BATTERIES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

UNIT -1-ADVANCED BATTERIES

Li-ion Batteries-different formats, chemistry, safe operating area, efficiency, aging.
Characteristics, DOD, SOH. Balancing-Passive Balancing Vs Active Balancing. Other
Batteries-NCM and NCA Batteries. NCR18650B specification.

Battery Management System (BMS)

A battery management system (BMS) is a device that monitors and controls the performance,
safety, and lifespan of a battery pack. A BMS can protect the battery from overcharging, over
discharging, overheating, short-circuiting, and other potential hazards. A BMS can also
optimize the battery’s state of charge, capacity, and power output.

There are many types of batteries and BMSs available in the market, depending on the
application and requirements. Some common examples are lithium-ion batteries, lead-acid
batteries, nickel-metal hydride batteries, and flow batteries. Some common features of BMSs
are current sensing, voltage sensing, temperature sensing, communication protocols,
protection circuits, balancing algorithms, and software tools.

LI-ION BATTERIES
A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery which uses the
reversible intercalation of Li+ ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. In
comparison with other rechargeable batteries,

Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their first
market introduction in 1991: within the next 30 years their volumetric energy density
increased 3-fold, while their cost dropped 10-fold.
The invention and commercialization of Li-ion batteries is considered as having one of the
largest societal impacts in human history among all technologies as was recognized by
2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. More specifically, Although many thousands of different
materials have been investigated for use in lithium-ion batteries, the usable chemistry space
for this technology, that made into commercial applications, is extremely small. All
commercial Li-ion cells use intercalation compounds as active materials:

1) The anode (or negative electrode) is usually graphite, although silicon has been often
mixed with graphite in commercial cells since ca. 2015.

2) The solvents in commercial Li-ion batteries comprise organic carbonates, such as ethylene
carbonate and dimethyl carbonate, that form solid electrolyte interphase on the negode, which
allows for Li+ ion transport but not for electron transfer.

3) In addition to carbonate solvent(s) the battery electrolyte comprises a lithium salt. Lithium
hexafluorophosphate is most commonly used, because it passivates the
positive aluminium current collector.

4) There is more diversity among positive electroactive materials (cathodes). They are
selected from a group comprising
layered LiCoO2 and LiNiO2, spinel LiMn2O4, olivine LiFePO4, and their combinations/
derivatives. Many other posada materials have been studied, but they all suffer either from a
high cost, poor durability (Li+ for M ion place exchange) or too high voltage incompatible
with known electrolytes.

5) The negative current collector is usually made of copper and it uses a spot-
welded nickel current collector.

6) The positive current collector is usually made of aluminium, and it uses and ultrasonically-
welded titanium tab.

LI-ION BATTERIES-DIFFERENT FORMATS

The Six Types of Lithium-ion Batteries: A Visual Comparison
Lithium-ion batteries are at the centre of the clean energy transition as the key
technology powering electric vehicles (EVs) and energy storage systems.
However, there are many types of lithium-ion batteries, each with pros and cons.

The above infographic shows the trade-offs between the six major lithium-ion cathode
technologies based on research by Miao et al. and Battery University. This is the first of two
infographics in our Battery Technology Series.

Understanding the Six Main Lithium-ion Technologies

Each of the six different types of lithium-ion batteries has a different chemical composition.

The anodes of most lithium-ion batteries are made from graphite. Typically, the mineral
composition of the cathode is what changes, making the difference between battery
chemistries.
The cathode material typically contains lithium along with other minerals including nickel,
manganese, cobalt, or iron. This composition ultimately determines the battery’s capacity,
power, performance, cost, safety, and lifespan.

The six major lithium-ion cathode technologies.

#1: Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC)

NMC cathodes typically contain large proportions of nickel, which increases the battery’s
energy density and allows for longer ranges in EVs. However, high nickel content can
make the battery unstable, which is why manganese and cobalt are used to improve thermal
stability and safety. Several NMC combinations have seen commercial success,
including NMC811 (composed of 80% nickel, 10% manganese, and 10%
cobalt), NMC532, and NMC622.
#2: Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide (NCA)
NCA batteries share nickel-based advantages with NMC, including high energy density and
specific power. Instead of manganese, NCA uses aluminium to increase stability. However,
NCA cathodes are relatively less safe than other Li-ion technologies, more expensive, and
typically only used in high-performance EV models.
#3: Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP)
Due to their use of iron and phosphate instead of nickel and cobalt, LFP batteries are
cheaper to make than nickel-based variants. However, they offer lesser specific energy
and are more suitable for standard- or short-range EVs. Additionally, LFP is considered one
of the safest chemistries and has a long lifespan, enabling its use in energy storage
systems.

#4: Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO)

Although LCO batteries are highly energy-dense, their drawbacks include a relatively short
lifespan, low thermal stability, and limited specific power. Therefore, these batteries are a
popular choice for low-load applications like smartphones and laptops, where they can
deliver relatively smaller amounts of power for long durations.
#5: Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO)
Also known as manganese spinel batteries, LMO batteries offer enhanced safety and fast
charging and discharging capabilities. In EVs, LMO cathode material is often blended with
NMC, where the LMO part provides a high current upon acceleration, and NMC enables
longer driving ranges.

#6: Lithium Titanate (LTO)

Unlike the other chemistries above, where the cathode composition makes the difference,
LTO batteries use a unique anode surface made of lithium and titanium oxides. These
batteries exhibit excellent safety and performance under extreme temperatures but have
low capacity and are relatively expensive, limiting their use at scale.

