Literary Techniques

Once you’ve understood how to go about answering your Paper 1 and Paper 2 questions,
take a look at the following list (which is in no particular order, by the way). While this is
not a complete list of literary techniques (there are absolutely TONS in the English
language), it is comprised of many techniques that you may find in Paper 1 passages and
may use yourself in Paper 2 questions.

Brace yourselves, though, because this is one LONG list, and I may keep adding to it if I
think of any more relevant literary techniques.

Just a little note: while I’ve used the words ‘writer’, ‘reader’ and ‘text’ throughout this
list, remember that it can be a ‘speaker’ and a ‘listener’, too, in some cases (e.g.,
voiceovers, T.V. broadcasts, podcasts, speeches etc).

1. Similes and metaphors

 This is when the writer likens one thing to another using words such as ‘like’ or ‘as’.
Examples include ‘The little boy’s golden locks framed his face like a lion’s mane.’ or
‘She looked as thin as a beanpole.’ These allow the reader to vividly picture what the
author is trying to say. In the example above, for instance, it is implied that the boy’s
hair does not simply sit on his head; it is voluminous and, perhaps, allows to give him
an intimidating image. In this way, even though we do not know much about the
boy’s appearance initially, the writer is trying to help us understand using the image
of ‘a lion’s mane’, something we are already familiar with.
 Metaphors are similar to similes, but a more direct comparison is made. Therefore,
writers may use them to create a much more striking image. For example, ‘The stars
were diamonds in the midnight sky.’ Notice how there is no ‘like’ or ‘as’ in this
sentence.
 When a metaphorical idea is developed as a text progresses, it is know as an extended
metaphor or an extended image.

2. Personification

 This is when a writer describes something non-human using human-like actions and
emotions. (When these characteristics are applied to aspects of nature, specifically, it
is known as a ‘pathetic fallacy’.)
 An example would be ‘Amanda watched as the sea roared in fury.’
 Of course, we know that a sea cannot actually roar and be furious, but since we are,
quite obviously, humans, we can imagine what the sea was like because human
emotions are attributed to it; we have all become furious at some point, and it is a
feeling we are very likely to be familiar with.

3. Symbolism

 This is the use of symbols to portray an idea.

 For instance, a white dove is a symbol of peace.
 Usually, what the symbol looks like is a key to helping us understand the idea that it
symbolises. In the case of the dove, the colour white is one that brings a sense of
serenity to our minds.

4. Using the five senses

 Writers often describe settings by appealing to the reader’s senses.

 They do this by mentioning the sounds, sights, smells, tastes, and, less commonly,
the feel or texture of things.
 This allows the text to have some ‘depth’. Plus, going on and on about only what you
can see is extremely boring!

5. Foreshadowing

 This technique involves the writer hinting that something is going to happen, usually
something bad.
 A very common example in fiction would be the appearance of a stormy sky.
 This acts as a sort of ‘sneak peek’ for the readers and may even be used as a
cliffhanger at the end of a chapter, for example, to create suspense and leave readers
hanging.

6. Tone

 This is the writer’s attitude towards what he is writing or to his readers.

 Different tones allow writers to convey messages differently.
 In some passages, the tone can change suddenly, e.g. with the introduction of a new
character. In others, the tone may not even be very apparent or might be very
understated. Make sure to write about this in your commentary.
 In Paper 2, remember to adopt a tone that is appropriate to your audience and the
kind of literary piece you are writing.
 In Paper 1, when commenting on the writer’s tone, make sure to not just say that it is
‘happy’, ‘sad’ or ‘angry’. Avoid words like ‘negative’ and ‘positive’, too. These words
are quite vague and do not reflect careful reviewing of the text. Instead, use words
such as ‘jovial’, ‘light-hearted’, ‘affectionate’, ‘nostalgic’, ‘tongue-in-cheek’, ‘dismal’,
‘disapproving’ and ‘exasperated’, to name a few.

