ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION:
According to ODUM (1971), Pollution is “an undesirable change in the characteristics of air, water and
land that harmfully affect the life and also create health hazards for all living organisms on the globe”.
According to SOUTHWICK (1976), Pollution can be defined as “the unfavorable (or) alteration of
environment caused by human activities and causing harm to human beings”.
TYPES OF POLLUTION:
Basically the Pollution is of two types viz.,
(1) Natural Pollution: This type of pollution is limited in its occurrence generally from natural hazards
like volcanic eruptions, emissions of natural gas, soil erosion, ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays etc and
(2) Manmade Pollution: Most of the pollution is man made only. However, Pollution is usually
categorized as Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Thermal Pollution; Noise Pollution; Land & soil Pollution;
Radio Active Pollution and Marine Pollution
 AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution may be described as “the imbalance in quality of air so as to cause adverse effects on the
living organisms existing on earth”. Pollution is due to the presence of undesirable substance of sufficient
quantity which exists in environment.
The substance or energy which causes pollution is called pollutant.
Types of air pollutants:
Pollutants may be classified according to origin and state of matter.
a) According to Origin: Air pollutants are divided into two categories as primary & secondary.
1) Primary air pollutants are those which are emitted directly into the atmosphere.
Eg: C; CO; CO2; SOx ; N; S; H; NOx; CFC’s etc .
2) Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction Among the primary
air pollutants or by reaction with atmospheric constituents. Eg: Ozone (O3); Smog; Para Acetyl Nitrate
(PAN); Acid Rain; Aerosols.
b) According to State of Matter: Air pollutants include fine solids; liquids and gases. Dust, Smoke,
Fumes etc are examples for solid particles whereas fog is an example for liquid particles.
PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
1. Carbon Monoxide: It is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that is produced by the incomplete
burning of carbon based fuels (coal, petrol, diesel and wood) which comes from the automobile
industries, exhaust devices, About 70% of CO emissions are from the transport sector.
When the air is polluted with CO, human blood is likely to be deprived of oxygen and leads to coma
and death. In mild dosages, it leads to headache.
2. Oxides of Sulphur:
SO2 is a gas produced from burning of coal, mainly in thermal power plants. Some industries
such as paper mills produce SO2. It is injurious not only to men and plants, but it also attacks
rapidly a few rocks such as limestone, marbles, electric contacts etc. It can even dissolve nylon.
Paper absorbs SO2 causing the paper to become brittle and fragile. SO2 polluted air leads to
corrosion of metals such as Fe, Zn, Cu, steel etc… SO2 is a major contributor to Smog and acid
rain.
Sulphur trioxideis more irritant than SO2 because it combines immediately with water to form
sulphuric acid
3. Oxides of Nitrogen:
Combustion of coal, oil, natural gas and gasoline which produces upto 50 ppm of
Nitrogen. NOx are also produced when fossil fuels are burned especially in power
plants and motor vehicles. NO2poisoning results SILOFILTER disease. High levels of
NO2 exposure causes cough and make the human beings feel short of breath. People
who are exposed to NO2 for a long time have a higher chance of getting respiratory
infections.
NOx compounds contribute for the formation of Ozone. Similarly, when nitrogen
oxide when combine with SOx to form acid rain.
4. