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DATA Module 3
Analog & Digital
Communications Concepts
Introduction

& A computer network is designed to send information from one point to

another. This information needs to be converted to either a digital signal
or an analog signal for transmission. In this chapter, we discuss the first
choice, conversion to digital signals; in Chapter 5, we discuss the second
choice, conversion to analog signals.

We discussed the advantages and disadvantages of digital transmission

II. over analog transmission. In this chapter, we show the schemes and
techniques that we use to transmit data digitally. First, we discuss digital-
to-digital conversion techniques, methods which convert digital data to
digital signals. Second, we discuss analog-to-digital conversion
III. Analog & Digital Transmission techniques, methods which change an analog signal to a digital signaL
Finally, we discuss transmission modes.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end the module, the students are expected to introduce the
concepts of Data Communication and networking:

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❖ CONTENTS OF THE MODULE LESSON 1

This module contains the following lessons:

Lesson 1 : DATA DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

Lesson 2 : Signal Characteristics Specific Learning Outcomes
DIRECTIONS ON HOW TO USE THE MODULE PROPERLY At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

In order to benefit profoundly from this module, please be guided by all ● Explain what is analog and digital transmission
the key points presented below. ● Distinguish Between Analog and Digital transmission
1. This module contains two (2) lessons. Each lesson is explained
substantively.
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Read the explanations thoroughly so that you could understand the
lesson fully. We discussed data and signals. We said that data can be either digital or
analog. We also said that signals that represent data can also be digital or
2. Please use Microsoft Word Long Size for the answer and convert to analog. In this section, we see how we can represent digital data by using
PDF. If you want to send your documents online, just send it to our digital signals. The conversion involves three techniques: line coding,
Google classroom account block coding, and scrambling. Line coding is always needed~ block
coding and scrambling mayor may not be needed.
Section B: class code : sa5aesv

E-mail : [email protected]
LINE CODING
3. Feel free to chat, call, text or send an email message to me if you have
questions, reaction, reflections about the content or activities in the Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. We
module. assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio,
4. The deadline for the submission for this will be posted to our group or video, are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits. Line
chat or google classroom. coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender,
digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital
data are recreated by decoding the digital signal. Figure 1 shows the

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process.

Signal Element Versus Data Element Let us distinguish between a data

element and a signal element. In data communications, our goal is to
send data elements. A data element is the smallest entity that can
represent a piece of information: this is the bit. In digital data
communications, a signal element carries data elements. A signal element
is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal. In other words, data
elements are what we need to send; signal elements are what we can
send. Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers. In part a of the figure, one data element is carried by one signal element
(r = 1). In part b of the figure, we need two signal elements (two
transitions) to carry each data element (r = !/2 ). We will see later that the
We define a ratio r which is the number of data elements carried by each extra signal element is needed to guarantee 2 synchronization. In part c
signal element. Figure 2 shows several situations with different values of of the figure, a signal element carries two data elements (r = 2). Finally,
r. in part d, a group of 4 bits is being carried by a group of three signal
elements (r = 4/3). For every line coding scheme we discuss, we will give
the value of r

Self-synchronization
To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receiver's
bit intervals must correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals. If the
receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals are not matched and the
receiver might misinterpret the signals. Figure 4.3 shows a situation in
which the receiver has a shorter bit duration. The sender sends 10110001,
while the receiver receives 110111000011.

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bits received 1000 extra bps

Built-in Error Detection It is desirable to have a built-in error-detecting

capability in the generated code to detect some of or all the errors that
occurred during transmission. Some encoding schemes that we will
discuss have this capability to some extent.

Immunity to Noise and Interference Another desirable code characteristic

is a code I that is immune to noise and other interferences. Some
encoding schemes that we will discuss have this capability.

Complexity A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a

Ef ect of lack of synchronization
simple one. For example, a scheme that uses four signal levels is more
difficult to interpret than one that uses only two levels.
A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the
data being transmitted. This can be achieved if there are transitions in the
signal that alert the receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of the pulse.
If the receiver's clock is out of synchronization, these points can reset the
clock.
Example Line Coding Schemes
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than the We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five broad
sender clock. How many extra bits per second does the receiver receive if categories, as shown in Line Coding schemes.
the data rate is 1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?

Solution

At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000 bp 1000 bits

sent 1001 bits received 1extra bps At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives

1,001,000 bps instead of 1,000,000 bps. 1,000,000 bits sent 1,001,000

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Compared with its polar counterpart (see the next section), this
scheme is very costly. As we will see shortly, the normalized
power (power needed to send 1 bit per unit line resistance) is
double that for polar NRZ. For this reason, this scheme is
There are several schemes in each category. We need to be normally not used in data communications today.
familiar with all schemes discussed in this section to understand
the rest of the book. This section can be used as a reference for Polar Schemes
schemes encountered later.
In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time
Unipolar Scheme axis. For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the
voltage level for I can be negative.
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the
time axis, either above or below. Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) In polar NRZ encoding, we use two
levels of voltage amplitude. We can have two versions of polar
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was NRZ: NRZ-Land NRZ-I, as shown in Figure. The figure also
designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme in which the shows the value of r, the average baud rate, and the bandwidth. In
positive voltage defines bit I and the zero voltage defines bit O. It the first variation, NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage
is determines the value of the bit. In the second variation, NRZ-I
called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the (NRZ-Invert),
middle of the bit. Figure is a unipolar NRZ scheme. the change or lack of change in the level of the voltage
determines the value of the bit. If there is no change, the bit is 0;
if there is a change, the bit is 1.

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change of polarity in the system. For example, if twisted-pair

cable is the medium, a change in the polarity of the wire results in
all interpreted as Is and all Is interpreted as as. NRZ-I does not
have this problem. Both schemes have an average signal rate
ofNI2 Bd.

Bipolar Schemes
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there
value of the bit. are three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero. The voltage
level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for
Let us compare these two schemes based on the criteria we the other element alternates between positive and negative.
previously defined. Although baseline wandering is a problem for
both variations, it is twice as severe in NRZ-L. If there is a long AMI and Pseudoternary show two variations of bipolar
sequence of Os or Is in NRZ-L, the average signal power encoding: AMI and pseudoternary. A common bipolar encoding
becomes skewed. The receiver might have difficulty discerning scheme is called bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI). In the
the bit value. In NRZ-I this problem occurs only for a long term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from
sequence of as. If somehow we can eliminate the long sequence telegraphy and means 1. So AMI means alternate I inversion. A
of as, we can avoid baseline wandering. We will see shortly how neutral zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary Is are represented
this can be done. by alternating positive and negative voltages. A variation of AMI
encoding is called pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded as
The synchronization problem (sender and receiver clocks are not a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and
synchronized) also exists in both schemes. Again, this problem is negative voltages.
more serious in NRZ-L than in NRZ-I. While a long sequence of
as can cause a problem in both schemes, a long sequence of 1s
affects only NRZ-L.

Another problem with NRZ-L occurs when there is a sudden

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Multilevel Schemes

The desire to increase the data speed or decrease the required

bandwidth has resulted in the creation of many schemes. The goal
is to increase the number of bits per baud by encoding a pattern of
m data elements into a pattern of n signal elements. We only have
two types of data elements (Os and Is), which means that a group
The bipolar scheme was developed as an alternative to NRZ. The
bipolar scheme has the same signal rate as NRZ, but there is no of m data elements can produce a combination of 2m data
DC component. The NRZ scheme has most of its energy patterns. We can have different types of signal elements by
concentrated near zero frequency, which makes it unsuitable for allowing different signal levels. If we have L different levels, then
transmission over channels with poor performance around this we can produce Ln combinations of signal patterns. If 2m =Ln,
frequency. The concentration of the energy in bipolar encoding is then each data pattern is encoded into one signal pattern. If 2m <
around frequency N12. Figure shows the typical energy Ln, data patterns occupy only a subset of signal patterns. The
concentration for a bipolar scheme.
subset can be carefully designed to prevent baseline wandering, to
provide synchronization, and to detect errors that occurred during
One may ask why we do not have DC component in bipolar
data transmission. Data encoding is not possible if 2m > Ln
encoding. We can answer this question by using the Fourier
because some of the data patterns cannot be encoded.
transform, but we can also think about it intuitively. If we have a
Block Coding
long sequence of 1s, the voltage level alternates between positive
and negative; it is not constant. Therefore, there is no DC
We need redundancy to ensure synchronization and to provide
component. For a long sequence of Os, the voltage remains
some kind of inherent error detecting. Block coding can give us
constant, but its amplitude is zero, which is the same as having no
this redundancy and improve the performance of line coding. In
DC component. In other words, a sequence that creates a constant
general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n
zero voltage does not have a DC component.
bits, where n is larger than m. Block coding is referred to as an
AMI is commonly used for long-distance communication, but it
mB/nB encoding technique.
has a synchronization problem when a long sequence of Os is
present in the data. Later in the chapter, we will see how a
Block coding is normally referred to as mBlnB coding; it replaces
scrambling technique can solve this problem.
each m~bit group with an n~bit group.