7. Punctuation and font

 Commas can be used to create a feeling of abundance, e.g., ‘The tables were laden
with platters of rice, bowls of delicious fruit, freshly baked bread and mouth-watering
curries.’ Commas can also be used to create a sense of urgency; ‘With a piece of toast
in his mouth, he pulled on his socks, slipped into his shoes, grabbed his keys and….’
 Colons and semi-colons create a sort of break in the sentence and may allow the
writer to divert the reader’s attention to the words placed after the colon or semi-
colon. An example would be ‘As I entered the living room, I was met with a horrific
sight: a pool of blood.’
 Capital letters, exclamation marks and large, emboldened fonts, too, serve the
purpose of capturing the reader’s attention, especially in titles and subtitles.
 Hyphens and brackets may help writers to provide additional information, e.g.,
‘Mohammed had no real interest in algebra – or any Mathematical topic, for that
matter – and he fell asleep as he soon as he opened his book.’ In some instances,
hyphens and brackets also make it seem like a connection is being formed between
the writer and his audience; he seems to be telling us things we would, otherwise, not
have known.

8. Rhetorical questions

 Rhetorical questions are questions posed to the audience to make them think more
deeply about an issue, to question their conscience or to prove a point, rather than to
receive an answer.
 In some narrative pieces, they may even suggest that a character is confused, scared
or going through some sort of internal struggle.
 These types of questions are especially helpful in Paper 2 for speeches and persuasive
articles, but make sure you don’t use too many of them, which might make your
writing seem awkward.

9. Repetition

 Another technique that is useful in speeches and persuasive articles is repetition.

 It is quite similar to rhetorical questions in the fact that it is used to prove a point.
And, just like rhetorical questions, do not repeat yourself excessively or unnecessarily
in your writing; you want to sound persuasive, not like an annoying parrot.

10. Alliteration

 This is when words starting with the same letter or having the same sounds are
placed together.
 It is a technique that is often used to mimic sounds or to create rhythm.
 One example would be: ‘The serpent slipped and slid through the cracks.’
 Here, the repeated ‘s’ sound may reflect the hissing of the serpent, perhaps to build
up a sense of danger and to invoke fear in the reader.
 Sometimes, writers alliterate unintentionally so in Paper 1, so make sure you pick out
an example only if it is blatantly obvious that alliteration has been used and that it
has been used to create a particular effect.

11. Onomatopoeia

 This refers to a word that is formed from a sound.

 ‘Thud’, ‘crash’ and ‘slam’ are common examples.
 Onomatopoeia helps to create a lively atmosphere, especially when describing noisy
scenes.
 Once again, if you’re going to use these, do so sparingly.
12. Juxtaposition and oxymorons

 Juxtaposition is when contrasting ideas or words are placed close together (but not
necessarily right beside each other). For instance, a calm, quiet character could be
passing through a chaotic marketplace.
 Oxymorons are phrases in which contradicting words are placed side-by-side, e.g.,
‘deafening silence’.
 Both the use of juxtaposition and oxymorons may help to place emphasis on one (or
both) of the words or ideas described. In the example above, for instance, the
character’s calmness may appear to be more striking because he is placed in a setting
that is nothing but calm.

13. Hyperbole

 A hyperbole is an exaggerated statement.

 An example would be ‘You’ve told me this story a million times before!’ Of course, ‘a
million times’ is impossible, but it helps to reflect the writer’s feelings, which, in this
case, seems to be annoyance.

14. Allusion

 This is when an indirect reference is made to a person, place or event.

 Take this sentence for instance: ‘He stood with his paintbrush poised in mid-air,
almost as if he was going to yell ‘Expelliarmus!’ at us.’ This is, as many of you will
know, a reference to Harry Potter.
 Like similes and metaphors, allusions provide an idea that is familiar to us to
describe something or someone that is not as familiar.