+
The characteristics of a battery are.,
 An electrochemical device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells.
 Can be charged with an electric current and discharged whenever required.
  Made up of multiple electrochemical cells that are connected to external inputs
and outputs.
 Voltage: The voltage of a battery is the amount of electrical potential energy that
it can provide.
 Capacity: The capacity of a battery is the amount of electrical energy that it can
store.
 Efficiency: The efficiency of a battery is the ratio of the electrical energy output
to the electrical energy input.
Depth of Discharge

Depth of discharge (DoD) is an important parameter appearing in the context of

rechargeable battery operation. Two non-identical definitions can be found in commercial
and scientific sources. The depth of discharge is defined as:

1. The maximum fraction or percentage of a battery's capacity (given in Ah) which is

removed from the charged battery on a regular basis. "Charged" does not necessarily
refer to fully or 100 % charged, but rather to the state of charge (SoC), where
the battery charger stops charging, which is achieved by different techniques.
2. The fraction or percentage of the battery's capacity which is currently removed from
the battery with regard to its (fully) charged state. For fully charged batteries, the
depth of discharge is connected to the state of charge by the simple formula .The
depth of discharge then is the complement of state of charge: as one increases, the
other decreases. This definition is mostly found in scientific sources.
3. The depth of discharge can therefore (1) refer to the size of the range usually used
for discharge or (2) the current amount of charge or fraction of the capacity removed
from the battery. To avoid confusion, the exact meaning of DoD should be clear for a
given context. Also, for both definitions, it remains undefined, whether a charged
battery's SoC is 100 % or another value. This reference value is needed to fully
describe (1) the upper and lower limit of absolute SoC used for operation or (2)
the current value of the absolute SoC.

BALANCING

Passive cell balancing equalizes the state of charge (SOC) of the cells by dissipating energy
from higher SOC cells and formulating all the cells with similar SOC equivalent to the lowest
level cell SOC, Active cell balancing transfers energy from higher SOC cell to lower SOC
cell, hence the SOC of the cells will be equal1. Active cell balancing redistributes charge
during the charging and discharging cycle, unlike passive cell balancing, which simply
dissipates charge during the charge cycle.. There are two types of methods for active cell
balancing: passive and active.
NCA vs. NCM: A Side-by-Side Comparison

Requirements NCA NCM

Nickel, cobalt, and

Metals Used Nickel, cobalt, and manganese
aluminium

Ni: 84%, Co: 12%,

Composition Ratio Ni: 33%, Co: 33%, Mn: 33%
Al: 4%

Average Cost Per

$70.40/kWh $72.70/kWh
Cell

Associated Auto Tesla, Ford, Chevrolet, Volvo, Lucid, Rivian, Nissan,

Tesla
Companies BMW, GMC, Honda, Jaguar, Mercedes

Benefits Longer life span Longer range

NCR186508 SPECIFICATIONS
 UNIT-2 BATTERY PACK

Battery Pack- design, sizing, calculations, flow chart, real and simulation Model. Peak power
–definition, testing methods-relationships with Power, Temperature and ohmic Internal
Resistance. Cloud based and Local Smart charging.

A battery pack is a set of any number of (preferably) identical batteries or individual battery
cells. They may be configured in a series, parallel or a mixture of both to deliver the desired
voltage, capacity, or power density. The term battery pack is often used in reference to
cordless tools, radio-controlled hobby toys, and battery electric vehicles.

Components of battery packs include the individual batteries or cells, and

the interconnects which provide electrical conductivity between them. Rechargeable battery
packs often contain a temperature sensor, which the battery charger uses to detect the end of
charging. Interconnects are also found in batteries as they are the part which connects each
cell, though batteries are most often only arranged in series strings.

When a pack contains groups of cells in parallel there are differing wiring configurations
which take into consideration the electrical balance of the circuit. Battery regulators are
sometimes used to keep the voltage of each individual cell below its maximum value during
charging so as to allow the weaker batteries to become fully charged, bringing the whole pack
back into balance. Active balancing can also be performed by battery balancer devices which
can shuttle energy from strong cells to weaker ones in real time for better balance. A well-
balanced pack lasts longer and delivers better performance.
Battery Sizing Explained

Electric power has become one of the most significant requirements in the modern world. In
the bid for clean and free energy utilization, engineers have come up with battery systems
such as solar and electric vehicles, triggering growth in battery utilization. These batteries are
designed to meet certain criteria, and engineers

\need to be able to size such batteries.

What Is Battery Sizing?

A battery is a hardware device employed to supply power to another device giving the device
permission to work without being connected to the power cord. Such devices include laptops,
cell phones, electric cars, and radios and can be classified as rechargeable or non-
rechargeable. The battery can be categorized according to the material used, including
lithium-ion, lithium polymer, nickel-cadmium, and nickel-metal hydride.

Battery sizing is balancing the power requirement of a given system and coming up with a
battery that meets the client’s requirements. Sizing determines the number of kilowatt-hours
stored in a particular battery. It is an important action that gives a product lifetime.
Undersized batteries reduce the shelf life of an electrical product.

To size a battery, gather the following information:

 load that will be supported by the battery to be designed.

  minimal voltage the battery should handle.
 backup time

IEEE Sizing Calculations

Our calculations are based on the IEEE-provided standards for the sizing of both nickel-
cadmium and lead-acid station application batteries. This is a directive to all users that the
calculation here may not be used to design any other battery type unless you refer to the
guides provided by the manufacturers of the other types.

The following should guide you during the sizing process:

 Collect the total loads that will be supported by the battery. This step will help the
designer determine the total load the battery should supply.

 Develop a load profile. The load profile is determined using the autonomy method,
and IEEE standards give the guidelines for the autonomy, discharge, or backup times.

 Select the type of battery to design. Choose the type of battery, for example, lead-acid
and follow IEEE-provided guidance on characteristics of charging and discharging;
essentials on cell orientations; the threshold for ambient temperature; cell life;
ventilation and maintenance requirements; other physical properties such as battery
terminals and weight.

Using the manufacturer’s datasheet, determine the battery cell characteristics, including cell
temperature; cell floating voltage; end of discharge voltage (EODV, which in most batteries
ranges between 1.75 V to 1.8 V per cell if the discharge time is more than one hour and 1.66
V if the discharge time is less than 15 minutes); AH battery cell capacity; electrolyte density
in the case of lead-acid batteries.

Choose battery cells that can be linked in series method. For lead acid of a particular size, the
list below shows the number of cells that can fit in them.
 RATED VOLTAGE (V) CELLS

6 3

12 6

24 12

48 24

120 60
Table 1. Table Showing Different Battery Voltage Ratings and The Number of Cells Required
for The Lead Acid Battery

Example of Battery Sizing Calculation

Collect all the connected loads and develop the load profile.

