COMPUTER SCIENCE

12
(MS Access and C)

CHAPTER 9: Elements of C Language

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 Topics
• Identifier and Types of Identifiers
• Keywords
• Variable
• Rules for Naming Variable
• Variable Declaration
• Variable Initialization
• Constant
• Data Types ( Integer, Float & Character)
• Overflow and Underflow
• Problems with floating point numbers
• Exponential Notation
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 Topics (continued)

• Range and Precision

• Operator and Expression
• Unary and Binary Operators
• Arithmetic Operator and Expression
• Data type of an expression
• Assignment Statement
• Lvalue and Rvalue
• Compound Assignment Statement
• Compound Assignment Operators
• Increment and Decrement Operators
• Relational Operators and Expression
Copyright
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 Topics(continued)
• Compound Condition
• Logical Operators ( AND, OR & NOT)
• Operator Precedence and Associativity of Operators
• Comments
• Type Casting ( Implicit and Explicit)

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 An identifier is the name given to the variable, constant, function or label in the program.

 Feature present in all computer languages

 A good identifier name should be descriptive but short
 An identifier in C language may consist of 31 characters

Rules for Identifier

 The first character must be an alphabet or underscore (_) such as _large, age, marks etc.
 The remaining can be alphabetic characters, digits or underscores such as Number1, total_marks etc.
 The reserved word cannot be used as identifier name such as int, double, break etc.

Valid identifiers letter1, inches, KM_PER_MILE, _large

Invalid identifiers 1letter, Happy*trout, return

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 1. Standard Identifiers
A type of identifier that has special meaning in C is known as standard identifier.

Examples
printf scanf

2. User-defined Identifiers
A type of identifier that is defined by the programmer is known as user-defined identifier.
• The user-defined identifiers are used to store data and program results

Examples
my_name marks age

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 Keyword is a word in C language that has a predefined meaning and purpose.

 Also known as reserved words

 Can not be used for another purpose
 Written in lowercase letters
 The total number of keywords is 32

List of Keywords

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  A variable is a named memory location or memory cell
 Store program's input data and its computational results during execution
 The value of variable can change during program execution
 If a new value is stored in the variable, it replaces the previous value
 The variables are created in RAM

Name of variable It refers to an identifier that represents a memory location

Address of variable It refers to the memory location of the variable
Contents of variable It refers to the value stored in memory location referred by variable

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 Rules Examples
 Variable may include letters, numbers and underscore (_) sub1, f_name, Number1
 First character of variable must be a letter or underscore _ _area , age
 Blank spaces are not allowed in variable names My height , total marks
 Special symbols such as @, $, % are not allowed in variable names $cost , tot.al , success!
 Variables are case sensitive Tax != tax
 Reserved word cannot be used as variable name long, double, void
 A variable can be declared only for one data type
 A variable can be up to 31 characters long for many compilers

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  A variable name should reflect its purpose
 A variable to store the marks of student should be Marks.
 Descriptive variable names may include multiple words
 Two conventions to use in naming variables:
 Capitalize the first letter of each word.
InterestRate TotalSales
 Use the underscore _ character as a space:
My_Phone_No Total_Sales

 Use one convention consistently throughout a program

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  income Valid.
 double Invalid. A keyword cannot be used as variable name.
 total marks Invalid. A variable cannot have spaces in it.

 averge-score Invalid. A variable cannot have hyphen in it.

 2ndTry Invalid. A variable cannot start with a digit.
 $cost Invalid. The special symbol $ cannot be used in variable name.
 MAX_SPEED Valid
 My.school Invalid. A variable cannot have a period "." in it.
 room# Invalid. A variable cannot have hash sign in it.
 no_of_students Valid.

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 The process of specifying the variable name and its type is called variable declaration.