15. Tense

 Different tenses may be used to give a writer’s tone a different quality.

 For instance, while the past tense may be used in flashbacks and suggests that the
writer is nostalgic, perhaps, the present tense creates a sense of urgency and,
sometimes, fear and suspense. The present tense also makes us feel more connected
to the text because we may feel like we are experiencing whatever the character is
experiencing along with him or her.
 The future tense is not as commonly used as the past and present tense, but it, too,
can be quite effective in your writing. It can, for example, be used to create a sense of
determination; ‘I will wake up at 4 a.m. tomorrow and do some cardio.’

16. Sentence length

 Long, winding sentences can be used to describe things that are, well, long and
winding. For instance, a journey through a village could be described like this: ‘The
bullock cart rocked back and forth, and up and down, and we rode over every single
pothole on the road, the wheels rattling noisily and dangerously, as if threatening to
fall apart and relieve the cart of its passengers.’ From this, we can infer that the ride
was probably a very exhausting (an even slightly scary) one.
 Short sentences are often used to catch the reader off guard or to create suspense and
fear, e.g., ‘I hear a knock. Then, the door creaks. A shadow. A footstep.’

17. Point of view

 First person – when the writer uses words such as ‘I’ and ‘myself’ while describing
what he or she is experiencing. This may help audience to look at the happenings of
the text through the writer’s eyes.
 Second person – uses personal pronouns, words such as ‘you’, ‘your’ and ‘you’re’.
This can help writers to make their work more engaging by appearing to speak
directly to their audience. They are particularly effective in speeches and persuasive
writing. Just like rhetorical questions, personal pronouns help to question the
conscience of the audience.
 Third person – writing that describes another person’s feelings and experiences
using pronouns such as ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘they’ etc. This point of view is, perhaps, better at
giving an overview of a setting, something that one character alone might find it
difficult to do.

18. Puns

 A pun is a type of word-play that uses words or phrases that sound similar but mean
totally different things.
 For instance, when I say that ‘I’m so fed up with chocolate’, I could either mean that I
am full to bursting with chocolate, or I’m bored of/annoyed by the extensive use of
chocolate, perhaps.
 Puns may help create interest by focusing our attention on just one word or group of
words.

19. Jargon

 This refers to any technical term to do with a particular field that people outside of
the field may find hard to understand.
 Jargon is mostly used in text that is targeted towards a very specific audience so a
game review, for example, could contain phrases like ‘glitching’ and ‘easter eggs’ that
others may be confused about.
 This, too, is a technique that seems to create a bond between the writer and reader
because it uses terms only they are familiar with.

20. Neologism

 A word newly coined by the writer is known as a neologism.

 For instance, in a Paper 1 question, the term ‘eater-tainment’ had been used to
describe the idea that people are now eating food ‘to feel good for a few minutes or to
relax’; it is becoming a form of entertainment rather than a way in which we can
nourish ourselves.

21. Asyndeton

 This is when conjunction is omitted from a sentence.

 An example would be ‘I stopped, turned, waved goodbye at him.’
 This increases the pace of the story, and I remember an Examiner Report, where it
said that this makes the writer sound ‘breathless’.

22. Irony

 Irony refers to the conveying of a message/idea using language that means the exact
opposite of what the writer is trying to say, thus creating a humorous effect.
 However, it doesn’t always have to be through language; it can also be an ironic idea.
For example, another Examiner Report mentioned about a candidate who wrote that
it was ironic that Steve Jobs, a college dropout, was giving a speech during a
 university graduation ceremony. (The passage that was to be commented upon had
been the script for the speech.)

