressure wave (pulse) peripheral resistance (PR)
that travels through the arterial system - this relationship is expressed by the
- Pulse rate (pressure surges per minute) equation BP = CO × PR
=
heart rate (beats per minute) CARDIAC OUTPUT
- pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per minute in - the amount of blood pumped out of the left
a healthy resting person ventricle per minute)

MEASURING BLOOD PRESSURE VARIATIONS IN BLOOD PRESSURE

- the off-and-on flow of blood into the - In normal adults at rest,
arteries as the heart alternately contracts  systolic blood pressure varies between
and relaxes causes the blood pressure to rise 110 and 140 mm Hg
and fall during each beat  diastolic pressure between 70 and 80
- two arterial blood pressures are usually mm Hg
measured: - blood pressure varies considerably from one
person to another and cycles over a 24-hour
1. SYSTOLIC PRESSURE period, peaking in the morning
- the pressure in the arteries at the peak of - blood pressure varies with age, weight, race,
ventricular contraction mood, physical activity, and posture.

2. DIASTOLIC PRESSURE HYPOTENSION

- the pressure when the ventricles are - or low blood pressure
relaxing - considered to be a systolic blood pressure
below 100 mm Hg
BLOOD PRESSURES - low blood pressure is an expected result of
- are reported in millimeters of mercury (mm physical conditioning and is often associated
Hg), with the higher systolic pressure written with long life and an old age free of illness
first—120/80 (read “120 over 80”) translates
to a systolic pressure of 120 mm Hg and a CHRONIC HYPOTENSION
diastolic pressure of 80 mm Hg - not explained by physical conditioning
- may hint at poor nutrition and inadequate
levels of blood proteins
- because blood viscosity is low, blood
pressure is also lower than normal

ACUTE HYPOTENSION
- is one of the most important warnings of
circulatory shock
- a condition in which the blood vessels are
inadequately filled and blood cannot
circulate normally
- most common cause is blood loss

- a brief elevation in blood pressure is a

normal response to fever, physical exertion,
and emotional upset, such as anger or fear

PERSISTENT HYPERTENSION
- high blood pressure
- is pathological and is defined as a condition
of sustained elevated arterial pressure of
140/90 or higher

REFERENCE:

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th

Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
Pearson. (PDF)
 system is to have sufficient blood volume to
continue to operate properly
- forms an elaborate drainage system that
picks up this excess interstitial fluid, now
called Lymph, and returns it to the blood
- forms a one-way system, and lymph flows
only toward the heart
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM - when the pressure is higher inside the
lymphatic vessels, the endothelial cell flaps
- carries excess interstitial fluid from tissues are forced together, preventing the lymph
back to cardiovascular circulation and from leaking back out and forcing it along
provides locations for immune cells to the vessel
monitor the body - smooth muscle in the walls of the larger
- Porous lymphatic vessels take in fluids from lymphatics contracts rhythmically, helping to
the extracellular space and carry them “pump” the lymph along
through lymph nodes, where immune cells
scan the fluids for foreign particles LYMPH CAPILLARIES
- Fluid must be returned to circulation via - weave between the tissue cells and blood
lymphatics to maintain cardiovascular capillaries in the loose connective tissues of
function, and lymph nodes are necessary to the body and absorb the leaked fluid
monitor the body for infection - permeable; the edges of the endothelial
- plays a major role in immunity cells forming their walls loosely overlap
- consists of two semi-independent parts: one another, forming flaplike minivalves
that act as one-way swinging doors
1. Lymphatic Vessels - the flaps, anchored by fine collagen fibers
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs to surrounding structures, gape open when
the fluid pressure is higher in the interstitial
space, allowing fluid to enter the lymphatic
LYMPHATIC VESSELS capillary
- also called lymphatics
- are thin walled, and the larger ones have RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT
valves - drains lymph from the right arm and the
- is a low-pressure, pumpless system right side of the head and thorax
- transport fluids that have escaped from the
blood back to the cardiovascular system. LARGE THORACIC DUCT
- as blood circulates through the body, - receives lymph from the rest of the body
nutrients, wastes, and gases are exchanged - both ducts empty the lymph into the
between the blood and the interstitial fluid SUBCLAVIAN VEIN on their own side of the
- fluid that remains behind in the tissue body
spaces becomes part of the interstitial fluid
- excess tissue fluid, as well as any plasma
proteins that escape from the blood, must
be carried back to the blood if the vascular

1
 - vary in shape and size; most are kidney
-shaped, and “buried” in the connective
tissue that surrounds them

TRABECULAE
- a fibrous capsule from which connective
tissue strands; it surrounds each node and
extend inward to divide the node into a
number of compartments

GERMINAL CENTERS
- dark-staining centers
- enlarge when specific B lymphocytes (the B
cells) are generating daughter cells called
plasma cells, which release antibodies

- the rest of the cortical cells are lymphocytes

“in transit,” or T cells that circulate
continuously between the blood, lymph
nodes, and lymphatic stream, performing
their surveillance role

MEDULLARY CORDS
- inward extensions of cortical tissue that
LYMPH NODES contain both B and T cells
- one of many types of lymphoid organs
- help rid the body of infectious agents and MACROPHAGES
cancer cells - within the lymph nodes which engulf and
- can become secondary cancer sites destroy bacteria, viruses, and other foreign
- cells in lymph nodes help protect the body substances in the lymph before it is returned
by removing foreign material from the to the blood
lymphatic stream and by producing - Phagocytic macrophages - are located in the
lymphocytes that function in the immune central medulla of the lymph node
response
- as lymph is transported toward the heart, it - Lymph enters the convex side of a lymph
is filtered through the thousands of lymph node through afferent lymphatic vessels. It
nodes that cluster along the lymphatic then flows through a number of sinuses
vessels that meander through the lymph node and
- large clusters are found in the inguinal, exits from the node at the hilum, via
axillary, and cervical regions of the body efferent lymphatic vessels
- where collections of lymphocytes are - because there are few efferent vessels
located and respond to foreign substances in draining the node, the flow of lymph
the lymphatic stream through the node is very slow, this allows

2
 time for thelymphocytes and macrophages *as well as bits of lymphoid tissue scattered in
to perform their protective functions epithelial and connective tissues

- all these have a predominance of reticular

connective tissue and lymphocytes
- only the lymph nodes filter lymph

SPLEEN
- a soft organ located in the left side of the
abdominal cavity, beneath the diaphragm,
that curls around the anterolateral aspect of
the stomach
- filters and cleanses blood of bacteria, viruses,
and other debris
- provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation
and immune surveillance
- destroys worn-out red blood cells and return
some of their breakdown products to the
liver
- stores platelets and act as a blood reservoir
OTHER LYMPHOID ORGANS
- during hemorrhage, both the spleen and
- others are:
liver contract and empty their blood into
circulation to help bring the blood volume
1. Spleen
back to its normal level
2. Thymus
- in the fetus, this is an important
3. Tonsils
hematopoietic (blood cell–forming) site, but
4. Peyer’s patches
as a rule the adult spleen produces only
5. Appendix
lymphocytes

3
THYMUS
- functions at peak level only during youth 1. Innate defense mechanisms
- a lymphoid mass found in the anterior 2. Adaptive defense mechanisms
mediastinum overlying the heart
- produces hormones, thymosin and others, - they make up the immune system
that function in the programming of T - has a variety of molecules and trillions of
lymphocytes so they can carry out their immune cells that inhabit lymphoid tissues
protective roles in the body and organs and circulate in body fluids
- most important of the immune cells are
TONSILS
- small masses of lymphoid tissue deep to the 1. Lymphocytes
mucosa surrounding the pharynx (throat) 2. Dendritic cells
- traps and remove bacteria or other foreign 3. Macrophages - play an important role in both
pathogens entering the throat innate and adaptive mechanisms
- sometimes they become congested with
bacteria and become red, swollen, and sore,
a condition called tonsillitis

PEYER’S PATCHES
- resemble tonsils
- found in the wall of the distal small
intestine
- lymphoid follicles are located in the wall of
the appendix, a tubelike offshoot of the
proximal large intestine
- macrophages of this and the appendix are in INNATE DEFENSE SYSTEM
an ideal position to capture and destroy - also called the nonspecific defense system
harmful bacteria, thereby preventing them - responds immediately to protect the body
from penetrating the intestinal wall from all foreign substances
- Peyer’s patches, the appendix, and the - we are born with our innate defenses, which
tonsils are part of the collection of small include intact skin and mucous membranes,
lymphoid tissues referred to as mucosa the inflammatory response, and a number of
-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) proteins produced by body cells
- reduces the workload of the adaptive
MALT defense mechanisms by preventing the
- acts as a sentinel to protect the upper entry and spread of microorganisms
respiratory and digestive tracts from the throughout the body
constant attacks of foreign matter entering - some innate resistance to disease is
those cavities inherited

SURFACE MEMBRANE BARRIERS

BODY DEFENSES - body’s first line of defense against the
- two types of mechanisms defend the body invasion of disease-causing microorganisms
against enemies: includes the skin and mucous membranes

4
- as long as the skin is unbroken, its nonspecific targets well before the adaptive
keratinized epidermis is a strong physical arm of the immune system is enlisted in the
barrier to most microorganisms that swarm fight
on the skin - not phagocytic; they attack the target cell’s
membrane and release lytic chemicals called
MUCOUS MEMBRANES perforin and granzymes (enzymes), which
- intact mucous membranes provide similar degrade target cell content
mechanical barriers within the body - release powerful inflammatory chemicals
- line all body cavities open to the exterior
- produce a variety of protective secretions
- some mucosae have structural modifications INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
that fend off potential invaders - a nonspecific response that is triggered
- mucuscoated hairs inside the nasal cavity whenever body tissues are injured
trap inhaled particles, and the respiratory - four most common indicators of acute
tract mucosa is ciliated inflammation are:
- Cilia sweep dust- and bacteria-laden mucus  Redness
superiorly toward the mouth, preventing it  Heat
from entering the lungs, where the warm,  Pain
moist environment provides ideal conditions  Swelling (edema)
for bacterial growth
- some microbes may get through and they  - process begins with a chemical “alarm”.
are broken from time to time by small nicks When cells are damaged, they release
and cuts inflammatory chemicals, including
histamine and kinins

INTERNAL DEFENSES: CELLS AND CHEMICALS - dilation of the blood vessels increases the
- second line of defense blood flow to the area, accounting for the
- the body uses an enormous number of cells redness and heat observed
and chemicals - if the swollen, painful area is a joint, its
- these rely function may be impaired temporarily
 on the destructive powers of cells - some authorities consider limitation of joint
(phagocytes and natural killer cells) movement to be the fifth cardinal sign of
 on the inflammatory response inflammation
 on a variety of chemical substances - prevents the spread of damaging agents to
that kill pathogens and help repair nearby tissues, disposes of cell debris and
tissue pathogens, and sets the stage for repair
- Fever is another nonspecific protective - accomplishes tasks by mobilizing phagocytes
response
PHAGOCYTES
NATURAL KILLER CELLS (NK) - confronts the pathogens that make it
- roam the body in blood and lymph through the mechanical barriers
- a unique group of aggressive lymphocytes - phagocyte, such as a macrophage or
that can lyse and kill cancer cells, virus neutrophil, engulfs a foreign particle by the
-infected body cells, and some other process of phagocytosis
5
ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS INTERFERON
- variety of antimicrobial proteins enhance - small proteins secreted by virus-infected
the innate defenses either by attacking cells to help defend cells that have not yet
microorganisms directly or by hindering been infected
their ability to reproduce - interferon molecules diffuse to nearby cells
- most important are complement and and bind to their membrane receptors;
interferon binding stimulates the synthesis of proteins
that “interfere” with the ability of viruses to
COMPLEMENT multiply within these still-healthy cells,
- term refers to a group of at least 20 plasma reducing the spread of the virus
proteins that circulate in the blood in an - do not assist with fighting bacterial or fungal
inactive state infections
- a nonspecific defensive mechanism that
enhances, the effectiveness of both innate FEVER
and adaptive defenses - abnormally high body temperature
- Complement proteins must be activated in a - a systemic response to invading
particular sequence called a cascade, which microorganisms
insures that complement is not accidentally - body temperature is regulated by the
activated hypothalamus
- when complement becomes attached to - normally the thermostat is set at approx.
foreign cells, it is activated and becomes a 37°C (98.6°F), but can be reset upward in
major factor in the fight against foreign cells response to pyrogens, chemicals secreted by
- Complement fixation occurs when white blood cells and macrophages exposed
complement proteins bind to certain sugars to foreign cells or substances in the body
or proteins on the foreign cell’s surface - although high fevers are dangerous because
- result of complement fixation is: excess heat destroys protein structure
enzymes and other body proteins, rendering
1. Formation of membrane attack complexes them nonfunctional, mild or moderate fever
(MAC) that produce holes, or pores, in the seems to benefit the body
foreign cell’s surface - increases the metabolic rate of tissue cells
2. These pores allow water to rush into the cell,
3. causing it to burst, or lyse
ADAPTIVE DEFENSE SYSTEM
- Activated complement amplifies the - or specific defense system
inflammatory response. Some of the - fights invaders that get past the innate
molecules released during the activation defenses by mounting an attack against one
process are vasodilators, and chemotaxis or more particular foreign substances
chemicals that attract neutrophils and - when our immune system is operating
macrophages into the region effectively, it protects us from most bacteria,
- others cause the cell membranes of the viruses, transplanted organs or grafts, and
foreign cells to become sticky so they are even our own cells that have “turned
easier to phagocytize (opsonization) against” us (cancer cells)

6
- immune system does this both directly, by
cell attack, and indirectly, by releasing - cellular arm has cellular targets:
mobilizing chemicals and protective  Virus-infected cells
antibody molecules  Cancer cells
- Immunity - resulting highly specific  Cells of foreign grafts
resistance to disease - Lymphocytes act against such targets either
- adaptive system must first “meet,” or be directly, by lysing the foreign cells, or
sensitized by, an initial exposure to a foreign indirectly, by releasing chemicals that
substance (antigen) before it can protect the enhance the inflammatory response or
body against the invader activate other immune cells
- immune response to a threat involves
increased internal nonspecific defenses and
provides protection that is carefully targeted CELLS INVOLVED IN THESE IMMUNE RESPONSES
against specific antigens AND THE ANTIGENS THAT TRIGGER THEIR
- the initial exposure to an antigen sensitizes ACTIVITY
the body to react more vigorously to later
meetings with the same antigen
- it protects us from a wide variety of ANTIGENS
pathogens and abnormal body cells - is any substance capable of provoking an
- three important aspects of adaptive immune response
defense: - are foreign intruders, or nonself
- foreign antigens are large, complex
 It is antigen specific—it recognizes and molecules that are not normally present in
acts against particular pathogens or foreign our bodies
Substances - an almost limitless variety of substances can
 It is systemic—immunity is not restricted to act as antigens, including virtually all foreign
the initial infection site proteins, nucleic acids, many large
 It has “memory”—it recognizes and mounts carbohydrates, and some lipids. Proteins
even stronger attacks on previously provoke the strongest responses
encountered pathogens - Pollen grains and microorganisms (bacteria,
fungi, and virus particles) are antigenic
- two separate but overlapping arms of the
adaptive defense system were recognized:
CELLS OF THE ADAPTIVE DEFENSE SYSTEM
1. HUMORAL IMMUNITY - adaptive immune system is a two-fisted
- also called antibody-mediated immunity defensive system, with a humoral arm and a
- is provided by antibodies (immune proteins) cellular arm
present in the body’s “humors,” or fluids - uses lymphocytes, APCs, and specific
molecules to identify and destroy all
2. CELLULAR IMMUNITY substances that are in the body but are not
- cell-mediated immunity
- when lymphocytes themselves defend the
body
- the protective factor is living cells
7
recognized as self