 All variables must be declared before they are used in the program Remember!
The compiler gives an error if
 A program can have as many variables as needed an undeclared variable is used
in the program
 The variable declaration provides information to the compiler about the variable
 The compiler uses the declaration to determine how much memory is needed for each variable
 Example – int variable requires 2 bytes and char variable requires 1 byte.
Once a variable is declared, its data type cannot be changed during program execution
Syntax Remember!
data_type variable_name; The value of the variable
can be changed during
program execution
data_type It indicates type of data that can be stored in variable
variable_name It refers to the memory location of the variable

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  Variables of the same type can be declared:

• In separate statements
int length;
int width;
• In the same statement
int length, width;

 Variables of different types must be defined in separate statements

int marks;
float average;
char grade;

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 The process of assigning value to a variable at the time of declaration is called variable initialization.
 Symbol = is used to initialize a variable
 A single variable name must appear on left side of the = symbol
 Garbage value
 If a variable declared but not initialized, it may contain meaningless data
 Produce unexpected results in some computations
 All variables should be initialized to avoid this problem
Syntax
type_name variable = value;
Examples
int n = 100;
int x = 50, y = 75;
float average = 50.73;
char grade = ‘A’;

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 A constant is a quantity that cannot be changed during program execution.
Types of Constants
1. Numeric Constants
Numeric constant consists of numbers. It can be further divided into two types:
a) Integer Constant
Integer constants are numeric values without fraction or decimal point.
Examples
87 45 -10 -5
b) Floating Point Constants
Floating point constants are numeric values with fraction or decimal point.
Examples
50.75 10.22 –13.4

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 2. Character Constants
Any character written within single quotation mark is known as character constant.
Examples
‘A’ ‘n’ ‘9’ ‘=’ ‘$’

3. String Constants
A collection of characters written in double quotations mark is called string or string constant.
 May consist of any alphabetic characters, digits and special symbols
Examples
“Pakistan” “123” “99-Mall Road, Lahore”

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 The data type specifies the type of data and set of operations that can be applied on the data.
 Every data type has a range of values
 Requires different amount of memory
 Compiler allocates memory space for each variable according to its data type

1. Standard Data Type

A data type that is predefined in the language is called standard data type.
Examples
int float long double char
2. User-defined Data Type
C also allows the user to define his own data types known as user-defined data type.
 Can only be used in that program in which it has been defined

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 The data type specifies the type of data and set of operations that can be applied on the data.
 Every data type has a range of values
 Requires different amount of memory
 Compiler allocates memory space for each variable according to its data type
Categories of Data Types
1. Standard Data Type
A data type that is predefined in the language is called standard data type.
Examples
int float long double char
2. User-defined Data Type
C also allows the user to define his own data types known as user-defined data type
 Can only be used in that program in which it has been defined

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 Integer data is the numeric value with no decimal point or fraction.
 May have positive or negative value
Examples
10 520 -20
Types of Integer Data Type
int data type is used to represent integer values
short data type is used to store integer values
unsigned int data type is used to store only positive integer values
long data type is used to store large integer values
unsigned long data type is used to store large positive integer values

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 The floating point data is a numeric value with decimal point or fraction.
 Consists of integer and non-integer part
 Also called real number
Examples precision refers the
number of digits after
10.5 5.3 -10.91
the decimal point
Types of Floating point Data Type
float data type is used to store real values
 Provides the precision of 6 decimal places
double data type is used to store large real values
 Provides the precision of 15 decimal places
long double data type is used to store very large real values
 Provides the precision of 19 decimal places

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 char data type is used to store character value.
 Takes 1 byte in memory
 Used to represent:
 Letter a - z and A - Z
 Numbers 0-9
 Space (blank)
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
 Special characters , . ; ? “ / ( ) [ ] { } * & % ^ < > etc.
 Character values are normally given in single quotes E.g. ‘A’, ‘*’
 Numeric code (ASCII) representing the character is stored in memory

 Possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

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 ASCII values of '2' and
'6' are 50 and 54

possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

Using signed & unsigned Keywords with char Data Type

• The keywords signed and unsigned can also be used with ‘char’ type data.
• By default, the ‘char’ data type is unsigned.
• ASCII values of alphabets, numbers and other special characters are positive.
• The value range for unsigned ‘char’ type data is from 0 to 255.
• The value range for signed char type data is from –128 to 127.