23. Verbs, adverbs and adjectives

 We often overlook these because they don’t seem as flashy as metaphors or rhetorical
questions, but powerful and meaningful verbs, adverbs and adjectives are worth
commenting on (Paper 1) and including in your writing (Paper 2).
 Just to recap, a verb is an action word, e.g., ‘bellowed’. Notice how ‘shouted’ can also
mean the same thing but has a lot less ‘oomph’ than ‘bellowed’.
 An adverb is a word that describes a verb, e.g, ‘ferociously’. So, ‘The beast bellowed
ferociously.’ has both a verb and an adverb in it. Again, I could have said ‘angrily’, but
it just doesn’t have the same effect as ‘ferociously’.
 Adjectives are words that describe a noun (a person, place or thing), e.g., ‘enormous’.
Combining the verb, adverb and adjective, we have the sentence ‘The enormous beast
bellowed ferociously.’ Once again, ‘large’ or ‘big’ could have been used instead of
enormous, but which sounds better – ‘the big beast shouted angrily’ or ‘the enormous
beast bellowed ferociously’?

24. Showing, not telling

 This is when you imply something, as opposed to explicitly stating it.

 For instance, instead of saying that it was hot/humid, you could say ‘My T-shirt stuck
to my back as I made my way up the hiking trail, beads of sweat rolling down my
face.’
 This might help to make your writing seem more mature. I mean, if you just said that
‘it was hot and I was getting tired’, it sounds a bit childish, doesn’t it?

25. Paradox

 A paradox is a statement or idea that seems false, but, on closer inspection, could
actually turn out to be true.
 I couldn’t think of any examples off the top of my head but here’s one from ‘Animal
Farm’, a novel by George Orwell: ‘All animals are equal, but some animals are more
equal than others.’
 At first, this seems absurd because it is impossible to be more or less equal, right?
However, if you think about, it could actually be true. Although we say that everyone
is equal, do we really think so? Don’t we treat certain groups of people differently to
others?
 In this way, writers may use paradoxes to make us actually THINK and not just read
over their work mechanically. They might also help us to be more involved with the
text.

26. Euphemism

 This refers to a term that is used in place of an offensive, harsh, embarrassing or

blunt one.
 For example, a writer could say ‘he relieved himself’ instead of, well, ‘he peed’ or ‘she
passed away’ instead of the very blunt ‘she died’.
 This may be helpful in making the writer’s words seem quite considerate.
 Newspaper articles talking about gruesome crimes, for example, employ this
technique so that readers can be informed of these events without being too
frightened or shocked in the process.

27. Amplification

 This is when a writer adds on extra information to enhance an idea.

 Example: Instead of ‘The waterfall was an amazing sight‘, you could say ‘The stream
was a cerulean carpet, gracefully trickling down the moss-covered rocks, sliding in
and out of every crack like a nimble snake.’ (Challenge: what other techniques can
you find in this example?)

28. Dialogue

 A dialogue is a conversation between two or more people.

 In your narrative writing, this would be a helpful tool for creating feelings of fear,
happiness, anger etc. through your characters’ words.

29. Triadic structure

 This refers to when things are placed in groups of three.

 An example would be ‘Sugar, spice and everything nice.’ (Yes, The Powerpuff Girls!)
 A triadic structure creates a pleasant rhythm and therefore might help readers to
‘cling’ onto these words or phrases.

30. Stream of consciousness

 This is a technique of writing in which a character’s thoughts and emotions are

described continuously.
 For instance, ‘I waded through the cool stream, water entering my muddy shoes
which had been a gift from Emma – ‘Don’t get them too dirty,’ she had said (and, of
course, she would, being a germaphobe) – and I made my way to the other side –
which looked far greener, I must say – and seemed to be home to at least a hundred
different exotic-looking butterflies; there was one that had neon pink spots!’
 Since it often shows the natural thought process of a person, it doesn’t necessarily
have to be grammatically or syntactically (this is to do with ‘syntax’ which you will
find below!) correct because that is how we naturally think; one thought overrides
another, one thing reminds you of another etc.
 This kind of writing may allow readers to feel more connected to the characters of the
text because they know exactly what the characters are thinking.