8
 - constitute the cell-mediated arm of the
LYMPHOCYTES adaptive defenses and do not make
- originate from hemocytoblasts in red bone antibodies
marrow - arise from lymphocytes that migrate to the
- whether a given lymphocyte matures into a thymus
B cell or a T cell depends on where in the - undergo a maturation process lasting 2
body it becomes immunocompetent to 3 days
- capable of binding strongly with self - within the thymus, the immature
-antigens (and of acting against body lymphocytes divide rapidly and their
cells) are vigorously weeded out and numbers increase enormously, but only
destroyed those maturing T cells with the sharpest
- once a lymphocyte is immunocompetent, it ability to identify foreign antigens survive
will be able to react to one and only one
distinct antigen ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS (APCS)
- becomes immunocompetent before - major role in immunity is to engulf antigens
meeting the antigens they may later attack and then present fragments of them, like
- it is our gene that determine what foreign signal flags, on their own surfaces, where
substances our immune system will be able they can be recognized by T cells
to recognize and resist - they present antigens to the cells that will
- only some of the possible antigens our actually deal with the antigens
lymphocytes are programmed to resist will - major types of cells acting as APCs are in
ever invade our bodies sites that make it easy to encounter and
- after they become immunocompetent, both process antigens
T cells and B cells migrate to the lymph
nodes and spleen (and loose connective 1. DENDRITIC CELLS
tissues), where their encounters with - are present in connective tissues and in the
antigens will occur epidermis (also called Langerhans cells)
- when the lymphocytes bind with recognized - at the body’s frontiers, best situated to act
antigens, they complete their differentiation as mobile sentinels
from naive cells into fully mature T cells and - the most effective antigen presenters known
B cells - are a key link between innate and adaptive
- mature lymphocytes, especially T cells, immunity
circulate continuously through the body - initiate adaptive immune responses
particularly tailored to the type of pathogen
1. B LYMPHOCYTES that they have encountered
- B cells
- produce antibodies and oversee humoral 2. MACROPHAGES
immunity - are widely distributed throughout the
- can target specific extracellular antigens lymphoid organs and connective tissues,
where they act as phagocytes in the innate
2. T LYMPHOCYTES defense system
- or T cells - tend to remain fixed in the lymphoid organs
- can recognize and eliminate specific
virus-infected or tumor cells
9
 3. B LYMPHOCYTES the primary response because all the
- when they present antigens, dendritic preparations for this attack have already
cells and macrophages activate T cells been made
- activated T cells release chemicals that prod - a new army of plasma cells is being
macrophages to become activated generated, and antibodies flood into the
macrophages, true “killers” that are bloodstream
insatiable phagocytes and secrete
bactericidal (bacteria-killing) chemicals
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE HUMORAL IMMUNITY
MIGRATION OF DENDRITIC CELLS TO
SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS ACTIVE IMMUNITY
- third antigen capture and delivery system - exhibits when your B cells encounter
- with their long, wispy extensions, dendritic antigens and produce antibodies against
cells are very efficient antigen catchers them
- once they have engulfed antigens by - are:
phagocytosis, they enter nearby lymphatics  naturally acquired during bacterial and
to get to the lymphoid organ where they will viral infections, during which we may
present the antigens to T cells develop the signs and symptoms of the
disease and suffer a little (or a lot), and
 artificially acquired when we receive
HUMORAL (ANTIBODY-MEDIATED) IMMUNE vaccines
RESPONSE
- an immunocompetent but immature B - once it was recognized that secondary
lymphocyte is stimulated to complete its responses are much more vigorous, the race
development when antigens bind to its was on to develop vaccines to “prime” the
surface receptors immune response by providing a first
- binding event activates the lymphocyte and meeting with the antigen
undergo clonal selection - most vaccines contain pathogens that are
- lymphocyte begins to grow ; multiplies dead or attenuated
and bearing the same antigen-specific - benefits from vaccines:
receptors, resulting family of identical cells  they spare us most of the signs and
descended from the same ancestor cell are symptoms and discomfort of the disease
called clones, and clone formation is the that would otherwise occur during the
primary humoral response to that antigen primary response
- most of the B cell clone members become  the weakened antigens are still able to
plasma cells stimulate antibody production and
- B cell clone members that do not become promote immunological memory
plasma cells become memory cells capable
of responding to the same antigen if they - the more children who are vaccinated, the
“see” it again better the herd immunity
- these later immune responses, called
secondary humoral responses, are HERD IMMUNITY
produced much faster, are more prolonged, - a phenomenon in which a population of
and are more effective than the events of people are generally protected because
10
 most of a given population is immune to a
disease or infection 1. BASIC ANTIBODY STRUCTURE
- prevents an outbreak of the disease or - every antibody has a basic structure
infection consisting of four polypeptide chains linked
- helps to protect individuals who have not together by disulfide (sulfur-to-sulfur) bonds
been immunized - two of the four chains are identical (heavy
chains)
PASSIVE IMMUNITY - other two chains (light chains) are also
- antibodies are obtained from the serum of identical to each other but are only about
an immune human or animal donor half as long as the heavy chains
- result: - when the four chains are combined, the
 B cells are not challenged by the antigen antibody molecule formed has two identical
 Immunological memory does not occur halves, each consisting of a heavy and a light
 Temporary protection provided by the chain, and the molecule as a whole is
“donated antibodies” ends when they commonly described as being Y-shaped
naturally degrade in the body - each of the four chains forming an antibody
- conferred naturally on a fetus when the had a variable (V) region at one end and a
mother’s antibodies cross the placenta and constant (C) region at the other end
enter the fetal circulation, and after birth - antibodies responding to different antigens
during breastfeeding. For several months had different variable regions, but their
after birth, the baby is protected from all the constant regions were the same or nearly
antigens to which the mother has been so
exposed - the variable regions of the heavy and light
- is artificially conferred when a person chains combine their efforts to form an
receives immune serum or gamma globulin antigen-binding site
(donated antibodies)
- Gamma globulin - is commonly 2. ANTIBODY CLASSES
administered after exposure to hepatitis - there are five major immunoglobulin
- donated antibodies provide immediate classes:
protection, but their effect is short-lived and  IgM
the body’s own defenses take over  IgA
 IgD
 IgG
ANTIBODIES  IgE
- referred to as immunoglobulins
- constitute the gamma globulin part of blood - IgD, IgG, and IgE have the same basic
proteins Y-shaped structure referred to as monomers
- are soluble proteins secreted by activated B - IgA antibodies occur in both monomer and
cells or by their plasma-cell offspring in dimer (two linked monomers) forms
response to an antigen - IgM antibodies are called pentamers
- are capable of binding specifically with that
antigen 3. ANTIBODY FUNCTION
- are formed in response to a huge number of - antibodies inactivate antigens in a number
different antigens of way:
11
 Complement is the chief antibody
ammunition used against cellular
antigens, such as bacteria or
mismatched red blood cells
 Neutralization occurs when antibodies
bind to specific sites on bacterial
exotoxins or on viruses that can cause
cell injury. In this way, they block the
harmful effects of the exotoxin or virus
by preventing them from binding to
body cells
 Agglutination occurs when mismatched
blood is transfused (the foreign red
blood cells are clumped) and is the basis
of tests used for blood typing
 Opsonization CELLULAR (CELL-MEDIATED) IMMUNE
 Precipitation - when the cross-linking RESPONSE
process involves soluble antigenic
molecules, the resulting - B cells secrete their antibody “weapon”
antigen-antibody complexes are so large - T cells fight their antigens directly
that they become insoluble and settle - like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are
out of solution. activated to form a clone by binding with a
“recognized” antigen
- T cells are not able to bind with free
antigens. Instead, the antigens must be
“presented” by a macrophage (or other
antigen-presenting cell), and a double
recognition must occur
- APC engulfs an antigen and processes it
internally
- parts of the processed antigen are then
displayed on the external surface of the
presenting cell in combination with one of
the APC’s own proteins
- two types of T Cells that are involved in the
activation process:

1. Helper T cells
2. Cytotoxic T cells
- Cytokine chemicals released by
macrophages and dendritic cells also play
important roles in the immune response

12
CYTOTOXIC T CELLS
- specialize in killing virus-infected, cancer, or
foreign graft cells directly
- one way a cytotoxic T cell accomplishes this
is by

HELPER T CELLS
- are the T cells that act as the “directors” or
“managers” of the adaptive immune
response
- once activated, they circulate through
the body, recruiting other cells to fight the
invaders

REGULATORY T CELLS
- formerly called suppressor T cells
- release chemicals that suppress the activity
of both T and B cells
- are vital for winding down and stopping the
immune response after an antigen has been
successfully inactivated or destroyed
- this helps prevent uncontrolled or
unnecessary immune system activity
- most of the T cells enlisted to fight in a
particular immune response are dead within
a few days
- a few members of each clone are long-lived
memory cells that remain behind to provide
the immunological memory for each antigen
encountered and enable the body to
respond quickly to subsequent invasions

REFERENCE:

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th

Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :

13
Pea
rso
n.
(PD
F

14
15
 - Upper respiratory tract - passageways from the
nose to the larynx
- Lower respiratory tract - passageways from the
trachea to the alveoli
- these conducting passageways purify, humidify,
and warm incoming air

RESIPIRATORY SYSTEM

- provides oxygen to the body, disposes of carbon

dioxide, and helps regulate blood pH
- gas exchange occurs in the air sacs of the lungs,
called alveoli, and at capillary beds around the
body
- share responsibility for supplying the body with
oxygen and disposing of carbon dioxide
- respiratory system organs oversee the gas
exchanges that occur between the blood and
the external environment
- using blood as the transporting fluid, the
cardiovascular system organs transport
respiratory gases between the lungs and the
NOSE
cells in the rest of the body
- the only externally visible part of the respiratory
- if either system fails, cells begin to die from
system
oxygen starvation and accumulation of carbon
- during breathing, air enters the nose by
dioxide
passing through the nostrils, or nares.
- interior of the nose consists of
 Nasal cavity - divided by a midline nasal
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY
septum
SYSTEM
- organs of the respiratory system include
- Olfactory receptors for the sense of smell are
 Nose
located in the mucosa in the slitlike superior
 Pharynx
part of the nasal cavity, beneath the ethmoid
 Larynx
bone
 Trachea
- Respiratory mucosa - the rest of the mucosa
 Bronchi and their smaller branches
lining the nasal cavity; rests on a rich network of
 Lungs, which contain the alveoli (terminal
thin-walled veins that warms the air as it flows
air sacs)
past
- sticky mucus produced by mucosa’s glands
- because gas exchange with the blood happens
moistens the air and traps incoming bacteria
only in the alveoli, the other respiratory system
and other foreign debris
structures are just conducting passageways that
- lysozyme enzymes in the mucus destroy
carry air through the lungs
bacteria chemically

1
- ciliated cells of the nasal mucosa create a gentle - continuous with the nasal cavity anteriorly via
current that moves the sheet of contaminated the posterior nasal aperture
mucus posteriorly toward the throat (pharynx), - has three regions
where it is swallowed and digested by stomach  Nasopharynx - superior portion where air
juices enters from the nasal cavity
- when the external temperature is extremely  Oropharynx - air then descends through
cold, these cilia become sluggish, allowing  Laryngopharynx - to enter the larynx below
mucus to accumulate in the nasal cavity and to
dribble outward through the nostrils - food enters the mouth, then travels along with
air through the oropharynx and laryngopharynx
CONCHAE - instead of entering the larynx, food is directed
- lateral walls of the nasal cavity are uneven, into the esophagus posteriorly by a flap called
owing to three mucosa-covered projections, or the epiglottis
lobes called conchae
- greatly increase the surface area of the mucosa PHARYNGOTYMPANIC TUBES
exposed to the air; increases the air turbulence - drains the middle ears
in the nasal cavity - open into the nasopharynx
- as the air swirls through the twists and turns, - mucosae of these two regions are continuous,
inhaled particles are deflected onto the mucus so ear infections such as otitis media may follow a
-coated surfaces, where they are trapped and sore throat or other types of pharyngeal infections
prevented from reaching the lungs
TONSILS
NASAL CAVITY - clusters of lymphatic tissue are found in the
- separated from the oral cavity below by the pharynx
palate - play a role in protecting the body from infection
 Hard palate - supported by bone  Adenoid - single pharyngeal tonsil; located
 Soft palate - unsupported posterior high in the nasopharynx
part  Two Palatine tonsils - are in the oropharynx
- surrounded by a ring of paranasal sinuses at the end of the soft palate
located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and  Two lingual tonsils - lie at the base of the
maxillary bones tongue