From the figure above, we can compute the total design energy demand. It is important
to note that the figure represents energy rectangles piled on top of each other.

 Height represents load (VA)

 Width represents the time (autonomy)
  The rectangle area is the total energy of the load

From the graph,

Design Energy Demand, Etle = Total areas of the Rectangles in the graph = 2700 Vah

Design Energy Demand, Ede = Etle(1+kcont) (1+kdm)

Let kcont = 10% and kdm = 10%

Ede = 2700(1+0.1) (1+0.1) = 3267 Vah

Key Take aways of Battery Sizing

 A battery is the hardware used to supply power to electronic and electrical devices
that need it.
 Battery sizing is the calculation determining the battery size that will sufficiently
support the load.
 The reader has understood the steps that are approached during the sizing of the
battery.
 Readers have been fashioned with the formula necessary for battery sizing and
provided with a fully solved example.
Flow chart

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. A battery consists of
one or more cells, each containing a positive and a negative electrode, an electrolyte, and a
separator1. A battery can be modelled using an equivalent circuit that captures its electrical
and thermal behaviour. A battery management system (BMS) is a system that monitors and
controls the battery pack to ensure safe operation, optimal performance, and long life.

Battery Modelling

Battery models have become an indispensable tool for the design of battery-powered
systems. Their uses include battery characterization, state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-
health (SOH) estimation, algorithm development, system-level optimization, and real-time
simulation for battery management system design.

Battery models based on equivalent circuits are preferred for system-level development and
controls applications due to their relative simplicity. Engineers use equivalent circuits to
model the thermo-electric behaviour of batteries, parameterizing their nonlinear elements
with correlation techniques that combine models and experimental measurements via
optimization.
 Equivalent circuit of a battery with three distinct time constants, internal resistance, and
open circuit potential.

Battery Characterization

The first step in the development of an accurate battery model is to build and parameterize an
equivalent circuit that reflects the battery’s nonlinear behaviour and dependencies on
temperature, SOC, SOH, and current. These dependencies are unique to each battery’s
chemistry and need to be determined using measurements performed on battery cells of
exactly the same type as those for which the controller is being designed. Example battery
models are available for download from MATLAB Central.
Voltage response (top) to a pulsed current (middle) discharge, and resulting SOC (bottom) for
an NMC Li-ion battery.

Voltage response (top) to a pulsed current (middle) discharge, and resulting SOC (bottom) for
an NMC Li-ion battery.

SOC Estimation

One common application of battery models is to develop algorithms for SOC estimation.
Open-circuit voltage (OCV) measurement and current integration (coulomb counting) may
give reasonable estimates for SOC. However, to estimate the SOC in modern battery
chemistries that have flat OCV-SOC discharge signatures, you need to use a different
approach, such as Kalman filtering.

Degradation

Batteries degrade over time due to their calendar life and charge-discharge cycles, showing a
gradual loss in reserve capacity and an increase in internal resistance. The battery
management system (BMS) needs to adapt to these changes for effective control of the
battery. Battery models can help you develop a BMS that accounts for degradation.
Progressive degradation of a lithium-ion battery

Progressive degradation of a lithium-ion battery reflected on increase in internal resistance

(R0) and time constants (τ1, τ2, τ3), with minimal variation in open circuit potential (Em).

Real-Time Simulation

Hardware-in-the-loop testing of BMS is another common application of battery models. A

battery model built for system-level design can be reused for real-time simulation.

The peak power of a battery is the maximum power that the battery can provide or receive
for a short period of time, usually within seconds. It depends on the battery’s internal
resistance, charge transfer kinetics, state of charge, temperature, and design constraints. The
peak power is often higher than the continuous power, which is the power that the battery can
sustain for longer durations without overheating or damaging the battery.

For example, a battery with a continuous capacity of 600 Watts might have a peak power of
around 1200 Watts for 5 seconds. The aim of having peak power is to handle load spikes and
protect the battery from damage caused by sudden surges. In applications like electric
vehicles, batteries must handle start-up currents higher than their steady-state current, making
peak power crucial for reliable operation.

Some examples of battery modelling and simulation are:

 Modelling battery packs using electrical networks whose topology mirrors that of the
actual system and scales with the number of cells
 Parameterizing equivalent circuit elements using test data for accurate representation
of cell chemistry
 Developing closed-loop control algorithms for supervisory and fault detection logic
 Designing state observers for state-of-charge and state-of-health online estimation
 Using real-time simulation for hardware-in-the-loop testing of BMS

BATTERY TESTING METHODS-RELATIONSHIPS WITH POWER,

TEMPERATURE AND OHMIC INTERNAL RESISTANCE-VIDEO

To test a battery with a multimeter

 Turn off the ignition and any accessories if you are testing a car battery. Disconnect
the battery from the circuit if you are testing another type of battery.
 Set the knob on your multimeter to ‘20V’ in the DC range (it has a V with a straight
line next to it).
 Connect the plug of the red probe to the VΩmA port of the multimeter, and the black
probe to the COM port.
 Touch the red probe to the positive terminal of the battery, and the black probe to the
negative terminal.
 Read the voltage on the multimeter display. A fully charged battery should show
around 12.6V. A lower voltage indicates a weak or discharged battery.

There are several methods to test batteries. Some of the most common methods include:

Voltage testing: Battery voltage reflects state-of-charge in an open circuit condition when
rested. Voltage alone cannot estimate battery state-of-health (SoH).

Ohmic test: Measuring internal resistance identifies the battery’s ability to deliver current.
Internal resistance increases as the battery ages and deteriorates.
Full cycle: A full cycle consists of charge/discharge to determine the capacity and the ability
to deliver energy.

Rapid-test: Common test methods include time domain reflectometry (TDR), frequency
domain reflectometry (FDR), and impedance spectroscopy (IS). These tests are faster than
full cycles and can be used to estimate the battery’s state-of-health.

