LENS

The basic function of a camera lens is to "gather" light rays from a subject, form and focus those rays into
an image, and project this image onto film inside the camera. Optical glass can bend or change the
direction of light rays that pass through it. When a piece of glass is shaped with concave or convex
surfaces, light rays may be directed up, down, or straight, depending on the configuration of the lenses.

 A system of one or more pieces of glass bounded by spherical surfaces, the center of which is at
a common axis, termed the lens axis.
 A mechanism or system which converges or diverges light passing through it to form an image.

Two Main Types According to Shape:

a. Convergent/Positive/Convex Lens

- It is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it are bended toward
each other on the other side of lens meeting at a point. It produces a real image on the opposite side of
the lens or where light is coming from.

b. Divergent/Negative/Concave Lens

- It is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it are bended away from
each other as if coming from a point. It produces a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where
light is coming from.

LENS CHARACTERISTICS

1. Focal length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the
lens is set or focused at infinity position. As according to focal length, lenses may be classified

as:

a. Wide-angle lens – a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.

b. Normal lens – a lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more than twice the
diagonal of its negative material.

c. Long or Telephoto lens – a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its negative
material.

2. Relative aperture – The light-gathering power of the lens is expressed in the F-number system, also
known as the relative aperture. By increasing or decreasing the F-number numerically, it is possible to:

a. Control the amount of light passing through the lens.

b. Control the depth of field.

c. Control the degree of sharpness due to lens defects.

 Depth of field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent
sharp focus when the lens is set or focused at a particular distance.
  Hyper focal distance – is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular
diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field.

3. Focusing – is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image with a camera lens,
except those fixed focused require focusing. A lens may be focused by any of the following:

a. Focusing scale or scale bed – a scale is usually found on the lens barrel indicating pre-settled distance
in feet or meters. To focus the camera lens, the distance of the object to be photographed is measured,
estimated, or calculated, and the pointer or marker on the lens barrel is adjusted to the corresponding
number on the scale.

b. Range-finders – are mechanisms that measure the angle of convergence of light coming from a subject
as seen from two apertures. There are two types of range-finders:

 Split-image – through the rangefinder, the image of a straight line in the object appears to be cut
into halves and separated from each other when the lens is not in focus. When the images of the
lines are aligned, the lens is in focus.
 Co-incident image – through the eyepiece, a single image is seen double when the subject is out
of focus. Make the images coincide, and the lens is in focus.

DEFECTS OF LENSES:
1. Astigmatism - Astigmatism occurs when the lens is unable to bring both vertical and horizontal
lines into focus on the same plane. It is caused by axial rays (rays not parallel to the lens axis). This
defect manifests as lines of equal density (darkness) appearing less dense either horizontally or
vertically. Astigmatism can be mitigated by stopping down the lens (using a smaller lens opening,
resulting in a larger F number).
2. Coma - Coma distorts parallel oblique rays passing through the lens, resulting in an image that is
not focused as a point but rather as a comet-shaped (oval) image. Stopping down the lens can
help improve coma.
3. Curvature of Field - Curvature of field occurs when the plane of sharpest focus becomes curved
instead of flat. This defect is caused by rays from the outer limits of the subject plane coming into
focus nearer to the lens than the axial rays. Unlike astigmatism and coma, stopping down the lens
does not improve curvature of field.
4. Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration - This defect refers to the lens's inability to focus all colors
(wavelengths) at the same plane on the lens axis. Longitudinal chromatic aberration is not
improved by stopping down the lens and is typically more noticeable in long telephoto lenses. It
can be reduced by using special glass elements, such as ED, ID, LD, or Fluorite elements.
5. Lateral Chromatic Aberration - This aberration involves the lateral displacement of color images
at the focal plane. It occurs due to the different sizes of images produced by different colors, even
though all the images are on the same plane. Lateral chromatic aberration results in color fringing,
typically red or blue, and is not improved by stopping down the lens.
6. Spherical Aberration - Spherical aberration refers to the inability of all rays to focus at the same
point. Marginal rays, which are at the edge of the lens, come to focus closer to the lens than
paraxial rays, which are parallel to the lens axis or center.
7. Distortion - Distortion causes the image of a straight line, particularly at the edges of the field
(CCD), to bow in or out. There are two types of distortion: pincushion distortion (bowed in) and
barrel distortion (bowed out). Distortion is produced by variations in magnification over the lens's
field, especially at the ends of its range, such as maximum wide angle or maximum telephoto. It
does not affect sharpness but alters the shape of the image. Distortion is not improved by
stopping down and is common in extreme wide-angle lenses and lenses with wide-angle adapters.
8. Flare - Flare refers to non-image-forming light that reduces contrast and color saturation. It is
caused by very bright subject areas and results in internal reflections within the lens. Flare can be
increased by stacking filters and is minimized by lens coatings provided by the manufacturer. The
use of a suitable hood, rather than the stock hood, can also help reduce flare, especially in
telephoto lenses. Flare does not affect sharpness but can alter the shape of the image. Like
distortion, flare is not improved by stopping down and is common in extreme wide-angle lenses
and lenses with wide-angle adapters.