- Sinuses - lighten the skull and act as resonance

chambers for speech; produce mucus, which
drains into the nasal cavities
- suctioning effect created by nose blowing helps
to drain the sinuses
- Nasolacrimal ducts, which drain tears from the
eyes, also empty into the nasal cavities

PHARYNX
- a muscular passageway about 13 cm (5 inches)
long that vaguely resembles a short length of
red garden hose
- commonly called the throat
- serves as a common passageway for food and
air
2
 - when we swallow food or fluids, the larynx is
pulled upward, and the epiglottis tips, forming a
lid over the larynx’s opening. This routes food
into the esophagus, which leads to the stomach,
posteriorly.
- if anything other than air enters the larynx, a
cough reflex is triggered to prevent the
substance from continuing into the lungs

VOCAL FOLDS
- pair of folds which forms by a part of the
mucous membrane of the larynx
- or true vocal cords
- vibrates with expelled air
- the ability of the vocal folds to vibrate allows us
to speak
- vocal folds and the slitlike passageway between
them are called the glottis

TRACHEA
- or windpipe
- air entering the trachea from the larynx travels
down its length (10–12 cm, or about 4 inches)
to the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, which
is approximately midchest
LARYNX - is fairly rigid because its walls are reinforced
- or voice box with C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
- routes air and food into the proper channels
- plays a role in speech HYALINE CARTILAGE
- located inferior to the pharynx - these rings serve a double purpose
- is formed by eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a  open parts of the rings abut the esophagus
spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage, the and allow it to expand anteriorly when we
epiglottis swallow a large piece of food
 solid portions support the trachea walls
ADAM’S APPLE and keep it patent, or open, in spite of the
- the largest of the hyaline cartilages is the shield pressure changes that occur during
-shaped thyroid cartilage breathing
- which protrudes anteriorly
TRACHEALIS MUSCLE
EPIGLOTTIS - lies next to the esophagus
- referred to as the “guardian of the airway” - completes the wall of the trachea posteriorly
- protects the superior opening of the larynx
- during regular breathing, it allows the passage CILIA
of air into the lower respiratory passages - trachea is lined with a ciliated mucosa
- cilia beat continuously in a superior direction
- surrounded by goblet cells that produce mucus

3
- propels mucus, loaded with dust particles and - broad lung area resting on the diaphragm is the
other debris, away from the lungs to the throat, base
where it can be swallowed or spat out - each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
 left lung has two lobes
 right lung has three lobes

PULMONARY PLEURA
- or visceral pleura
- a visceral serosa which covers the surface of
each lung

PARIETAL PLEURA
- lines the walls of the thoracic cavity

PLEURAL MEMBRANES
- produce pleural fluid, slippery serous fluid,
MAIN BRONCHI which allows the lungs to glide easily over the
- right and left main (primary) bronchi thorax wall during breathing and causes the two
- are formed by the division of the trachea pleural layers to cling together
- each main bronchus runs obliquely before it - pleurae can slide easily from side to side
plunges into the medial depression (hilum) of across one another, but they strongly resist
the lung on its own side being pulled apart
- right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and - lungs are held tightly to the thorax wall, and the
straighter than the left pleural space is more of a potential space than
- more common site for an inhaled foreign object an actual one.
to become lodged
- by the time incoming air reaches the bronchi, it BRONCHIAL TREE
is warm, cleansed of most impurities, and humid - after entering the lungs, the main bronchi
- smaller subdivisions of the main bronchi within subdivide into smaller and smaller branches and
the lungs are direct routes to the air sacs ending in the smallest of the conducting
passageways, the bronchioles
- because of this branching and rebranching of
LUNGS the respiratory passageways within the lungs,
- are fairly large organs the network formed is often referred to as
- occupies the entire thoracic cavity except for the bronchial tree, or respiratory tree
the mediastinum - all but the smallest branches have reinforcing
cartilage in their walls.
MEDIASTINUM
- most central area
- houses the heart, the great blood vessels,
bronchi, the esophagus, and other organs

APEX
- the narrow superior portion of each lung
- just deep to the clavicle

4
5
 - thinness of their walls is hard to imagine,
but a sheet of tissue paper is much thicker

- Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs

and provide alternative routes for air to reach
alveoli whose feeder bronchioles have been
clogged by mucus or otherwise blocke
- external surfaces of the alveoli are covered with
a “cobweb” of pulmonary capillaries
- alveolar and capillary walls, their fused
basement membranes, and occasional elastic
fibers construct the respiratory membrane
- respiratory membrane has gas (air) flowing past
on one side and blood flowing past on the other
- gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion through
the respiratory membrane—oxygen passes from
the alveolar air into the capillary blood, and
carbon dioxide leaves the blood to enter the
alveoli
RESPIRATORY ZONE STRUCTURES AND THE - final line of defense for the respiratory system is
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE in the alveoli
- terminal bronchioles lead into respiratory - efficient alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
zone structures, even smaller conduits that wander in and out of the alveoli picking up
eventually terminate in alveoli or air sacs bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris
- scattered amid the epithelial cells that form
RESPIRATORY ZONE most of the alveolar walls are cuboidal
- is the only site of gas exchange surfactant-secreting cells
- includes: - these cells produce a lipid (fat) molecule
 Piratory bronchioles called surfactant, which coats the gas exposed
 Alveolar ducts alveolar surfaces and is very important in
 Alveolar sacs lung function
 Alveoli

- all other respiratory passages are conducting

zone structures that serve as conduits to and
from the respiratory zone
- lungs are mostly air spaces
- Stroma - the balance of the lung tissue, is
mainly elastic connective tissue that allows the
lungs to stretch and recoil (spring back) as we
breathe
- lungs weigh about 2½ pounds, and they are soft
and spongy
- walls of the alveoli are composed largely of a
single, thin layer of simple squamous epithelial
cells

6
RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY gas fills its container. Therefore, in a large volume,
- major function of the respiratory system is to the gas molecules will be far apart, and the pressure
supply the body with oxygen and to dispose of will be low
carbon dioxide - assuming the amount of gas remains constant, if
- to do this, at least four distinct events, the volume is reduced, the gas molecules will be
collectively called respiration, must occur: closer together, and the pressure will rise.

1. PULMONARY VENTILATION TWO PHASES OF BREATHING

- air must move into and out of the lungs so that
the gases in the alveoli of the lungs are 1. INSPIRATION (INHALATION)
continuously refreshed - when air is flowing into the lungs
- process is commonly called breathing - when the inspiratory muscles, the diaphragm
and external intercostals, contract, the size of
2. EXTERNAL RESPIRATION the thoracic cavity increases.
- gas exchange (oxygen loading and carbon - as the dome-shaped diaphragm contracts
dioxide unloading) between the pulmonary inferiorly, the superiorinferior dimension (height)
blood and alveoli must take place of the thoracic cavity increases
- in external respiration, gas exchanges are being - contraction of the external intercostals lifts the
made between the blood and the body exterior rib cage and thrusts the sternum forward, which
increases the anteroposterior and lateral
3. RESPIRATORY GAS TRANSPORT dimensions of the thorax
- oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported - the lungs adhere tightly to the thorax walls
to and from the lungs and tissue cells of the (because of the surface tension of the fluid
body via the bloodstream between the pleural membranes), so they are s
tretched to the new, larger size of the thorax
4. INTERNAL RESPIRATION - as intrapulmonary volume (the volume within
- at systemic capillaries, gas exchange occurs the lungs) increases, the gases within the lungs
between the blood and cells inside the body spread out to fill the larger space
- although only the first two processes are the - the resulting decrease in gas pressure in the
special responsibility of the respiratory system, lungs produces a partial vacuum (pressure less
all four processes are necessary for gas than atmospheric pressure outside the body),
exchange to occur which causes air to flow into the lungs
- cellular respiration, the use of oxygen to - air continues to move into the lungs until the
produce ATP and carbon dioxide, is the intrapulmonary pressure equals atmospheric
cornerstone of all energy-producing chemical pressure
reactions and occurs in all cells
2. EXPIRATION (EXHALATION)
- when air is leaving the lungs
MECHANICS OF BREATHING - expiration in healthy people is largely a passive
- breathing, or pulmonary ventilation, is a process that depends more on the natural
mechanical process that depends on volume elasticity of the lungs than on muscle
changes occurring in the thoracic cavity contraction
- Rule: Volume changes lead to pressure changes, - as the inspiratory muscles relax and resume
which lead to the flow of gases to equalize the their initial resting length, the rib cage descends,
pressure the diaphragm relaxes superiorly, and the lungs
- a gas, like a liquid, always conforms to the recoil
shape of its container; unlike a liquid, a
7
- both the thoracic and intrapulmonary volumes RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
decrease - many factors affect respiratory capacity
- as the intrapulmonary volume decreases, the  Person’s size
gases inside the lungs are forced more closely  Sex
together, and the intrapulmonary pressure rises  Age
to a point higher than atmospheric pressure  Physical condition
- this causes the gases to passively flow out to
equalize the pressure with the outside TIDAL VOLUME (TV)
- if the respiratory passageways are narrowed by - the respiratory volume
spasms of the bronchioles (as in asthma) or - normal quiet breathing moves approximately
clogged with mucus or fluid (as in chronic 500 ml of air (about a pint) into and out of the
bronchitis or pneumonia), expiration becomes lungs with each breath
an active process
- in such cases of forced expiration, the internal - a person is capable of inhaling much more air
intercostal muscles are activated to help than is taken in during a tidal breath
depress the rib cage, and the abdominal - the amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
muscles contract and help to force air from the above the tidal volume is the inspiratory
lungs by squeezing the abdominal organs reserve volume (IRV), which is around 3,100
upward against the diaphragm ml.
- normally the pressure within the pleural space, - after a normal expiration, more air can be
the intrapleural pressure, is always negative exhaled
- if for any reason the intrapleural pressure - the amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure, the beyond tidal expiration, the expiratory reserve
lungs immediately recoil and collapse volume (ERV), is approximately 1,200 ml.