Battery Management Systems (BMS): Most Battery Management Systems estimate the
battery’s state-of-charge (SoC) and state-of-health (SoH) by monitoring the battery’s voltage,
current, and temperature.

Battery testing methods range from taking a voltage reading, to measuring the internal
resistance by a pulse or AC impedance method, to coulomb counting, and to taking a
snapshot of the chemical battery with Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS).

The internal resistance of a battery provides valuable information about its state-of-health,
especially for nickel-based systems. It can be measured by connecting the battery to a circuit
with a resistor and applying Kirchhoff laws.

The polarization characteristics of lithium-ion batteries are mainly affected by the change in
polarization internal resistance, which depends on the charge-discharge rate, ambient
temperature, and cycle number.
How Resistance, Temperature, and Power Charging Behaviours Impact Battery SOC
and SOH

Introduction

Battery state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) are crucial factors that must be
estimated to determine a battery’s available capacity and how well it performs compared to
when it was new. This is especially important in applications such as e-scooters, where a
battery suddenly shutting down or experiencing a failure could result in an accident. This
article will introduce battery SOC and SOH and discuss three factors that can impact SOC
and SOH: internal resistance, temperature, and charge/discharge behaviour. It will also
explore MPS’s fuel gauges and battery protector and monitor solutions, which can work
together to provide a complete BMS solution and provide highly accurate SOC and SOH
estimates to prevent unexpected failures.

Battery State-of-Charge (SOC)

The battery’s SOC measures how much capacity is available relative to its full charge
capacity. SOC is a percentage and helps users determine when the battery needs to be
charged. SOC ranges from 0% (a complete discharge) to 100% (a full charge). If a battery has
an SOC of 20%, this means that the battery has about 20% of its charge left, and it is 80%
discharged. It is vital to be able to accurately estimate the SOC to ensure safe and reliable
operation, especially in applications that require additional safety measures (e.g. high-voltage
energy storage and e-bikes). Estimating the SOC can be accomplished by measuring the
voltage, current and/or temperature, depending on the method used. MPS’s mixed-mode
Algorithm

Battery State-of-Health (SOH)

The battery’s SOH indicates how well the battery is performing compared to when it was
new, which allows users to assess the battery’s function over time and determine when it
should be replaced. Like SOC, SOH is represented as a percentage. 100% indicates that the
battery can store its nominal capacity, while a lower percentage indicates that the battery has
aged and can store less charge than the rated capacity.

Factors that Impact SOC and SOH

It will focus on some key factors that can impact a battery’s SOC and SOH, though there are
many other factors that can impact either SOC, SOH, or both.

Internal Resistance

Internal resistance impacts a battery’s performance by leading to energy loss, increased heat
dissipation, and high voltage sags, which reduce the battery’s overall available capacity over
time. A higher internal resistance typically results in lower power capabilities and faster SOH
degradation.

Every battery has an internal resistance, which causes a voltage drop between battery
terminals as current flows through the battery. A higher internal resistance results in reduced
battery performance and lifespan over time; this, designers are encouraged to minimize
internal resistance by using high-quality materials and optimizing battery structure.

Due to the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance, a higher resistance results in
a larger voltage drop, which means the battery may reach its voltage limits, and there is less
available energy for the receiving device.

A higher internal resistance also generates more heat, which may negatively affect battery
performance and lifespan. This increased heat generation reduces battery efficiency in the
short term and long term.
Operating Temperature

Temperature impacts battery performance in a myriad of ways, which means it is vital to

properly store and use batteries so that they do not operate at exceedingly low or high
temperatures. At lower temperatures, battery performance degrades due to increased
resistance and a subsequent reduction of available capacity. In addition, charging batteries at
lower temperatures can cause lithium plating, which reduces battery capacity and can even
result in an internal short-circuit condition. However, cooler temperatures can be beneficial
for stored (or unused) batteries since it slows down other degradation mechanisms.

At higher temperatures, battery performance improves since the internal resistance is lower,
which results in a lower voltage drop and maximizes the battery’s available capacity.
However, batteries age much more quickly at higher temperatures. In addition, high
temperatures can potentially damage the battery, create fires, and even lead to explosions,
depending on the battery.

Temperature-dependent dynamics (e.g. open-circuit voltage and impedance) must be

considered when estimating a battery’s SOC, or the estimated results may be inaccurate. This
could result in a poor user experience or incorrect operation.

Higher Temperature Lower Temperature

Lower internal resistance Higher internal resistance
Reduced voltage drop Increased voltage drops
Higher available capacity Reduced available capacity
Accelerated self-discharge Slower self-discharge
Faster degradation Risk of lithium plating

Discharging, Charging, and Self-Discharge

Batteries can be charged and discharged, and the rates at which these occur impact SOC and
SOH. For example, if a battery is overcharged or deeply discharged, this can permanently
lower the battery’s overall capacity.

Many battery chargers, such as the MP2703 and MP2710, can be used to ensure that a
battery safely discharges and charges within its safe limits, though a monitoring and
protection device can offer additional protections that will be discussed later.
A battery’s self-discharge rate refers to how a battery loses charge and energy over time, even
when the battery is idle or disconnected from a power source. This is a natural phenomenon
that varies with battery chemistry and temperature, with rechargeable batteries (e.g. Li-ion
and NiMH) discharging much more quickly than non-rechargeable batteries (e.g. alkaline).

Over time, batteries’ capacity reduces, which means self-discharge becomes more important
because the battery is no longer able to store as much charge. In addition, ambient
temperature can also affect a battery’s self-discharge rate. Because higher temperatures can
cause batteries to self-discharge more quickly, it is recommended to store batteries at cooler
ambient temperatures.

CLOUD BASED CHARGING

Smart charging refers to a charging system where electric vehicles, charging stations and
charging operators share data connections. Through smart charging, the charging stations
may monitor, manage, and restrict the use of charging devices to optimize energy
consumption. Comparing with uncontrolled charging, smart charging will flatten the
electricity usage peak by shifting the peak due to vehicle charging away from the peak due to
other consumption.
Smart charging can be divided into two charging management systems, User-managed
charging (UMC) and Supplier-managed charging (SMC).