31. Syntax

 Syntax refers to the order of words in a phrase or sentence.

 Changing up the syntax of a sentence can help divert focus to different parts of it
because the readers may not be used to that particular syntax.
 For example, the phrase ‘Never have I lied to you’ could be used instead of ‘I have
never lied to you.’ In the first sentence, ‘never’ is in the beginning and may help
divert our attention to it and emphasise the idea.

32. Tautology

 This is the repetition of a single idea using different words.

 e.g. ‘This is the last and final call.’
 Here, ‘last’ and ‘final’ both mean the same thing but have been used simultaneously,
possibly to put more emphasis on the idea.
Paper 1
This paper consists of three questions. You are required to answer the first question and
then either the second or third question.

In each question, there are two parts. In part (a), you are required to write a
commentary based on the passage given. In part (b), you have to produce a piece of
directed writing based on the passage.

So, without further ado, let’s go through how to answer a Paper 1 question, step by step.

Part (a)

1. Carefully read the description of the text and the question that follows. This is
extremely important because sometimes the question only states ‘Comment on the style
and language of the passage’ while other times, it states ‘Comment on the ways in which
language and style are used to convey the writer’s feelings/portray a place, person or
thing/engage the attention of its audience’ etc.

In the second case, you need to be slightly more focused and only choose literary
techniques that will help you explain how ‘language and style are used to convey the
writer’s feelings/portray a place’ etc.

2. Read the whole passage once or twice to understand the content and then a couple
more times to pick up relevant literary techniques. (Click here for a list of literary
techniques!) You may underline them with a pencil if you want but remember to erase
all of it in the end.

Also remember to pay as much attention to the ending of the passage as the beginning.
There have been many Examiner Reports which have mentioned that candidates spend
too much time commenting on the beginning of the text and ignore many effective
techniques in the ending. In addition, titles and subtitles should also be taken into
account.

Be reminded that you don’t need to talk about EVERY literary technique used;
examiners don’t expect you to do so, and you certainly won’t have the time to. So,
choose the juiciest, most powerful, most relevant ones.

3. The next step is to choose how you want to approach the commentary. You could
either write one paragraph about one language device and the next paragraph about
another, and so on, or you could comment about the passage as it progresses – talk
about the devices used in the beginning, then the middle and then the end. The second
approach is better if the provided text has some sort of ‘development’, e.g., contrasting
weather conditions or settings.
4. Now that you have chosen what you want to comment on and how you want to
comment on it, make a rough plan. This will help you to structure your commentary and
you will be less likely to get ‘stuck’ in the middle, wondering what to write about.

Your plan could go something like this:

1. Intro: a few sentences to describe the overall text

2. Para 1: imagery

3. Para 2: tone

and so on.

(Steps 1-4 can take upto 15 minutes, but don’t worry – if you perform these little tasks
well, you can still write an excellent commentary in the remaining time.)

5. It’s time to begin writing your commentary!

First of all, you need an introduction. This should be brief and give only an overview of
the text you’re reviewing. You shouldn’t start analysing just yet.

Also, don’t waste time talking about the genre and audience (unless this is absolutely
crucial to explaining the effects of language or if the question asks for the effect on the
audience, for example).

In addition, make sure to use modal verbs (could, might, should, would) and phrases
like ‘appears’ or ‘seems to be’. For instance, you could say ‘The writer appears to be
describing the difficulties he faced during his childhood which might have helped shape
him into the person he is today.’ This is because we are only trying to interpret what the
writer is saying; we do not know EXACTLY what he or she has in mind and, therefore,
we do not want to sound conclusive.

(Other phrases you could use are: ‘paints a picture’, ‘implies’, ‘conjures up a sense of’,
‘reflects’, ‘portrays’, ‘conveys’, ‘indicates’, ‘suggests’ etc.)