RESIDUAL VOLUME
- even after the most strenuous expiration, about
1,200 ml of air still remains in the lungs and
cannot voluntarily be expelled
- residual volume air is important because it
allows gas exchange to go on continuously even
between breaths and helps to keep the alveoli
open (inflated)

VITAL CAPACITY (VC)

- the total amount of exchangeable air (around
4,800 ml in healthy young men and 3,100 ml in
healthy young women)
- the sum of the tidal volume plus the inspiratory
and expiratory reserve volumes

DEAD SPACE VOLUME

- some of the air that enters the respiratory tract
remains in the conducting zone passageways
and never reaches the alveoli
- during a normal tidal breath is about 150 ml.

8
FUNCTIONAL VOLUME RESPIRATORY SOUNDS
- air that actually reaches the respiratory zone - as air flows into and out of the respiratory tree,
and contributes to gas exchange it produces two recognizable sounds that can be
- is about 350 ml. picked up with a stethoscope
- bronchial sounds are produced by air rushing
SPIROMETER through the large respiratory passageways
- measures respiratory capacities (trachea and bronchi)
- Spirometer testing is useful for evaluating losses - Vesicular breathing sounds occur as air fills the
in respiratory functioning and in following the alveoli
course of some respiratory diseases - vesicular sounds are soft murmurs that
- Example: resemble a muffled breeze
 In pneumonia, inspiration is obstructed,
and the IRV and VC decrease.
 In emphysema, where expiration is EXTERNAL RESPIRATION, GAS TRANSPORT, AND
hampered, the ERV is much lower than INTERNAL RESPIRATION
normal, and the residual volume is higher. - all gas exchanges obey the laws of diffusion;
movement occurs toward the area of lower
concentration of the diffusing substance
NONRESPIRATORY AIR MOVEMENTS
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
1. COUGHS AND SNEEZES - is the actual exchange of gases between the
- clear the air passages of debris or collected alveoli and the blood (pulmonary gas exchange)
mucus - dark red blood flowing through the pulmonary
circuit is transformed into the scarlet river that
2. LAUGHING AND CRYING is returned to the heart for distribution to the
- reflect our emotions systemic circuit
- although this color change is due to oxygen
- these nonrespiratory air movements are a result pickup by hemoglobin in the lungs, carbon
of reflex activity, but some may be produced dioxide is being unloaded from the blood
voluntarily equally fast

9
- because body cells continually remove oxygen GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD
from blood, there is always more oxygen in the - Oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways
alveoli than in the blood - most attaches to hemoglobin molecules inside
- oxygen tends to diffuse from the air of the the red blood cells (RBCs) to form
alveoli through the respiratory membrane into oxyhemoglobin —HbO2
the more oxygen-poor blood of the pulmonary - a very small amount of oxygen is carried
capillaries dissolved in the plasma
- as tissue cells remove oxygen from the blood in - Carbon dioxide is twenty times more soluble
the systemic circulation, they release carbon in plasma compared to oxygen
dioxide into the blood - most carbon dioxide is transported in plasma as
- because the concentration of carbon dioxide is bicarbonate ion (HCO3− ), which plays a very
much higher in the pulmonary capillaries than it important role in buffering blood pH
is in the alveolar air, it will diffuse from the - Carbon dioxide is enzymatically converted to
blood into the alveoli and be flushed out of the bicarbonate ion within red blood cells; then the
lungs during expiration newly formed bicarbonate ions diffuse into the
- blood draining from the lungs into the plasma
pulmonary veins is rich in oxygen and poor in - smaller amount of the transported CO2 is
carbon dioxide carried inside the RBCs bound to hemoglobin
- Carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin at a
different site from oxygen, so it does not
interfere with oxygen transport
- before carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the
blood into the alveoli, it must first be released
from its bicarbonate ion form
- for this to occur, bicarbonate ions (HCO3– )
must enter the red blood cells, where they
combine with hydrogen ions (H+ ) to form
carbonic acid (H2CO3)
- Carbonic acid quickly splits to form water and
carbon dioxide, and carbon dioxide then
diffuses from the blood into the alveoli

10
INTERNAL RESPIRATION transitions (modify timing) between inhalation
- the gas exchange process that occurs between and exhalation during activities such as singing,
the blood and the tissue cells (systemic capillary sleeping or exercising.
gas exchange)
- oxygen leaves and carbon dioxide enters the - the bronchioles and alveoli have stretch
blood receptors that respond to extreme overinflation
- in the blood, carbon dioxide combines with (which might damage the lungs) by initiating
water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which protective reflexes
quickly releases bicarbonate ions - example of DRG integration during respiratory
- most of the conversion of carbon dioxide to control:
bicarbonate ions occurs inside the RBCs, where  In the case of overinflation, the vagus nerves
a special enzyme (carbonic anhydrase) speeds send impulses from the stretch receptors to the
up this reaction medulla; soon thereafter, inspiration ends and
- then the bicarbonate ions diffuse out into expiration occurs
plasma, where they are transported
- Oxygen is released from hemoglobin, and the HYPERPNEA
oxygen diffuses quickly out of the blood to enter - respiratory pattern
the cells - during exercise, we breathe more vigorously
- as a result of these exchanges, venous blood in and deeply because the brain centers send
the systemic circulation is much poorer in more impulses to the respiratory muscles
oxygen and richer in carbon dioxide than blood - after strenuous exercise, expiration becomes
leaving the lungs active, and the abdominal muscles and any
other muscles capable of depressing the ribs are
used to aid expiration
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION

1. NEURAL REGULATION: SETTING THE BASIC

RHYTHM

- the activity of the respiratory muscles, the

diaphragm and external intercostals, is
regulated by nerve impulses transmitted from
the brain by the phrenic nerves and intercostal
nerves
- Neural centers that control respiratory rhythm
and depth are located mainly in the medulla
and pons
- A brief summary of what we know follows:

 The medulla contains two respiratory centers.

 The other medullary center, the dorsal
respiratory group (DRG), integrates sensory
information from chemoreceptors and
peripheral stretch receptors.
 The pons respiratory centers, which also
communicate with the VRG, help to smooth the
11
 - changes in oxygen concentration in the blood
2. NONNEURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING are detected by peripheral chemoreceptor
RESPIRATORY RATE AND DEPTH regions in the aorta (aortic body in the aortic
arch) and in the fork of the common carotid
PHYSICAL FACTORS artery (the carotid body). These, in turn, send
- physical factors such as talking, coughing, and impulses to the medulla when the blood oxygen
exercising can modify both the rate and depth level is dropping
of breathing - when oxygen levels are low, these same
- increased body temperature also causes an chemoreceptors are also able to detect high
increase in the rate of breathing carbon dioxide levels
- although every cell in the body must have
VOLITION (CONSCIOUS CONTROL) oxygen to live, it is the body’s need to rid itself
- during singing and swallowing, breath control is of carbon dioxide that is the most important
extremely important, and many of us have held stimulus for breathing. A decrease in the
our breath for short periods to swim oxygen level becomes an important stimulus
underwater only
- voluntary control of breathing is limited, and - as carbon dioxide or other sources of acids
the respiratory centers will simply ignore begin to accumulate in the blood and tissues,
messages from the cortex when the oxygen and pH starts to drop, you begin to breathe
supply in the blood is getting low or blood pH is more deeply and more rapidly
falling
HYPERVENTILATION
EMOTIONAL FACTORS - is an increase in the rate and depth of breathing
- these examples result from reflexes initiated by that exceeds the body’s need to remove carbon
emotional stimuli acting through centers in the dioxide
hypothalamus: - during hyperventilation, we exhale more CO2
than we should, resulting in elevated blood pH
1. Watched a horror movie with bated (held) breath (there is less carbonic acid)
or been so scared by what you saw that you
were nearly panting - when blood starts to become slightly alkaline, or
2. Touched something cold and clammy and gasped basic, breathing slows and becomes shallow
- slower breathing allows carbon dioxide to
CHEMICAL FACTORS accumulate in the blood and brings the blood
- an increased level of carbon dioxide and a pH back into the normal range
decreased blood pH are the most important - control of breathing during rest is aimed
stimuli leading to an increase in the rate and primarily at regulating the hydrogen ion
depth of breathing concentration in the brain
- an increase in the carbon dioxide level can
cause a decreased blood pH because high CO2 HYPOVENTILATION
results in more carbonic acid, which lowers - extremely slow or shallow breathing
blood pH
- a low blood pH could also result from metabolic
activities independent of breathing. Changes in - hypoventilation or hyperventilation can
the carbon dioxide concentration or H+ ion dramatically change the amount of carbonic
concentration in brain tissue seem to act acid in the blood
directly on the medulla centers by influencing  Carbonic acid increases dramatically during
the pH of local tissues in the brain stem hypoventilation
12
  Carbonic acid decreases substantially during - three most common types of lung cancer:
hyperventilation
- in both situations, the buffering ability of the 1. ADENOCARCINOMA (40 PERCENT OF CASES)
blood is likely to be overwhelmed; the result is - which originates as solitary nodules in
acidosis or alkalosis peripheral lung areas and develops from
bronchial glands and alveolar cells