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  Overflow occurs when value assigned to the variable is more than the maximum possible value
 Example - The maximum value for int type variable is 32767. If the assigned value is more than
32767, then an integer overflow occurs
 An underflow occurs when the value assigned to a variable is less than the minimum possible value
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
 Example - The minimum value for int type variable is –32768. If the assigned value is less than
-32768, then an integer underflow occurs
 Overflow and underflow is not detected by the compiler
 Program may produce wrong result.
 Using variables with appropriately-sized data types can minimize this problem

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 possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

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  Cancellation error is an error resulting from applying an operation to a large number and a small
number, and the effect of the smaller number is lost.
e.g., 1000.0 + 0.0000001234 is equal to 1000.0
197.0 + 0.000000134 is equal to 1947.0
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
 Arithmetic Underflow is an error in which a very small computational result is represented as zero
e.g., 0.00000001 * 10-1000000 is equal to 0
 Arithmetic Overflow is an error in which the result is too large to be represented
 Some machine may let the arithmetic overflow occur and the computational result is unexpected
e.g., 999999999 * 109999999 may become a negative value in some machine

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  The exponential notation consists of two parts:
 Mantissa
 Exponent
 General form of writing floating point values in exponential notation is:
m e n OR m E n
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
 The value before e is known as mantissa. It has absolute value greater than or equal to 1 and less
than 10
 The value after e is known as exponent and always have integer value
 Mantissa and exponent may be positive or negative value
Examples

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  The possible values that a floating type variable can store are described in terms of precision and
range:
Precision It is the number of digits after the decimal point
Range It is the exponential power of 10
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

• float variable has a precision of 6 digits and a range of 10-38 to 10+38

• double variable has a precision of 15 digits and a range of 10-308 to 10+308
 A large precision provides more accuracy

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 Operators are the symbols that are used to perform different operations on data.

Types of Operators +, -, * , / , and %

 Arithmetic Operators
>, <, ==, >=, <=, and !=
 Relational Operatorspossible to perform mathematical operation on character values
 Logical Operators &&, || and !
 Assignment Operators
=
 Increment and Decrement Operators
 Compound Assignment Operators ++, - -
+=, -=, *= , /= and %=

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 A statement that evaluates to a value is called an expression.
 Gives a single value
 Consists of operator and operand
 An operator is a symbol that performs some operation
 Operand is the possible
value on to
which the operator
perform performs
mathematical some on
operation operation
character values
 Can be a constant, variable or combination of both
Examples
A + B;
m / n;
x + 100;
+ is the operator
A and B are variables used as operands

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 Unary Operators
A type of operator that works with one operand is called unary operator.
 Some unary operators are –, ++, – –, !
 The above operators are used with one operand
a;
N++; possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
– –x;
Binary Operators
A type of operator that works with two operands is called binary operator.
 Some binary operators are +, –, *, /, %, >, && (AND), || (OR)
 The above operators are used with two operands
a + b;
x / y;
a > b;

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 Arithmetic operator is a symbol that performs mathematical operation on data.

Operation Symbol Description

Addition + Adds two values

possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
Subtraction – Subtracts one value from another value

Multiplication * Multiplies two values

Division / Divides one value by another value

Modulus % Gives the remainder of division of two integers

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  Also called remainder operator
 modulus operator (%) works only with integer values
 Computes the remainder resulting from integer division
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
7%5→2 12 % 3 → 0
 If modulus operator is used with the division of 0, the result will always be 0
 In expression like 3 % 5, 3 is not divisible by 5. Its result is 3

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  C division operator (/)performs integer division if both operands are integers
 fractional part of the quotient is truncated
Examples
possible
The result of 7 / 4 evaluates to 1to perform
and 17 / 5mathematical
evaluates to 3operation on character values
 If either operand is floating-point, the result is floating-point
Examples
The result of 7.0/2.0 is 3.5 and 13 / 5.0 is 2.6
5.0 / 2 → 2.5 4.0 / 2.0 → 2.0 17.0 / 5.0 → 3.4

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 A type of expression that consists of constants, variables and arithmetic operators is called arithmetic
expression.
Examples
Suppose we have two variables A and B where A = 10 and B = 5.
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
Arithmetic Expression Result
A+B 15
A–B 5
A*B 50
A/B 2
A%B 0

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  The data type of each variable must be specified in its declaration, but how does C determine the data type of
an expression?
 What is the type of expression x+y when both x and y are of type int?
 The data type of an expression depends on the type(s) of its operands
 The result of expression is evaluated to larger data type in the expression
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
 If both are of type int, then the expression is of type int.
 If either one or both is of type double,
then the expression is of type double.