For UMC, a Time-of-Use tariff is applied, and the customer decides the timing to charge
based on the price and needs. The EV charging profile under Time-of-Use tariff is off-peak
EV charging, is an abrupt rise in charging load at the time where the electricity pricing goes
down. Comparing to peak EV charging profile caused by uncontrolled charging, UMC will
delay the peak charging load formation to a specific later time, usually between 9:00 pm and
10:00 pm, depending on electricity pricing regulation.

In SMC, the charging and discharging decision is made based on multiple signals: real-time
energy production, local energy consumption, as well as the state of charge information from
nearby EVs and other electric devices. A gradual rise in the charging load can be observed
within the off-peak hours. Ideally, the EV charging peak is self-adjustable to fit the real-time
electricity demand gap at off-peak hours.
Local Smart charging is a term that refers to the optimization of electric vehicle charging
based on various factors, such as grid conditions, electricity prices, user preferences, and
environmental impacts. Local Smart charging can help reduce the peak demand on the grid,
lower the cost of charging, and increase the use of renewable energy sources.

Some examples of Local Smart charging are:

Time-of-use charging: This involves charging the electric vehicle during off-peak hours,
when the electricity prices are lower and the grid is less congested.

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) charging: This allows the electric vehicle to act as a battery for the
grid, by supplying excess power back to the grid when needed, or by reducing its charging
rate when the grid is under stress.

Smart charging stations: These are charging stations that can communicate with the electric
vehicle, the grid, and the user, and adjust the charging parameters accordingly. For instance, a
smart charging station can offer dynamic pricing, demand response, or load balancing
services.

Local Smart charging requires an electric car driver to identify at the charging station.
Identification connects the EV driver, charging point, and the charging event together. The
right price will be charged from the right customer, and money will be directed to the correct
charging station owner.
Cloud-based Vs Local Smart Charging: Which Is Better for EV Charging?

Cloud-based Smart Charging

A cloud is a type of a server, which is remote (usually in Data Centers), meaning you
access it via the internet. Smart Charging solutions use either their own or rented servers.
When talking about intelligent cloud-based charging, we are actually talking about EV
charging stations connected to the internet and constantly communicating with a central
system.
Decisions are made remotely on the cloud system rather than on the local charging
equipment, then the instructions are sent back to the physical charging station over the
network.
Pros:

 Speed: Cloud systems perform calculations a lot faster than even the most
powerful high-end local controller
 Algorithms: Due to its high computing power, cloud-based load management can
apply more advanced optimization methods such as neural networks
 Storage: Bigger storage capacity on cloud servers, allow deep analysis of historical
data and continuous optimization of the system
 Interconnected: Easier to connect to the user and vehicle data, as well as third
party systems (e.g. Fleet Management Software) for user-centric optimization
 Maintenance & Updates: Cloud systems are easier to replace and can easily be
upgraded
 Cheaper: Server cost are continuously decreasing, while local (on-site)
implementation is cost-intensive

Local Smart Charging

As the name implies, the local version of smart charging has all of its functions installed
locally on-site.
Nearly all charging stations either lack or have very poor, decision-making systems
installed on the hardware. Consequently, you often see a separate controller installed next
to the chargers.
Prices of control switches usually start at around 100-200 USD and are limited to the
connection of 5 or 6 charging stations.

Pros:

 No connection required: As the local system has all the equipment set up on-site,
no internet communication is required
  Unaffected by internet downtime: If the internet fails or suffers connectivity
problems, the local load management usually carries on unaffected
 Connection speed: Even though the calculation time may be slower than the cloud
system, the exchange of data between local controller and charger is usually fast.

How are cloud-based systems dealing with connectivity and security?

 The second argument in Favor of local smart charging (i.e., remaining unaffected by
internet problems) leads us to think about the general security of the cloud-based
system.

 Even though complete internet breakdowns are becoming less and less frequent, a
system must still be protected from cyberattacks or server failures.

 It’s similar to the concept of a bank. It’s usually safer to keep your money with other
people in a bank rather than sitting alone in your dresser drawer.

 The security protection of cloud systems has been devised by some of the world's best
software developers and data security staff, and they’re pretty good at keeping things
safe online.

 For instance, in case of a server failure, the cloud system simply uses one of the
multiple back servers. Your charging station won’t even notice any change.

 We see a similar development regarding communication reliability. Although 5G and

LTE systems become more and more reliable, thousands of experts are continuously
improving these systems. Despite the constant security upgrades and network updates,
the systems continue uninterrupted due to the use of multiple back servers.
  The energy market often uses private networks with more secure devices connected to
autonomous vehicles or fast trains.

Battery pack sensing, specifically focusing on current and temperature measurements

within battery management systems (BMSs).
1. Current Sensing:
o In a battery pack, current sensing plays a crucial role. It involves measuring
the current flowing into (during charging) or out of (during
discharging) the battery.
o Why is this important? Well, accurate current measurements enable the BMS
to:
 Monitor the state of charge (SoC) and state of health (SoH) of the
battery pack.
 Estimate the exact driving range in electric vehicles (EVs).
 Control safety contactors that detect faults within or outside the battery
pack.
o There are two common methods for current measurement:
 Hall-effect sensors: These sensors detect magnetic fields generated by
the current flow.
 Shunt-based current measurements: Shunts (low-resistance
resistors) are placed in series with the battery pack. The voltage drop
across the shunt is proportional to the current, allowing accurate
measurement.
o Accuracy requirements vary based on the application. For example, in EV
BMSs, bidirectional battery pack current sensing typically requires high
accuracy across a wide current range1.
2. Temperature Sensing:
o Monitoring cell and battery pack temperatures is crucial for safety and
efficiency.
o Why?
 Safe operation: Ensures that the battery operates within safe
temperature limits.
 Efficiency: Accurate temperature data helps optimize charging and
discharging profiles.
o Temperature sensors are strategically placed to measure individual cell
temperatures and overall battery pack temperatures.
o The BMS uses this information to prevent overheating and maintain optimal
performance.