RESPIRATORY DISORDERS 2. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA (25–30 PERCENT)

- which arises in the epithelium of the larger
bronchi and tends to form masses that hollow
1. CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE out and bleed
(COPD)
- exemplified by chronic bronchitis and 3. SMALL CELL CARCINOMA (ABOUT 20 PERCENT)
emphysema - which contains lymphocyte-like cells that
- a major cause of death and disability in the originate in the main bronchi and grow
United States aggressively in small grapelike clusters within
- these diseases have certain features in the mediastinum
common:
 Patients almost always have a history of - most effective treatment for lung cancer is
smoking complete removal of the diseased lung lobes in
 Dyspnea, difficult or labored breathing, often an attempt to halt metastasis. However,
referred to as “air hunger,” occurs and becomes removal is an option only if metastasis has not
progressively worse already occurred.
 Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections are
common
 Most COPD victims are hypoxic, retain carbon REFERENCE:
dioxide and have respiratory acidosis, and
ultimately develop respiratory failure Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
Pearson. (PDF)
2. LUNG CANCER
- the leading cause of cancer death for both men
and women in North America
- causing more deaths than breast, prostate, and
colorectal cancer combined
- nearly 90 percent of lung cancers result from
smoking
- is aggressive and metastasizes rapidly and
widely, so most cases are not diagnosed until
they are well advance
- cure rate for lung cancer is notoriously low;
most victims die within 1 year of diagnosis
- ordinarily, nasal hairs, sticky mucus, and the
action of cilia do a fine job of protecting the
lungs from irritants, but smoking overwhelms
these cleansing devices, and they eventually
stop functioning
13
 1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
- performs the whole menu of digestive functions
it propels the foodstuffs along its length
➢ ingests
➢ digests
➢ absorbs
➢ defecates

2. ACCESSORY ORGANS
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ➢ Teeth
- breaks down the food you eat into nutrients ➢ Tongue
needed for metabolic processes, such as ➢ Several large digestive glands
making ATP - assist digestion in various ways
- rids the body of materials that cannot be
used, such as fiber
- essential for providing the body with the ORGANS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
energy and building blocks it requires to - also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut
maintain life - a continuous, coiled, hollow muscular tube that
winds through the ventral body cavity from
mouth to anus
- food material within this tube is technically
outside the body, because it has contact only
with cells lining the tract and the tube is open to
the external environment at both ends
- its organs are:
➢ Mouth
➢ Pharynx
➢ Esophagus
➢ Stomach
➢ Small int estine
➢ Large intestine

1. MOUTH
- or oral cavity
- where food enters
- a mucous membrane–lined cavity
- as food enters the mouth, it is mixed with saliva
and masticated (chewed)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE - cheeks and closed lips hold the food between
SYSTEM the teeth during chewing.
- nimble tongue continuously mixes food with
ANATOMY saliva and initiates swallowing
- two main groups:
➢ Alimentary canal LIPS/LABIA
➢ Accessory digestive organs - protect its anterior opening

1|Page
CHEEKS ➢ Oropharynx - posterior to the oral
- form its lateral walls cavity
➢ Laryngopharynx - continuous with the
HARD PALATE esophagus inferiorly
- forms its anterior roof - its walls contain two skeletal muscle layers
➢ cells of the outer layer run
SOFT PALATE
longitudinally
- forms its posterior roof
➢ inner layer run around the wall in a
- Uvula - a fleshy fingerlike projection of the soft
palate, which dangles from the posterior edge circular fashion
of the soft palate - alternating contractions muscle layers propel
food through the pharynx inferiorly into the
VESTIBULE esophagus
- space between the lips and cheeks externally
and the teeth and gums internally

ORAL CAVITY PROPER

- area contained by the teeth

TONGUE
- occupies the floor of the mouth.
- has several bony attachments:
➢ to the hyoid bone
➢ the styloid processes of the skull

LINGUAL FRENULUM
- a fold of mucous membrane 3. ESOPHAGUS
- secures the tongue to the floor of the mouth - or gullet
and limits its posterior movements - runs from the pharynx through the diaphragm
to the stomach
PALATINE TONSILS - is essentially a passageway that conducts food
- paired masses of lymphatic tissue at the to the stomach
posterior end of the oral cavity - walls of the alimentary canal organs from the
esophagus to the large intestine are made up of
LINGUAL TONSIL
the same four tissue layers, or tunics:
- covers the base of the tongue just beyond
- tonsils, along with other lymphatic tissues, are
part of the body’s defense system A. MUCOSA
- innermost layer
- a moist mucous membrane that lines the
2. PHARYNX hollow cavity of the organ
- from the mouth, food passes posteriorly into - it consists primarily of surface epithelium
the oropharynx and laryngopharynx plus a small amount of connective tissue
- is subdivided into: and a scanty smooth muscle layer
➢ Nasopharynx - part of the respiratory
passageway
2|Page
B. SUBMUCOSA A. CARDIAL REGION
- is found just beneath the mucosa - or cardia
- soft connective tissue containing blood vessels, - surrounds the cardioesophageal sphincter,
nerve endings, mucosa-associated lymphoid through which food enters the stomach from
tissue (MALT), and lymphatic vessels the esophagus

C. MUSCULARIS EXTERNA B. FUNDUS

- a muscle layer typically made up of an inner - the expanded part of the stomach lateral to the
circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer of cardial region
smooth muscle cells
C. BODY
D. SEROSA - the midportion of the stomach
- the outermost layer of the wall - convex lateral surface = greater curvature
- visceral peritoneum concave medial surface = lesser curvature
- consists of a single layer of flat, serous fluid–
producing cells D. PYLORIC ANTRUM
- alimentary canal wall contains two important - lower part
intrinsic nerve plexuses
E. PYLORUS
➢ submucosal nerve plexus - funnel-shaped
➢ myenteric nerve plexus - the terminal part of the stomach
- help regulate the mobility and secretory - is continuous with the small intestine through
activity of GI tract organs the pyloric sphincter, or pyloric valve

- stomach varies from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10

inches) in length, but its diameter and volume
depend on how much food it contains
- when it is full, it can hold about 4 liters (1
gallon) of food
- When it is empty, it collapses inward on itself,
and its mucosa is thrown into large folds called
rugae
- Lesser omentum - double layer of peritoneum,
extends from the liver to the lesser curvature of
the stomach
- Greater omentum, - extension of peritoneum,
drapes downward and covers the abdominal
organs before attaching to the posterior body
4. STOMACH wall
- c -shaped stomach is on the left side of the ➢ is riddled with fat, which helps to insulate,
abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by the liver and cushion, and protect the abdominal organs
diaphragm ➢ also has large collections of lymphoid
- different regions of the stomach: follicles containing macrophages and
defensive cells of the immune system
3|Page
- stomach acts as a temporary “storage tank” for
food as well as a site for food breakdown.
- its wall contains a third, obliquely arranged
layer in the muscularis externa = allows the
stomach to move food along the tract and to
churn, mix, and pummel the food, physically
breaking it down into smaller fragments
- chief cells produce inactive protein-digesting
enzymes, mostly pepsinogens
- parietal cells produce corrosive hydrochloric
acid (HCl), which makes the stomach contents
acidic and activates the enzymes, as in the
conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin
- most digestive activity occurs in the pyloric
region of the stomach

CHYME
- a thick heavy cream-like happens after food has
been processed in the stomach
- enters the small intestine through the pyloric
sphincter

5. SMALL INTESTINE
- the body’s major digestive organ
- within its twisted passageways, usable nutrients
are prepared for their way into the cells of the
body
- a muscular tube extending from the pyloric
sphincter to the large intestine
- the longest section of the alimentary tube
- except for the initial part of the small intestine,
it hangs in sausagelike coils in the abdominal
cavity, suspended from the posterior abdominal
wall by the fan-shaped mesentery
- large intestine encircles and frames it in the
abdominal cavity
- has three subdivisions:

4|Page
 ➢ Duodenum - some enzymes are produced - do not disappear when food fills the small
by the intestinal cells. Enzymes that are intestine
produced by the pancreas and then - they form an internal “corkscrew slide” to
delivered to the duodenum through the increase surface area and force chyme to travel
pancreatic ducts, where they complete the slowly through the small intestine so nutrients
chemical breakdown of foods in the small can be absorbed efficiently
intestine
- Bile enters the duodenum through the
bile duct in the same area
- main pancreatic and bile ducts join at
the duodenum to form the flasklike
hepatopancreatic ampulla
➢ Jejunum
➢ Ileum - joins the large intestine at the
ileocecal valve

- Pyloric Sphinter - controls the movement of

chyme into the small intestine from the
stomach and prevents the small intestine from
being overwhelmed
- small intestine is able to process only a small
amount of food at one time.
- nearly all nutrient absorption occurs here
- its wall has three structures that increase the
absorptive surface tremendously:

A. VILLI
- are fingerlike projections of the mucosa that
give it a velvety appearance and feel, much like
the soft nap of a towel
- within each is a rich capillary bed and a
modified lymphatic capillary called a lacteal

B. MICROVILLI
- are tiny projections of the plasma membrane of
appearance
- sometimes referred to as the brush border
-
C. CIRCULAR FOLDS

- also called plicae circulares

- deep folds of both mucosa and submucosa
layers

5|Page
6. LARGE INTESTINE defecation, when feces are eliminated
- leads to the terminal opening, or anus from the body
- much larger in diameter than the small intestine
but shorter in length - there are numbers of goblet cells in its mucosa
- major functions: that produce alkaline (bicarbonate-rich) mucus
➢ dry out the indigestible food residue by - mucus lubricates the passage of feces to the
absorbing water end of the digestive tract
➢ to eliminate these residues from the body - longitudinal layer of the muscularis externa is
as feces reduced to three bands of muscle called Teniae
- the small intestine on three sides and has these coli
subdivisions:

A. CECUM
- saclike; first part of the large intestine
-
B. APPENDIX
- wormlike; hanging from the cecum because it is
usually twisted, it is an ideal location for
bacteria to accumulate and multiply
- Appendicitis - inflammation of the appendix

C. COLON
- divided into several distinct regions
➢ Ascending colon
➢ Transverse colon
➢ Descending colon
➢ Sigmoid colon

D. RECTUM
- sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal lie in the
pelvis ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS

E. ANAL CANAL 1. TEETH

- anal canal ends at the anus, which opens to the - tears and grinds the food, breaking it down into
exterior smaller fragments
- has two valves: - by the age of 21, two sets of teeth have been
➢ External anal sphincter - composed of formed:
skeletal muscle; is voluntary
➢ Internal anal sphincter - formed by smooth A. DECIDUOUS TEETH
muscle; is involuntary - also called baby teeth or milk teeth
- sphincters, which act rather like purse - begin to erupt around 6 months
strings to open and close the anus, are - first teeth to appear are the lower central
ordinarily closed except during incisors

6|Page
- a baby has a full set (20 teeth) by the age of 2 - the hardest substance in the body and is fairly
years brittle

B. PERMANENT TEETH
- the roots of the milk teeth are reabsorbed, and B. ROOT
between the ages of 6 and 12 years they loosen - portion of the tooth embedded in the jawbone
and fall out - root and crown are connected by a region called
- all of the permanent teeth but the third molars the neck
have erupted by the end of adolescence - outer surface is covered by a substance called
- third molars (wisdom teeth) - emerge between cement, which attaches the tooth to the
the ages of 17 and 25 periodontal membrane (ligament). This
- although there are 32 permanent teeth in a full ligament holds the tooth in place in the bony
set, the wisdom teeth often fail to erupt; jaw
sometimes they are completely absent
DENTIN
CLASSIFICATION OF THE TEETH ACCORDING TO - a bonelike material, underlies the enamel and
SHAPE AND FUNCTION forms the bulk of the tooth
- surrounds a central pulp cavity, which contains
A. INCISORS a number of structures collectively called pulp
- chisel-shaped
- are adapted for cutting PULP
- supplies nutrients to the tooth tissues and
B. CANINES provides for tooth sensations
- eyeteeth - where the pulp cavity extends into the root, it
- the fanglike becomes the root canal, which provides a route
- for tearing or piercing for blood vessels, nerves, and other pulp
structures to enter the pulp cavity of the tooth
C. PREMOLARS
- Bicuspids
- have broad crowns with rounded cusps (tips)
and are best suited for crushing and grinding

D. MOLARS
- have broad crowns with rounded cusps (tips)
and are best suited for crushing and grinding

TWO MAJOR REGIONS OF A TOOTH

A. CROWN
- exposed part of the tooth above the gingiva
(gum)
- covered with enamel, a ceramic-like substance,
that directly bears the force of chewing
7|Page
 - a soft, pink, triangular gland that extends across
the abdomen from the spleen to the duodenum
- most of the pancreas lies posterior to the
parietal peritoneum; hence its location is
referred to as retroperitoneal
- produces enzymes that break down all
categories of digestible foods
- pancreatic enzymes are secreted into the
duodenum in an alkaline fluid that neutralizes
the acidic chyme coming in from the stomach
- has an endocrine function; it produces the
hormones insulin and glucagon

4. LIVER AND GALLBLADDER

LIVER
- the largest gland in the body
- located under the diaphragm, more to the right
side of the body, it overlies and almost
2. SALIVARY GLANDS completely covers the stomach
- three pairs of salivary glands empty their - has four lobes and is suspended from the
secretions into the mouth diaphragm and abdominal wall by the falciform
➢ Large parotid glands - lie anterior to the ligament
ears - Falciform ligament - delicate mesentery cord
➢ Submandibular glands - empty their - has many critical metabolic and regulatory roles
secretions into the floor of the mouth - its digestive function is to produce bile
through tiny ducts
➢ Small sublingual glands - empty their BILE
secretions into the floor of the mouth - leaves the liver through the common hepatic
through tiny ducts duct and enters the duodenum through the bile
- a yellow-to-green, watery solution containing
SALIVA bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol,
- the product of the salivary glands phospholipids, and a variety of electrolytes
- is a mixture of mucus and serous fluids - does not contain enzymes, but its bile salts
- mucus moistens and helps to bind food emulsify fats by physically breaking large fat
together into a mass called a bolus which makes globules into smaller ones, thus providing more
chewing and swallowing easier surface area for the fat-digesting enzymes to
- contains substances such as lysozyme and work on
antibodies (IgA) that inhibit bacteria; therefore, - acts like a detergent to emulsify, or
it has a protective function as well mechanically separate, large fat globules into
- dissolves food chemicals so they can be tasted thousands of tiny ones, providing a much
greater surface area for the pancreatic lipases
3. PANCREAS to work on

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- necessary for absorption of fats—and the fat- - Swallowing - example of food movement that
soluble vitamins (K, D, E, and A) that are depends largely on the propulsive process
absorbed along with them—from the intestinal called peristalsis
tract - Peristalsis - involuntary and involves alternating
waves of contraction and relaxation of the
GALLBLADDER longitudinal muscles in the organ wall
- a small, thin-walled green sac that snuggles in a - net effect is to squeeze the food along the tract
shallow fossa in the inferior surface of the liver
- when food digestion is not occurring, bile backs 3. FOOD BREAKDOWN: MECHANICAL
up the cystic duct and enters the gallbladder to BREAKDOWN
be stored - physically fragments food into smaller particles,
- in here, bile is concentrated by the removal of increasing surface area and preparing food for
water further degradation by enzymes
- when fatty food enters the duodenum, a - Chewing and mixing of food in the mouth by the
hormonal stimulus prompts the gallbladder to teeth and tongue, and churning of food in the
contract and spurt out stored bile, making it stomach
available to the duodenum - Segmentation in the small intestine moves food
back and forth across the internal wall of the
organ, mixing it with the digestive juices
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ➢ may also help to propel foodstuffs through
the small intestine
OVERVIEW OF GASTROINTESTINAL PROCESSES
AND CONTROLS
4. FOOD BREAKDOWN: DIGESTION
- the sequence of steps in which large food
- major functions of the digestive tract
molecules are chemically broken down to their
summarized in:
building blocks by enzymes
➢ Digestion
➢ Absorption
5. ABSORPTION
- the transport of digestive end products from
- essential activities of the GI tract include the
the lumen of the GI tract to the blood or lymph
following six processes
- to occur, the digested foods must first enter the
mucosal cells by active or passive transport
1. INGESTION
processes
- food must be placed into the mouth before it
- small intestine is the major absorptive site
can be acted on
- an active, voluntary process
6. DEFECATION
- the elimination of indigestible residues from the
2. PROPULSION
GI tract via the anus in the form of feces
- to be processed by more than one digestive
- some of these processes are the job of a single
organ
organ
- foods must be propelled from one organ to the
- most digestive system activities occur bit by bit
next
as food is moved along the tract
- digestive tract can be viewed as a “disassembly
line” in which food is carried from one stage of
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 its processing to the next and its nutrients are these receptors are activated, they trigger
made available to the cells in the body along the reflexes that activate or inhibit
way ➢ the glands that secrete digestive juices into
- Digestive system creates an optimal the lumen or hormones into the blood
environment for itself to function in the lumen ➢ the smooth muscles of the muscularis that
(cavity) of the alimentary canal, an area that is mix and propel the food along the tract
actually outside the body. Conditions in that
lumen are controlled so that digestive processes
occur efficiently ACTIVITIES OCCURRING IN THE MOUTH, PHARYNX,
- digestive activity is mostly controlled by reflexes AND ESOPHAGUS
via the parasympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system FOOD INGESTION AND BREAKDOWN
- sensors (mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors) - once food has been placed in the mouth, both
involved in these reflexes are located in the mechanical and digestive (chemical) processing
walls of the alimentary canal organs and begins
respond to a number of stimuli, the most - the food is physically broken down into smaller
important being stretch of the organ by food in particles by chewing
its lumen, pH of the contents, and presence of - as the food is mixed with saliva, salivary
amylase begins the digestion of starch,
chemically breaking it down into maltose
- Saliva is normally secreted continuously to keep
the mouth moist, but when food enters the
mouth, much larger amounts of saliva pour out
- no food absorption occurs in the mouth
- Pharynx and esophagus have no digestive
function; they simply provide passageways to
carry food to the next processing site, the
stomach