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The slash in block encoding (for example, 4B/5B) distinguishes to be used in combination with NRZ-I. Recall that NRZ-I has a
block encoding from multilevel encoding (for example, 8B6T), good signal rate, one-half that of the biphase, but it has a
which is written without a slash. Block coding normally involves synchronization problem. A long sequence of as can make the
three steps: division, substitution, and combination. In the receiver clock lose synchronization. One solution is to change the
division step, a sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits. bit stream, prior to encoding with NRZ-I, so that it does not have
For example, in 4B/5B encoding, the original bit sequence is a long stream of as. The 4B/5B scheme achieves this goal. The
divided into 4-bit groups. The heart of block coding is the block-coded stream does not have more than three consecutive as,
substitution step. In this step, we substitute an m-bit group for an as we will see later. At the receiver, the NRZ-I encoded digital
n-bit group. For example, in 4B/5B encoding we substitute a 4-bit signal is first decoded into a stream of bits and then decoded to
code for a 5-bit group. Finally, the n-bit groups are combined remove the redundancy. Figure 4.15 shows the idea.
together to form a stream. The new stream has more bits than the
original bits.

8RIlOR
The eight binary/ten binary (SBIlOB) encoding is similar to
4B/5B encoding except that a group of 8 bits of data is now
substituted by a lO-bit code. It provides greater error detection
capability than 4B/5B. The 8BIlOB block coding is actually a
combination of 5B/6B and 3B/4B encoding,

4B/5B
The four binary/five binary (4B/5B) coding scheme was designed

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component. Bipolar AMI encoding, on the other hand, has a

narrow bandwidth and does not create a DC component.
However, a long sequence of Os upsets the synchronization. If We
can find a way to avoid a long sequence of Os in the original
stream, we can use bipolar AMI for long distances. We are
looking for a technique that does not increase the number of bits
and does provide synchronization. We are looking for a solution
The most five significant bits of a 10-bit block are fed into the that substitutes long zero-level pulses with a combination of other
5B/6B encoder; the least 3 significant bits are fed into a 3B/4B levels to provide synchronization. One solution
encoder. The split is done to simplify the mapping table. To is called scrambling. We modify part of the AMI rule to include
prevent a long run of consecutive Os or Is, the code uses a scrambling, as shown in Figure 4.18. Note that scrambling, as
disparity controller which keeps track of excess Os over Is (or Is opposed to block coding, is done at the same time as encoding.
over Os). If the bits in the current block create a disparity that The system needs to insert the required pulses based on the
contributes to the previous disparity (either direction), then each defined scrambling rules. Two common scrambling techniques
bit in the code is complemented (a 0 is changed to a 1 and a 1 is are B8ZS and HDB3.
changed to a 0). The coding has 210 - 28 =768 redundant groups
that can be used for disparity checking and error detection. In R8ZS
general, the technique is superior to 4B/5B because of better built-
in error-checking capability and better synchronization. Bipolar with S-zero substitution (BSZS) is commonly used in
North America. In this technique, eight consecutive zero-level
voltages are
SCRAMBLING

Biphase schemes that are suitable for dedicated links between

stations in a LAN are not suitable for long-distance
communication because of their wide bandwidth requirement.
The combination of block coding and NRZ line coding is not
suitable for long-distance encoding either, because of the DC

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B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with OOOVBOVB.