What are the special types of lenses?

1. Macro Lenses

The word “macro” is derived from Greek word which means “to enlarge”. In photographic terms, a
macro lens is designed with extended focusing capabilities to shoot a few inches from the subject.

Two Main Types:

 One is meant to be used on a hand-held tripod mounted camera and ranges from 40mm to
about 90mm with the average about 25mm.
 Wide angle or a lens with focal length of 100mm or more and is designed with a close-up
bellows attachment of the camera. The longer lenses give a longer image and are most
suitable for static subjects and painstaking photography.

2. Zoom Lenses

Allow quick adjustment to give a wide or narrow field of vision. It can be moved back and forth while
other elements stay in place which give the same effects as if the camera itself was moving towards
or away from the subject.
1. LCD Display: The LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a screen on the back of the camera that displays
various settings, menus, and images captured by the camera.

2. Viewfinder: The viewfinder is an optical or electronic device located at the top of the camera, which
allows the photographer to frame and compose the shot by looking through it.

3. Power Switch: This is a switch used to turn the camera on or off.

4. Cross Keys: These are directional buttons typically found on the back of the camera, used for
navigating menus, selecting settings, or moving focus points.

5. Erase Button: Pressing this button allows you to delete unwanted images from the camera's
memory card.

6. Play Button: The play button is used to review images or videos stored on the camera's memory
card.

7. Lens: The lens is a crucial component that focuses light onto the camera's sensor, forming an image.

8. Lens Release Button: This button is used to detach the lens from the camera body for changing
lenses.

9. Flash Button: Pressing this button activates the built-in flash or external flash unit attached to the
camera.

10. Lens Focus Mode Switch: This switch on the lens allows you to select between different focusing
modes such as autofocus (AF), manual focus (MF), or continuous autofocus (AF-C).
11. Flash: A flash is a device used to produce a burst of artificial light to illuminate scenes or subjects
in low-light conditions.

12. Mode Dial: The mode dial allows you to select different shooting modes such as automatic,
manual, aperture priority, shutter priority, and scene modes.

13. Main Dial: The main dial is typically located near the shutter button and is used to adjust settings
such as aperture, shutter speed, or exposure compensation, depending on the shooting mode.

14. Shutter Button: The shutter button is pressed to take a photograph. Half-pressing the button
typically activates autofocus, and fully pressing it captures the image.

15. Manual Mode: A shooting mode on a DSLR camera where the photographer has full control over
both the aperture and shutter speed settings, allowing for precise adjustment of exposure.

16. Aperture Priority Mode: A shooting mode on a DSLR camera where the photographer selects the
desired aperture (f-stop), and the camera automatically adjusts the shutter speed to achieve the
proper exposure.

17. Shutter Priority Mode: A shooting mode on a DSLR camera where the photographer selects the
desired shutter speed, and the camera automatically adjusts the aperture to achieve the proper
exposure.

18. Auto Exposure Mode: A shooting mode on a DSLR camera where the camera automatically adjusts
both the aperture and shutter speed settings to achieve the proper exposure.

19. Full Auto Mode: A shooting mode on a DSLR camera where the camera automatically selects all
exposure settings, including aperture, shutter speed, and ISO, as well as other settings like focus and
white balance