FOOD PROPULSION—SWALLOWING AND

PERISTALSIS
- Deglutition or swallowing - a complex process
that involves the coordinated activity of several
structures (tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and
esophagus)
- has two major phases

➢ Buccal
- voluntary
- occurs in the mouth
- once the food has been chewed and
well mixed with saliva, the bolus (food
certain breakdown products of digestion. When mass) is forced into the pharynx by the
tongue
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 - as food enters the pharynx, it passes - the extremely acidic environment that
out of our control and into the realm of hydrochloric acid provides is necessary, because
reflex activity it activates pepsinogen to pepsin, the active
protein-digesting enzyme
➢ Pharyngeal-esophageal - Rennin - second protein-digesting enzyme
- involuntary produced by the stomach, works primarily on
- transports food through the pharynx milk protein and converts it to a substance that
and esophagus looks like sour milk
- parasympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system controls this FOOD PROPULSION
phase and promotes the mobility of the
digestive organs from this point on 1. Once the food has been well mixed, a rippling
- tongue blocks off the mouth, and the peristalsis begins in the upper half of the
soft palate closes off the nasal passages stomach
- larynx rises so that its opening is - contractions increase in force as the food
covered by the flaplike epiglottis approaches the pyloric valve, grinding the food
- food is moved through the pharynx and into chyme
then into the esophagus inferiorly by - the pylorus of the stomach, which holds about
wavelike peristaltic contractions of their 30 ml of chyme, acts like a meter that allows
muscular walls—first the longitudinal only liquids and very small particles to pass
muscles contract, and then the circular through the pyloric sphincter
muscles contract 2. Because the pyloric sphincter barely opens,
each contraction of the stomach muscle squirts
- once food reaches the distal end of the 3 ml or less of chyme into the small intestine
esophagus, it presses against the 3. The contraction also closes the valve, so the rest
cardioesophageal sphincter, causing it to open, of the chyme (about 27 ml) is propelled
and the food enters the stomach backward into the stomach for more mixing, a
process called retropulsion

ACTIVITIES OF THE STOMACH - when the duodenum is filled with chyme and its
wall is stretched, a nervous reflex, the
FOOD BREAKDOWN enterogastric reflex occurs
- secretion of gastric juice is regulated by both - this reflex “puts the brakes on” gastric activity
neural and hormonal factors - it slows the emptying of the stomach by
- the sight, smell, and taste of food stimulate inhibiting the vagus nerve and tightening the
parasympathetic nervous system reflexes, pyloric sphincter, thus allowing time for
which increase the secretion of gastric juice by intestinal processing to catch up
the gastric (stomach) glands
- the presence of food and a rising pH in the
stomach stimulate the stomach cells to release ACTIVITIES OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
the hormone gastrin
- Gastrin - prods the gastric glands to produce CHYME BREAKDOWN AND ABSORPTION
still more of the proteindigesting enzymes (such - chyme reaching the small intestine is only
as pepsinogen), mucus, and hydrochloric acid partially digested
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- Carbohydrate and protein digestion has begun, - both hormones work together to stimulate the
but virtually no fats or nucleic acids have been pancreas to release its enzyme- and
digested up to this point bicarbonate-rich product
- process of chemical digestion is accelerated as
the food takes a 3- to 6-hour journey through SECRETIN
the looping coils and twists of the small - together with Cholecystokinin (CCK), influences
intestine the release of pancreatic juice and bile
- by the time the food reaches the end of the - causes the liver to increase its output of bile,
small intestine, digestion will be complete, and and cholecystokinin causes the gallbladder to
nearly all food absorption will have occurred contract and release stored bile into the bile
- Intestinal juice - is relatively enzyme poor, and duct so that bile and pancreatic juice enter the
protective mucus is probably the most small intestine together
important intestinal gland secretion
- foods entering the small intestine are deluged - absorption of water and of the end products of
with enzyme-rich pancreatic juice delivered via digestion occurs all along the length of the small
a duct from the pancreas, as well as bile from intestine
the liver - most substances are absorbed through the
- Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that: intestinal cell plasma membranes by the
➢ along with brush border enzymes, complete process of active transport
the digestion of starch (pancreatic amylase - they enter the capillary beds in the villi to be
➢ carry out about half of protein digestion (via transported in the blood to the liver via the
the action of trypsin, chymotrypsin, hepatic portal vein; exception seems to be
carboxypeptidase, and others) lipids, or fats, which are absorbed passively by
➢ are totally responsible for fat digestion, the process of diffusion
because the pancreas is essentially the only - Lipid breakdown products enter both the
source of lipases capillary beds and the lacteals in the villi and are
➢ digest nucleic acids (nucleases) carried to the liver by both blood and lymphatic
➢ contains a rich supply of bicarbonate ions, fluids
which makes it very basic (about pH 8) - at the end of the ileum, all that remains is some
- when pancreatic juice reaches the small water, indigestible food materials (plant fibers
intestine, it neutralizes the acidic chyme coming such as cellulose), and large amounts of
in from the stomach and provides the proper bacteria
environment for activation and activity of - this debris enters the large intestine through
intestinal and pancreatic digestive enzymes the ileocecal valve
- release of pancreatic juice into the duodenum is
stimulated by both the vagus nerve and local CHYME PROPULSION
hormones - Peristalsis - is the major means of propelling
- when chyme enters the small intestine, it chyme through the digestive tract
stimulates the mucosa cells to produce several - -it involves waves of contraction that move
hormones along the length of the intestine, followed by
- hormones enter the blood and circulate to their waves of relaxation
target organs, the pancreas, liver, and gall - food is moved through the small intestine in
bladder much the same way that toothpaste is squeezed
from a tube
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- rhythmic segmental movements produce local MASS MOVEMENTS
constrictions of the that mix the chyme with the - are long, slow-moving but powerful contractile
digestive juices and help to propel food through waves that move over large areas of the colon
the intestine three or four times daily and force the contents
toward the rectum
ACTIVITIES OF THE LARGE INTESTINE - occur during or just after eating, when food
begins to fill the stomach and small intestine
NUTRIENT BREAKDOWN AND ABSORPTION - bulk, or fiber, in the diet increases the strength
- what is finally delivered to the large intestine of colon contractions and softens the stool,
contains few nutrients, but that residue still has allowing the colon to perform its function more
12 to 24 hours more to spend there. effectively
- Colon itself produces no digestive enzymes
- “resident” bacteria that live in its lumen - rectum is generally empty, but when feces are
metabolize some of the remaining nutrients, forced into it by mass movements and its wall is
releasing gases (methane and hydrogen sulfide) stretched, the defecation reflex is initiated
that contribute to flatulence and the odor of - Defecation reflex - a spinal (sacral region) reflex
feces that causes the walls of the sigmoid colon and
- Bacteria residing in the large intestine also the rectum to contract and the anal sphincters
make some vitamins (vitamin K and some B to relax
vitamins) - as the feces are forced through the anal canal,
- absorption by the large intestine is limited to messages reach the brain giving us time to
the absorption of these vitamins, some ions, decide whether the external voluntary sphincter
and most of the remaining water should remain open or be constricted to stop
- Feces - the more or less solid product delivered passage of feces
to the rectum, contains undigested food - if it is not convenient, defecation (bowel
residues, mucus, millions of bacteria, and just movement) can be delayed temporarily. Within
enough water to allow its smooth passage a few seconds, the reflex contractions end, and
the rectal walls relax. With the next mass
PROPULSION OF FOOD RESIDUE AND DEFECATION movement, the defecation reflex is initiated
- when presented with food residue, the colon again
begins contractions, but they are sluggish or
short-lived

REFERENCE:
HAUSTRAL CONTRACTIONS
➢ movements most seen in the colon
➢ slow segmenting movements lasting about
1 minute that occur every 30 minutes or so Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
➢ as a haustrum fills with food residue, the Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston:
distension stimulates its muscle to contract, Pearson. (PDF)
which propels the luminal contents into the
next haustrum
➢ movements also mix the residue, which aids
in water absorption

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