One more point is worth mentioning. The letter V (violation) or B

(bipolar) here is relative. The V means the same polarity as the
polarity of the previous non zero pulse; B means the polarity
r opposite to the polarity of the previous non zero pulse.

eplaced by the sequence OOOVBOVB. The V in the sequence SUMMARY

denotes violation; this is a nonzero voltage that breaks an AMI ● Digital-to-digital conversion involves three techniques: line
rule of encoding (opposite polarity from the previous). The B in
coding, block coding, and scrambling.
the sequence denotes bipolm; which means a nonzero level
voltage in accordance with the AMI rule. ● o Line coding is the process of converting digital data to a
digital signal.
● We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five broad
categories: unipolar, polar, bipolar, multilevel, and multi
Two cases ofB8ZS scrambling technique transition.
● Block coding provides redundancy to ensure
synchronization and inherent error detection. Block coding
is normally referred to as mB/nB coding; it replaces each
m-bit group with an n-bit group.
● Scrambling provides synchronization without increasing the
number of bits. Two common scrambling techniques are
B8ZS and HDB3.
Note that the scrambling in this case does not change the bit rate.
Also, the technique balances the positive and negative voltage
levels (two positives and two negatives), which means that the Reference
DC balance is maintained. Note that the substitution may change
the polarity of a 1 because, after the substitution, AMI needs to Behrouz A. Foruszan, Data Communication and Networking Fourth
follow its rules. Edition..

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Learning Activities / Exercises this step, we substitute an m-bit group for an n-bit group. For
example, in 4B/5B encoding we substitute a 4-bit code for a 5-bit
1. List three techniques of digital-to-digital conversion. group. Finally, the n-bit groups are combined together to form a
stream. The new stream has more bits than the original bits. Block
 Line Coding coding provides redundancy to ensure synchronization
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital  Scrambling
signals. We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical
images, audio, or video, are stored in computer memory as Biphase schemes that are suitable for dedicated links between
sequences of bits (see Chapter 1). Line coding converts a sequence stations in a LA N are not suitable for long-distance
of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data are encoded into communication because of their wide bandwidth requirement.
a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by The combination of block coding and NR Z line coding is not
decoding the digital signal. suitable for long-distance encoding either, because of the DC
component. Bipolar AM I encoding, on the other hand, has a
narrow bandwidth and does not create a DC component.
However, a long sequence of Os upsets the synchronization. If we
 Block Coding
can find a way to avoid a long sequence of Os in the original
Block Coding, we need redundancy to ensure synchronization and to stream, we can use bipolar AM I for long distances. We are
provide some kind of inherent error detecting. Block coding can give looking for a technique that does not increase the number of bits
us this redundancy and improve the performance of line coding. In and does provide synchronization. We are looking for a solution
general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n that substitutes long zero-level pulses with a combination of other
bits, where n is larger than m. Block coding is referred to as an levels to provide synchronization. One solution is called
mBlnB encoding technique. scrambling. We modify part of the AM I rule to include
scrambling, as shown in Figure 4.18. Note that scrambling, as
The slash in block encoding (for example, 4B/5B) distinguishes opposed to block coding, is done at the same time as encoding.
block encoding from multilevel encoding (for example, 8B6T), The system needs to insert the required pulses based on the
which is written without a slash. Block coding normally involves defined scrambling rules. Two common scrambling techniques
three steps: division, substitution, and combination. In the division are B8ZS and HDB3.
step, a sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits. For Scrambling provides synchronization without increasing the
example, in 4B/5B encoding, the original bit sequence is divided into number of bits. Two common scrambling techniques are
4-bit groups. The heart of block coding is the substitution step. In B8ZS and HDB3.

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"In decoding a digital signal, the incoming signal power

2. Distinguish between a signal element and a data element. is evaluated against the baseline (a running average of the
received signal power). A long string of 0s or 1s can cause
A signal element is the shortest element of digital signal. baseline wandering (a drift in the baseline) and make it
Data elements are being carried while signal element are the
difficult for the receiver to decode correctly."
carriers. Data elements are need to send. Data element is the
behaviour of element.
5. Define a DC component and its effect on digital transmission.
"A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece
of information (a bit). Data elements are what we DC components are very low frequencies, around zero, created
need to send; signal elements are what we can send. Data by the spectrum when the voltage level in a digital signal is
elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers." constant for a while.
The effect of a DC component on digital transmission is that it
presents problems for a system

3.Distinguish between data rate and signal rate.

Data and signals are like two building blocks of computer 6. Define the characteristics of a self-synchronizing signal.
networks. All the data transmitted over channel can either be in
analog form or digital form. Data are manipulated in the signal A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing
form suitable for the transmission channel. Like data elements, information in the data being transmitted. This can be
signal can also either in analog form or digital form. achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the
Data rate is also known as bit rate and it defines the # of receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of the pulse.
data elements/bit sent is 1s. 7. Define the characteristics of a self-synchronizing signal.
Signal rate is also known as the pulse rate and it is the # of A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing
single elements sent in 1s. Data rate unit is bps and Signal.
information in the data being transmitted. This can be
4. Define baseline wandering and its effect on digital achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the
transmission. receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of the pulse.