6. Next, you need to begin explaining the effects of your chosen literary techniques. For
this, you need to first make a statement, support it with a quote and then comment on
why the author may have used a particular technique. (If you find this hard to
remember, The Cambridge AS and A Level English Language Coursebook calls this the
‘PQC structure’, or the Point, Quote, Comment structure). For example, “The author
seems to paint a rather frightening picture of Ms. Johnson: ‘Her wild, orange hair
framed her face like a lion’s mane.’ Use of the phrases ‘wild’ and ‘lion’s mane’ may create
a sense of fear and danger in the reader’s mind.”
Now, all you need to do is follow the same PQC stucture for the rest of your chosen
techniques. However, there is the possibility that this will make your writing seem very
mechanical and, frankly, boring. Therefore, to change it up a little bit, you could switch
around the ‘P’, ‘Q’ and ‘C’, i.e. mention the quote first, then make a point and finally
produce an explanatory comment.

A second solution would be to use a variety of conjunctive devices. A useful mnemonic

for this is ‘FANBOYS’ – ‘For’, ‘And’, ‘Nor’, ‘But’, ‘Or’, ‘Yet’, and ‘So’. You can also include
words such as, but not limited to, ‘moreover’, ‘furthermore’, ‘however’, ‘despite’, ‘in
addition’ etc. These will help provide a ‘flow’ to your writing.

Finally, here are some rules to remember while explaining the effects of language
devices:

 Embed quotations in your analysis but don’t use them in place of your own words.
Take this sentence as an example: “The young girl is ‘beautifully petite’ and ‘is
dressed impeccably’ which shows that…” Here, I’m using the writer’s words (the ones
between inverted commas) in place of my own which gives the impression that I’m
summarising or paraphrasing rather than analysing. Instead, you could write this:
‘The writer seems to be attracted to the young girl which is suggested in his
description of her appearance – ‘beautifully petite’.’
 Only comment on a language technique if it has a significant effect. Do not identify a
simile simply to show that you know it is a simile.
 Once you have talked about a certain technique, you don’t have to mention it again
when it comes up in another area of the text (unless it produces a different effect in
which case you definitely must talk about it!)
 Don’t use vague, generalised comments such as ‘This makes the reader want to read
more of the text.’ This is because it can be applied to almost any passage!

7. And, that’s it! You don’t necessarily need a conclusion in your commentary if your
final paragraph sounds, well, final.

8. Make sure to read and review your commentary when you’re done!

Part (b)

In this part, you are required to either continue the original passage or write another
piece that is similiar to it. Your work should be about 120-150 words.

1. Look at some of the literary techniques used in the passage and choose a few that you
want to include in your writing.

2. Make a plan. You know why.

3. Get writing!

Make sure that you:

 use the language (not the exact words but ones with a similar ‘feel’) and style of the
passage.
 do NOT lift directly from the text.
 use proper and consistent tense (another area where candidates need improvement,
according to many Examiner Reports).
 read it to yourself (especially if you’re asked to continue a passage, reading your work
as a continuation of the original text will help you determine whether your writing
style and language mimic those of the author).

4. You’re done
Paper 2
In this paper, there are two sections. In Section A (Imaginative Writing), you will be
asked to write a narrative (opening or ending of a story/novel) or descriptive piece. In
Section B (Writing for an Audience), you can be asked to write a variety of genres aimed
at different audiences. This can include letters, leaflets, T.V. broadcast scripts, podcast
scripts, voiceover scripts, magazine articles, newspaper articles and speech scripts.

In each section, there are three choices of questions. Answer one from each
section, writing 600-900 words for each.