Remember, a well-designed BMS ensures battery safety, reliability, and efficiency. As we

transition toward renewable energy sources, batteries continue to play a vital role in energy
storage—from solar panels to electric vehicles.

Battery protection and explore its significance.

1. Battery Protection Units (BPU):
o Battery Protection Units (BPUs) play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and
longevity of batteries, especially Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) batteries.
o Why are BPUs necessary?
  The high power density of Li-Ion batteries has made them popular, but
their behavior can be unstable under critical conditions.
 A Battery Management System (BMS) is essential to monitor battery
state and ensure safe operation.
 BPUs prevent potential damage to battery cells and battery failure by
disconnecting the battery from the charger or load during critical
situations.
o Critical Conditions Monitored by BPUs:
 Over-charge: When the battery is charged beyond the allowed
maximum capacity.
 High & low temperature: When the internal temperature of battery
cells exceeds safe operational ranges.
 Over-discharge: When the battery is discharged below the allowed
minimum capacity.
 Over-current: Exposure to short-circuit conditions or high inrush
turn-on current.
 Reverse polarity: Incorrectly plugging in the battery terminals.
o Consequences of Ignoring Critical Conditions:
 Thermal runaway: Often caused by over-charging or over-heating,
leading to cell damage and even fires.
 Cell death: Discharging batteries below specified thresholds.
 Load device damage: Due to bad inrush current management or
reversed battery polarity.
2. Battery Protection Circuit:
o The battery protection circuit disconnects the battery from the load when
critical conditions are observed.
o It manages current flow into and out of the battery during pre-charge or
hotswap turn-on.
o Components:
 Electronic switch: Disconnects the battery during critical situations.
 MOSFETs: Used to switch lithium cells in and out of the circuit.
 Parallelization: Allows paralleling lithium cells with the same age and
part number, sharing one protection circuit.
3. Advantages of Infineon Battery Protection Solutions:
o Higher performance: Lower RDS (on) and wider safe operating area (SOA).
o Cost-effective: Compact bill of materials and effective parallelization.
o Short circuit protection: Accommodates higher peak current rates.
o Tailored solutions: Turn-on and turn-off solutions customized for specific
applications.
o Voltage range: Up to 600 V MOSFET protection

The Battery Interface ( BIF) is a single-wire hardware and software interface designed to
connect a power management chip in a device to a rechargeable battery. Here are some key
points about it:
1. Purpose: The MIPI BIF enables manufacturers to offer interoperable battery
products, reduce chipset space, and streamline the design, implementation, and
testing of components1.
2. Features:
 o Single-Wire Interface: It uses a single wire for communication between the
power management chip and the battery.
o Improved Performance and Safety: The interface enhances battery
performance and safety.

UNIT III -BATTERY MODELLING

Battery Modelling Methods-Equivalent Circuit Models, Electrochemical Model, Neural

Network Model. ECM Comparisons- Rint model, Thevenin model, PNGV model. State space
Models-Introduction. Battery Modelling software/simulation frameworks

Battery models have become an indispensable tool for the design of battery-powered
systems. Their uses include battery characterization, state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-
health (SOH) estimation, algorithm development, system-level optimization, and real-time
simulation for battery management system design.
 Engineers use equivalent circuits to model the thermo-electric behaviour of batteries,
parameterizing their nonlinear elements with correlation techniques that combine models and
experimental measurements via optimization.

Battery models based on equivalent circuits are preferred for system-level development and
controls applications due to their relative simplicity. The first step in the development of an
accurate battery model is to build and parameterize an equivalent circuit that reflects the
battery’s nonlinear behaviour and dependencies on temperature, SOC, SOH, and current.

These dependencies are unique to each battery’s chemistry and need to be determined using
measurements performed on battery cells of exactly the same type as those for which the
controller is being designed. Example battery models are available for download from
MATLAB Central.

Battery modelling methods are techniques to simulate the behaviour and performance of
batteries using mathematical equations or data-driven algorithms. They can be used for
various purposes, such as design optimization, state estimation, fault diagnosis, and control
strategies.

There are different types of battery modelling methods, such as:

Equivalent Circuit Models (ECMs): These models use passive electrical components, such
as resistors, capacitors, and voltage sources, to represent the electrical characteristics of
batteries. They are simple, fast, and easy to implement, but they may not capture the complex
physical and chemical processes inside the batteries

Electrochemical Models: These models describe the chemical reactions and transport
phenomena at the molecular level inside the batteries. They are more accurate and detailed,
but they require more parameters and computational resources

Neural Network Models: These models use artificial neural networks, which are data-driven
algorithms that can learn from input-output data, to predict the battery voltage or other
variables. They are flexible, adaptive, and robust, but they may not provide physical insights
or guarantee stability

Each modelling method has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of the best
method depends on the application and the available data.
ECM comparisons: Equivalent circuit models (ECMs) are simple and fast methods to
simulate the electrical characteristics of batteries.

There are different types of ECMs, such as the Rint model, the Thevenin model, and the
PNGV model.

These models use different combinations of resistors, capacitors, and voltage sources to
represent the battery behaviour.

The Rint model is the simplest one, using only one resistor and one voltage source.

The Thevenin model adds a capacitor and a resistor in parallel to account for the transient
response of the battery.

The PNGV model adds another capacitor and resistor in series to capture the concentration
polarization effect.

The main advantages and disadvantages of these models are summarized in the table
below.

 State space models: A state space model is a mathematical representation of a

physical system as a set of input, output, and state variables related by first-order
differential equations. The state variables define the values of the output variables. A
state space model can be written as:
where x(t) is the state vector, u(t) is the input vector, y(t) is the output vector, and A(t), B(t),
C(t), and D(t) are matrices that depend on the system parameters and time. A state space
model can be used to describe the dynamics of various systems, such as electrical circuits,
mechanical systems, chemical reactions, and biological processes.