 An expression in which operands are of different data types is called mixed-type expression.
 An expressions that has operands of both int and double is a mixed-type expression

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 A statement that assigns a value to a variable is known as assignment statement.
 When an assignment statement is executed, the expression is first evaluated; then the result is
assigned to the variable to the left side of assignment operator
Syntax
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
Assignment operator

variable = expression;

Examples
A = 100; A constant, variable or combination of
C = A + B; operands and arithmetical operators
X = C – D + 10;

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  An lvalue is an operand that can be written on the left side of assignment operator =
 An rvalue is an operand that can be written on the right side of assignment operator =
 Lvalues must be variables
 rvalues can be any expression
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
Example
 distance = rate * time;
lvalue: "distance"
rvalue: "rate * time"
 All lvalues can be used as rvalues but all rvalues cannot be used as lvalues
 x = 5 is valid but 5 = x is not valid.
 C = A + B is valid but A+B=C is invalid.

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 An assignment statement that assigns a value to many variables is known as compound assignment
statement.
 Assignment operator = is used in this statement
Example
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
A = B = 10;
 assigns the value 10 to both A and B.

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  Compound assignment operators combine assignment operator with arithmetic operators
 Used to perform mathematical operations more easily.
Syntax
Can be arithmetic operator

variable op = expression;
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

can be a constant, variable or

variable to assign a value arithmetic expression

Example
Operator Example Equivalent to
+= A += 10 A = A + 10
-= A -= 10 A = A - 10
*= A *= 10 A = A * 10
/= A /= 10 A = A / 10
%= A %= 10 A = A % 10

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 possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

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  Increment operator, ++ is a unary operator and works with single variable.
 Used to increase the value of variable by 1 and is denoted by the symbol ++
A++; is equivalent to A = A + 1;
 Increment operator cannot increment the value of constant and expressions
Example 10++ , (a+b)++ or ++ (a+b) are invalid
Prefix and Postfix Increments
 No difference if ‘alone’possible
in statement:
to perform mathematical operation on character values
 A++; and ++A;  identical result
 The value of the expression (that uses the ++ operators) depends on the position of the operator
 Example - Result of two statements x=a++ and x=++a are different
Postfix increment in Expressions
 Uses or assign current value of variable, THEN increments it
If ++ is after the variable, as in
a++, the increment takes place
after the expression is
evaluated

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 Example:
Variable Initialization

Variable Declaration

Assign value to result

possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
Display the value of result
 This code segment produces the output:
4 If ++ is after the variable, as in
n++, the increment takes place Newline characters move the
3 after the expression is cursor to the next line
evaluated

 Since postfix increment was used

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 Prefix increment in Expressions
 Increments variable first, THEN uses new value
If ++ is before the variable, as in
++a, the increment
takes place before the expression is
evaluated
Example:

possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

 This code segment produces the output:

6
3
 Since pre-increment was used

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 possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

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  Decrement operator, is a unary operator and works with single variable
 Used to decrease the value of variable by 1 and is denoted by the symbol - -
A--; is equivalent to A = A – 1;
 Decrement operator cannot decrement the value of constant and expressions.
Example - -10 , (a+b) - - or - - (a+b) are invalid
Prefix and Postfix Decrements
 possible
No difference if ‘alone’ to perform
in statement: A--;mathematical operation
and --A;  identical on character values
result
 The value of the expression (that uses the -- operators) depends on the position of the operator.
Example Result of two statements x = a-- and x = --a are different.
Postfix decrement in Expressions
 Uses current value of variable, THEN decrements it

If - - is after the variable, as in a- -, the

increment takes place after the
expression is evaluated

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 Example:
Variable Initialization

Variable Declaration

Assign value to result

Display operation
possible to perform mathematical the value on
of result
character values

Newline characters move the

 This code segment produces the output: cursor to the next line
4 If -- is after the variable, as in
1 n--, the decrement takes place
after the expression is
evaluated

 Since postfix decrement was used

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 Prefix decrement in Expressions
 Decrements variable first, THEN uses new value
If -- is before the variable, as in --a,
the decrement
takes place before the expression is
evaluated

Example:

possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

 This code segment produces the output:

2
1
 Since pre-decrement was used

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 possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

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  Used to specify conditions in programs
 Condition is an expression that is either false (represented by 0) or true (represented by 1).
e.g., “grade > 60” is a condition.
 Conditions contain relational operators, and have the following forms
variable relational-operator variable a>b
variable relational-operator constantmathematical operation
possible to perform markson>character
75 values
 Also called comparison operators as they test conditions that are either true or false
Operators Used in Conditions

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 A type of expression that consists of constants, variables and relational operators is called relational
expression.
 Expressions are used to compare the values Number > 50
 The result of a relational expression can be true or false
Examples possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
Suppose the value of A = 10 and the value of B = 5.
Relation Expression Result
A>B True Relational
A<B False Variable operator Constant
A <= B False
A >= B True
A == B False
A != B True

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 A type of comparison in which more than one conditions are evaluated is called compound condition
 Example Program inputs two numbers to displays OK if one number is greater than 50 and second number
is less than 100.
 Compound condition is executed by using logical operators.