Some general tips for Paper 2:

 Once again, read the question carefully. Focus on the part where it says ‘In your
writing, create a sense of…’
 Plan your writing.
 Use effective literary techniques. Find a list here!
 Write something from experience, or something inspired by it. This will allow your
writing to be more engaging as you will probably be more involved in it.
 Use conjunction to make your writing ‘flow’.
 Sometimes, you’re asked to write two smaller contrasting pieces (300-450 words
each) instead of one 600-900 word piece. For these, make sure to not just use
‘opposite’ words and phrases; use convincingly contrasting ideas.
 Try to create arresting openings/endings or even cliffhangers.
 Make sure to divide your writing into paragraphs. Create a new paragraph every time
the following changes: time, place, topic, person ( i.e., when a new character speaks
or acts). You can use the mnemonic ‘TIPTOP’ to remember this
– TIME, PLACE, TOPIC AND PERSON.

Section A: Imaginative Writing

1. If you’ve chosen to write a narrative, you need to use your characters, their words and
their actions to build the story. Use vivid settings and convincing dialogue to create the
‘sense’ that the question asks for.

Sometimes, you’re given an opening or ending sentence as a writing prompt. Make sure
that the language you use is consistent with the language of the prompt.

In addition, you often only need to write an opening or an ending so don’t get carried
away by the plot and write a whole story!
Also remember to choose a perspective that is appropriate. Sometime, it’s better to write
in the first person (if you want to deeply explore a person’s thoughts and feelings, for
instance) while other times the third person is a better bet (when you want to provide a
general overview of a setting, for example).

2. If you’ve chosen to write a descriptive piece instead, you need to, obviously, include a
great deal of EFFECTIVE description. Do not use unnecessary dialogue and turn your
writing into a narration instead. And, remember to SHOW, not tell!

Writing in the third person is often the most common in descriptive pieces, but if you
feel confident enough, you can write in the first person and use that central character to
explore the setting (as well as other characters) and give detailed descriptions.

Section B: Writing for an Audience

As I mentioned before, there are several genres that you may be asked to write.

1. T.V. broadcast scripts (e.g., a press conference)

 An interview format may be used.

 Stage, lighting and music directions can be added.

2. Voiceovers (e.g., a documentary voiceover)

 Use phrases like ‘Here we have the…’ or ‘As you can see here…’ which implies that
something is being shown to the audience.
 Imagine yourself reading this out and check whether it sounds like something you
would listen to rather than read.
 Employ an appropriate tone.

3. Podcast scripts (e.g., a radio show)

 Once again, use a tone that is appropriate to the topic.

 Use radio jargon (e.g., ‘D.J.’, ‘Thank you for tuning in to…’, ‘Stay tuned’ etc)
 Read over your writing and ask yourself whether it would sound odd coming from a
radio.
4. Magazine articles

 Usually, for these articles, you will be asked to write about something not too serious
and to write with a sense of enthusiasm, so include words and a tone that imply an
encouraging, lively personality.
 Use subheadings to divide your writing into appropriate sections.
 Use phrases like ‘last issue’ or ‘the next month’s article’, i.e., magazine-related
phrases.

5. Newspaper articles

 Usually more formal than magazine articles so employ a tone that indicates
‘purposefulness’.
 Include statistics, facts, figures, etc.
 Use phrases such as ‘According to our sources…’ or ‘Our sources say that…’
 Use subtitles if necessary.
 Use euphemisms if necessary.

6. Speeches

 Include a brief salutation and introduction.

 Use repetition, rhetorical questions and personal pronouns to drive your point
across.
 Remember that it is being SPOKEN. Read it to yourself and see if it sounds like a
speech.

7. Letters

 You don’t need to include the sender’s or receiver’s address. Just a salutation will
suffice.
 Begin with a suitable opening line like ‘I’m writing to inform you…’
 As your letter is most likely to be addressed to only one person, make it relevant to
that person. Use personal pronouns if appropriate.
8. Leaflets

 Imagine yourself reading your writing on a leaflet. Would you find it interesting?
 According to the Examiner Report, the text on a leaflet ‘should be punchy and
attractive to the reader’.

As a general tip for Section B, remember to always keep your audience in

mind. You don’t want to use sophisticated language in a voiceover aimed at
kids!