Battery modelling software/simulation frameworks: There are various software tools and
frameworks that can be used to model and simulate batteries for different applications, such
as design optimization, state estimation, fault diagnosis, and control strategies. Some
examples of these tools are:

 Ansys: Ansys is a Multiphysics simulation software that can model and

analyze battery performance and aging, thermal management,
structural reliability, and electromagnetic interference.

 PyBaMM: PyBaMM is an open-source Python framework for running

fast and reliable battery simulations

 MATLAB/Simulink: MATLAB/Simulink is a software environment

for numerical computation, visualization, and simulation.
MATLAB/Simulink can model and simulate battery systems using
built-in or custom functions and blocks.
 UNIT IV- BATTERY STATE ESTIMATION

SOC Estimation- Definition, importance, single cell Vs series batteries SOC. Estimation

Methods-Load voltage, Electromotive force, AC impedance, Ah counting, Neural networks,

Neuro-fuzzy forecast method, Kalman filter. Estimation Algorithms.

Definition and Classification of SOC Estimation

The SOC is one of the most important parameters for batteries, but its definition presents

many different issues. In general, the SOC of a battery is defined as the ratio of its current

capacity to the nominal capacity. The nominal capacity is given by the manufacturer and

represents the maximum amount of charge that can be stored in the battery. The SOC can be

defined as follows:

The various mathematical methods of estimation are classified according to methodology.

The classification of these SOC estimation methods is different in the various literatures.

However, some literatures allow a division into the following four categories.

(i) Direct measurement: this method uses physical battery properties, such as the

voltage and impedance of the battery.

(ii) Book-keeping estimation: this method uses discharging current as the input and

integrates the discharging current over time to calculate the SOC.

(iii) Adaptive systems: the adaptive systems are self-designing and can automatically

adjust the SOC for different discharging conditions. Various new adaptive systems for SOC

estimation have been developed.

(iv) Hybrid methods: the hybrid models benefit from the advantages of each SOC

estimation method and allow a globally optimal estimation performance. The literature shows
that the hybrid methods generally produce good estimation of SOC, compared to individual

methods.

The state of charge (SOC) of a battery is the percentage of its available capacity compared

to its rated capacity. It is an important parameter for battery management systems, as it

indicates the potential energy of a battery and helps prevent overcharging or over discharging.

A single cell battery has only one unit that converts chemical energy into electrical energy,

while a series battery has multiple cells connected in a way that the current flows through all

of them. The voltage of a series battery is the sum of the voltages of the individual cells,

while the capacity is the same as the capacity of a single cell.

The SOC of a series battery depends on the number of cells in series, the capacity of a single

cell, the nominal voltage of a single cell, and the usable SOC window. The SOC of a series

battery can be calculated by the following formula:

SOC=QnQt×100%

where Qt is the real-time charge present in the battery, and Qn is the full battery capacity

charge.

The SOC of a series battery can also be affected by the capacity variation of the individual

cells, which can cause different charging and discharging rates and lead to imbalance and

aging of the cells. Therefore, it is important to monitor and balance the SOC of each cell in a

series battery to ensure optimal performance and longevity.

Single cell and series batteries are different ways of arranging battery cells to achieve

different voltage and capacity levels. A single cell battery has only one cell, which has a

voltage of about 4.45V and a certain capacity. A series battery has two or more cells

connected in series, which adds up the voltage of each cell, but keeps the same capacity as
one cell. For example, a series battery with two cells has a voltage of about 8.9V, but the

same capacity as a single cell battery.

The advantage of a single cell battery is that it is more stable and has a higher capacity than a

series battery of the same size. The disadvantage is that it cannot achieve high-power fast

charging, because the current required is too high and the heat generated is too much. The

advantage of a series battery is that it can achieve super-fast charging, because the current

required is lower and the heat generated is less. The disadvantage is that it has a lower

capacity than a single cell battery of the same size, and it requires high consistency between

the cells to ensure stable charging and discharging

These are some of the methods used to estimate the state of charge (SOC) of a battery,

which is a parameter that indicates the remaining capacity of a battery. Here is a brief

explanation of each method:

Load voltage: This method uses the terminal voltage of the battery under load as an indicator

of SOC. However, this method is not very accurate, because the terminal voltage depends on

the battery temperature, aging, and hysteresis effects.

Electromotive force: This method uses the open circuit voltage of the battery, which is the

voltage when no current is flowing, as an indicator of SOC. However, this method is also not

very accurate, because the open circuit voltage takes a long time to stabilize after a charge or

discharge, and it is affected by the battery temperature and aging.

AC impedance: This method uses the impedance of the battery, which is the opposition to

the flow of alternating current, as an indicator of SOC. However, this method is complex and

requires expensive equipment to measure the impedance at different frequencies.

Ah counting: This method tracks the SOC by integrating the current over time, starting from

a known initial SOC. The most common Ah counting method is Coulomb counting, which
measures the net charge in and out of the battery. However, this method is prone to errors due

to current measurement noise, self-discharge, and calibration issues.

Neural networks: This method uses artificial intelligence techniques to learn the relationship

between the measurements and the SOC. This method can capture the nonlinear and complex

behaviour of the battery, but it requires a large amount of training data and computational

resources.

Neuro-fuzzy forecast method and Kalman filter are two techniques that can be used to

estimate or predict future values of a variable based on past observations and measurements.

Here is a brief explanation of each technique:

Neuro-fuzzy forecast method: This method combines artificial neural networks and fuzzy

logic to create a flexible and adaptive forecasting model. Artificial neural networks are

computational systems that can learn from data and approximate complex nonlinear

functions. Fuzzy logic is a form of reasoning that deals with imprecise and uncertain

information, using linguistic terms and fuzzy rules. By integrating neural networks and fuzzy

logic, the neuro-fuzzy forecast method can capture the nonlinear and dynamic behaviour of

the variable, as well as incorporate human knowledge and experience into the model.

Kalman filter: This method is a recursive algorithm that estimates the state of a dynamic

system based on a series of noisy measurements. The Kalman filter consists of two steps:

prediction and update. In the prediction step, the Kalman filter uses a mathematical model of

the system to predict the next state and its uncertainty, based on the previous state and the

control input. In the update step, the Kalman filter uses the new measurement and its

uncertainty to correct the predicted state and reduce its uncertainty. The Kalman filter can

handle linear and Gaussian systems, as well as nonlinear and non-Gaussian systems with

some modifications, such as the extended Kalman filter or the unscented Kalman filter.
 UNIT V BMS ARCHITECTURE AND REAL TIME COMPONENTS
-
Battery Management System- need, operation, classification. BMS ASIC-bq76PL536A-Q1

Battery Monitor IC- CC2662R-Q1 Wireless BMS MCU. Communication Modules- CAN

Open-Flex Ray-CANedge1 package. ARBIN Battery Tester. BMS Development with

Modelling software and Model-Based Design.

A Battery Management System (BMS) is an electronic system that manages a

rechargeable battery, such as by monitoring its state, protecting it from damage, optimizing

its performance, and reporting its status1. A BMS is needed for various applications, such as

electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, and portable devices, where the battery is a

critical component that affects the safety, reliability, and efficiency of the system.

The operation of a BMS depends on the type and configuration of the battery, as well as the

requirements and specifications of the application. However, some common functions of a

BMS are:

 Measuring the voltage, current, temperature, and other parameters of the battery and

its cells

 Balancing the cells to ensure uniform charge and discharge.

 Controlling the charging and discharging process to prevent overcharging or deep

discharging

 Estimating the state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), and state of life (SOL) of

the battery

 Communicating with other devices and systems, such as chargers, inverters,

controllers, and displays

 Logging the data and events related to the battery operation and performance

 Providing protection and safety features, such as fuses, switches, relays, and alarms
The classification of a BMS can be based on different criteria, such as the topology,

functionality, or complexity of the system. One common way to classify a BMS is based on

the topology, which refers to how the BMS components are connected and distributed among

the battery cells and modules. According to this criterion, there are three main types of BMS:

centralized, modular, and distributed.

A centralized BMS has a single board that collects the data from all the cells and modules

and performs the management functions. This type of BMS is compact, cost-effective, and

easy to troubleshoot, but it may have limitations in scalability, reliability, and wiring

complexity.

A modular BMS has multiple slave boards that collect the data from each module and send it

to a master board, which coordinates the management of the entire battery. This type of BMS

is suitable for large and complex battery packs, as it allows for modular expansion and

redundancy, but it may have higher cost and power consumption.

A distributed BMS has individual boards for each cell or group of cells, which communicate

with a main controller that oversees the whole battery. This type of BMS is flexible, robust,

and scalable, as it eliminates the need for long wires and central points of failure, but it may

have challenges in synchronization, communication, and integration.

COMMUNICATION MODULES ARE:

CAN (Controller Area Network): A message-based protocol that allows multiple devices to

communicate on a single bus. It is widely used for low-speed and medium-speed

applications, such as body control, diagnostics, and infotainment. CAN supports two data

rates: Classical CAN (up to 1 Mbps) and CAN FD (up to 8 Mbps).

FlexRay: A deterministic and fault-tolerant protocol that enables high-speed and time-critical

communication. It is mainly used for safety and performance applications, such as chassis
control, engine management, and driver assistance. FlexRay supports data rates up to 10

Mbps and uses a dual-channel bus topology.

LIN (Local Interconnect Network): A simple and low-cost protocol that allows

communication between a master device and up to 16 slave devices. It is mainly used for

comfort and convenience applications, such as door locks, windows, mirrors, and seats. LIN

supports data rates up to 20 Kbps and uses a single-wire bus topology.

One of the products that combines these communication modules is the CANedge1 package

from CSS Electronics. It is a plug-and-play device that records timestamped CAN and LIN

data to an extractable SD card. It also includes a built-in GNSS/IMU module that adds data

like position, speed, attitude, and acceleration. The CANedge1 package is ideal for logging

data over long periods of time for diagnostics, development, or legal purposes.

The CANedge1 package is a product that allows you to record data from two CAN or LIN

buses to an SD card. It is a plug-and-play device that is easy to use and configure. It also

supports CAN FD, data encryption, and error frame logging. You can process the recorded

data using free and open-source software tools, such as converters, decoders, and dashboards.

The CANedge1 package is ideal for applications such as diagnostics, OEM development, or

legal/warranty purposes.

Arbin Instruments offers a range of battery testing solutions for research and industry,

including central data and control solutions, multi-channel charge/discharge testing systems,

and battery testing services. Arbin’s LBT, MSTAT, and HPS battery test systems provide

state-of-the-art battery test performance. Arbin offers battery test solutions starting from

small benchtop models, up to Gigafactory-scale testing with remote management & control,

and network database solutions. The Arbin MITS testing software suite allows clients to grow
from laboratory materials research to industrial battery test applications and production in a

single platform.

BMS Development with Modelling software and Model-Based Design is a process of

designing and testing battery management systems (BMS) using system-level simulation

tools such as Simulink. Model-Based Design enables engineers to gain insight into the

dynamic behaviour of the battery pack, explore software architectures, test operational cases,

and begin hardware testing earlier in the development process. Model-Based Design also

facilitates code generation for real-time simulation and hardware implementation of the BMS

algorithms. Some of the benefits of using Model-Based Design for BMS development are:

 Faster and more efficient design iterations

 Reduced development costs and risks

 Improved software quality and reliability

 Easier compliance with industry standards and regulations

BMS Development with Modelling software and Model-Based Design-resources:

 Developing Battery Management Systems with Simulink and Model-Based Design: A

white paper that describes the workflow and benefits of using Simulink and Model-

Based Design for BMS development.

 How model-based design can help accelerate BMS development: An article that

explains the importance of BMS and how Model-Based Design can help engineers

develop better BMS software faster.

 Developing BMS Software Faster with System-Level Simulation: A web page that

provides an overview of how system-level simulation with Simulink can help

engineers develop BMS software faster and more efficiently.

 Battery Management Systems Development with Simulink and Model-Based Design:

A web page that offers a free webinar on how to use Simulink and Model-Based

Design for BMS development.