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only choice if we have a bandpass channel. Digital transmission was

Assignment # 6: discussed. We discuss analog transmission in this chapter.

1. What are the differences between parallel and serial Converting digital data to a bandpass analog signal.is traditionally called
transmission? digital to-analog conversion. Converting a low-pass analog signal to a
bandpass analog signal is traditionally called analog-to-analog
In parallel transmission we send data several bits at a time. In serial conversion. In this chapter, we discuss these two types of conversions.
transmission we send data one bit at a time.

2. List three different techniques in serial transmission and explain

the differences. DIGITAL -TO - ANALOG CONVERSION
We mentioned synchronous, asynchronous, and isochronous. In both Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one
synchronous and asynchronous transmissions, a bit stream is divided into of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the information
independent frames. In synchronous transmission, the bytes inside each in digital data. Figure 5.1 shows the relationship between the
frame are synchronized; in asynchronous transmission, the bytes inside each digital information, the digital-to-analog modulating process, and
frame are also independent. In isochronous transmission, there is no the resultant analog signal.
independency at all. All bits in the whole stream must be synchronized.

LESSON 2

ANALOG TRANSMISSION
Specific Learning Outcomes
A sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude, frequency, and
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
phase. When we vary anyone of these characteristics, we create a
● Understand the concept of Analog Transmission different version of that wave. So, by changing one characteristic of a
simple electric signal, we can use it to represent digital data. Any of the
We discussed the advantages and disadvantages of digital and analog three characteristics can be altered in this way, giving us at least three
transmission. We saw that while digital transmission is very desirable, a mechanisms for modulating digital data into an analog signal: amplitude
low-pass channel is needed. We also saw that analog transmission is the shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying

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(PSK). In addition, there is a fourth (and better) mechanism that S=Nx!/r baud
combines changing both the amplitude and phase, called quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM). QAM is the most efficient of these where N is the data rate (bps) and r is the number of data elements
options and is the mechanism commonly used today. carried in one signal element. The value of r in analog transmission is r
=log2 L, where L is the type of signal element, not the level. The same
nomenclature is used to simplify the comparisons.

Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is the number of
signal elements per second. In the analog transmission of digital data, the
baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
Types of digital-to-analog conversion Bandwidth
Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
The required bandwidth for analog transmission of digital data is
Before we discuss specific methods of digital-to-analog modulation, proportional to the signal rate except for FSK, in which the difference
two basic issues must be reviewed: bit and baud rates and the carrier between the carrier signals needs to be added. We discuss the bandwidth
signal. for each technique.

Data Element Versus Signal Element Carrier Signal

The concept of the data element versus the signal element. We defined In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency
a data element as the smallest piece of information to be exchanged, the signal that acts as a base for the information signal. This base signal is
bit. We also defined a signal element as the smallest unit of a signal that called the carrier signal or carrier frequency. The receiving device is
is constant. Although we continue to use the same terms in this chapter, tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that it expects from the
we will see that the nature of the signal element is a little bit different in sender. Digital information then changes the carrier signal by modifying
analog transmission. one or more of its characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase). This
kind of modification is called modulation (shift keying).
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
Amplitude Shift Keying
We can define the data rate (bit rate) and the signal rate (baud rate) as
we did for digital transmission. The relationship between them is In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to
create signal elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant while

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the amplitude changes. Binary FSK (BFSK)

Binary ASK (BASK)

One way to think about binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier
Although we can have several levels (kinds) of signal elements, each frequencies. In Figure 5.6, we have selected two carrier frequencies,f}
with a different amplitude, ASK is normally implemented using only two and12. We use the first carrier if the data element is 0; we use the second
levels. This is referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off if the data element is 1. However, note that this is an unrealistic example
keying (OOK). The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is used only for demonstration purposes. Normally the carrier frequencies
the same as the amplitude of the carrier frequency. Figure below gives a are very high, and the difference between them is very small.
conceptual view of binary ASK.
As Figure 5.6 shows, the middle of one bandwidth isJI and the middle of the
Multilevel ASK other ish. Both JI and12 are il/ apart from the midpoint between the two
The above discussion uses only two amplitude levels. We can have bands. The difference between the two frequencies is 211f.
multilevel ASK in which there are more than two levels. We can use 4,8, Bandwidth for BFSK Figure 5.6 also shows the bandwidth of FSK.
16, or more different amplitudes for the signal and modulate the data Again the carrier signals are only simple sine waves, but the modulation
using 2, 3, 4, or more bits at a time. In these cases, r = 2, r = 3, r =4, and creates a nonperiodic composite signal with continuous frequencies. We
so on. Although this is not implemented with pure ASK, it is can think of FSK as two ASK signals, each with its own carrier
implemented with QAM (as we will see later). frequency Cil orh). If the difference between the two frequencies is 211j,
then the required bandwidth is

Frequency Shift Keying What should be the minimum value of 211/? In Figure 5.6, we
have chosen a value greater than (l + d)S. It can be shown that the
minimum value should be at least S for the proper operation of
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
modulation and demodulation.
represent data. The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the
duration of one signal element, but changes for the next signal element if
the data element changes. Both peak amplitude and phase remain We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to
constant for all signal elements. 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using FSK with d =1?

Solution

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This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are modulating by using

FSK. The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2~f to be 50
kHz; this means

B =(1 + d) x S + 28f =100 -. 2S =50 kHz S = 25 kbaud N ;;;25 kbps

Compared to Example 5.3, we can see the bit rate for ASK is 50 kbps
while the bit rate for FSK is 25 kbps.
Implementation of BFSK
Implementation There are two implementations of BFSK: noncoherent
and coherent. In noncoherent BFSK, there may be discontinuity in the
phase when one signal element ends and the next begins. In coherent
BFSK, the phase continues through the boundary of two signal elements. SUMMARY
Noncoherent BFSK can be implemented by treating BFSK as two ASK
modulations and using two carrier frequencies. Coherent BFSK can be ● Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the
implemented by using one voltage-controlled oscillator (VeO) that characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in the
changes its frequency according to the input voltage. Figure 5.7 shows digital data.
the simplified idea behind the second implementation. The input to the ● Digital-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in several ways:
oscillator is the unipolar NRZ signal. When the amplitude of NRZ is amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and
zero, the oscillator keeps its regular frequency; when the amplitude is phase shift keying (PSK). Quadrature amplitude modulation
positive, the frequency is increased. (QAM) combines ASK and PSK.
● In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is
varied to create signal elements. Both frequency and phase remain
constant while the amplitude changes.
● In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is
varied to represent data. The frequency of the modulated signal is
constant for the duration of one signal element, but changes for the
next signal element if the data element changes. Both peak
amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.
● In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent
two or more different signal elements. Both peak amplitude and

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frequency remain constant as the phase changes. 2. Define carrier signal and its role in analog transmission.
● A constellation diagram shows us the amplitude and phase of a
signal element, particularly when we are using two carriers (one A carrier signal is a single-frequency signals that has one of its
in-phase and one quadrature). characteristics like as. amplitude, frequency, or phase. Its role in
analog transmission is changed to represent the. baseband signal.

3. Define digital-to-analog conversion.

Learning Activities / Exercises Digital-to-analog conversion is a process in which signals having a few
(usually two) defined levels or states (digital) are converted into signals
1. Define analog transmission. having a theoretically infinite number of states (analog). A common
example is the processing, by a modem, of computer data into audio-
Analog transmission is the traditional method of sending and frequency (AF) tones that can be transmitted over a twisted pair telephone
receiving.
line. The circuit that performs this function is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

4. Define analog-to-analog conversion?

Digital-to-analog conversion is a process in which signals having a few (usually two) defined levels or states (digital) are converted into signals having a
theoretically infinite number of states (analog). A common example is the processing, by a modem, of computer data into audio-frequency (AF) tones that
can be transmitted over a twisted pair telephone line. The circuit that performs this function is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
5. Define a DC component and its effect on digital transmission.
"When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a
while, the spectrum creates very low frequencies, called
DC components, that present problems for a system that
cannot pass low frequencies."
Assignment # 7:
1. Which of the three analog-to-analog conversion techniques
(AM, FM, or PM) is the most susceptible to noise?
The most susceptible is AM (Amplitude Modulation) than the FM and PM because the
amplitude is more affected by noise than the frequency or p
hase.

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