Relational Operator
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values

(Number > 50 && Number < 100)

Logical Operator Relational Operator

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 The logical operators are used to evaluate compound conditions.
 Types of logical operators
&& and
|| or
! not
AND Operator (&&) possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
 Used to evaluate two conditions
 Produces true result if both conditions are true
 produces false result if any one condition is false
Example
Two variables A = 100 and B = 50
 Compound condition (A>10) && (B>10) is true
 Compound condition (A>50) && (B>50) is false

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 AND Operator (| |)
 Used to evaluate two conditions
 Produces true result if either conditions is true
 Produces false result if both conditions are false
Example
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
Two variables A = 100 and B = 50
 Compound condition (A>10) | | (B>10) is true
 Compound condition (A>50) | | (B>50) is true
 Compound condition (A>200) | | (B >100) is false

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 NOT Operator (!)
 Reverse the result of a condition
 Produces true result if conditions is false
 Produces false result if condition is true
Example
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
Two variables A = 100 and B = 50
Result of condition (A==B) is false but NOT operator converts it into true
 Condition !(A==B) is true.
 Condition !(A>B) is false.
Result of condition (A>B) is true but NOT operator converts it into false

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 The order in which different types of operators in an expression are evaluated is known as operator
precedence.
 also known as hierarchy of operators
 Any expression given in parentheses is evaluated first
 In case of parentheses within parentheses,
the expression of the inner parentheses
possible to performwill be evaluated
mathematical first
operation on character values

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 Example
Operator precedence Operator associativity

* and / have equal

precedence. These
expressions will be
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
evaluated from left to right.
Similarly, + and - also have
equal precedence.

 First of all, the expression 5–2 will be evaluated. It gives a value 3

 Secondly, 24 will be divided by the result of last line i.e. 24 / 3 giving value 8
 Thirdly, 10 will be multiplied by 8 i.e. giving a result 80
 Finally, 80 will be added in 13 and the last result will be 93.

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  Explanatory lines of a program that help user to understand the source code.
 Make programs easy to read and modify
 Are ignored by the compiler.
 Can be added anywhere in the program.
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
 Comments can be added in programs in two ways:
1. Sing-line Comments
2. Multi-line Comments

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  Begin with // and continue to the end of line.

// Program 2.5: Finding the area of rectangle

int length = 12; // length in inches
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
int width = 15; // width in inches
int area; // calculated area
// Calculate rectangle area
area = length * width;

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  Begin with /* and end with */
 Can span multiple lines.
/* Program 2.7
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
Description: Finding the area of circle
Written by: Abdullah */
 Can also be used as single-line comments.
int area; /* Calculated area */

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  Way of changing a value of one type to a value of
another type.
 Two types of casting: It is always
recommended to
1. Implicit Type Casting convert the lower
value to higher for
 Performed automatically by the C++ compiler avoiding data loss.
 when value of one type is automatically
possible to performchanged to
mathematical operation on character values
another type
Example
 Operations are performed between operands of the
int x=20;
same type.
char y=‘a’
 If the data types of operands are different, the value
with lower data type is converted into higher data // y implicitly converted to int. ASCII
type. // value of 'a' is 97
x = x + y;
printf(“x= %d” , x);

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 2. Explicit Type Casting
 Explicit casting is performed by programmer
 C allows the programmer to convert the type of an expression
 It is performed by using cast operator
Syntax
(type) expression;
 Placing the desired type in parentheses before the expression
 When casting from double to int,
possible to perform mathematical operation on character values
the decimal portion is just truncated – not rounded.
Example
double x=3.6;
int sum;
// Explicit conversion from double to int
sum = (int) x + 1;
printf("sum = %d", sum);

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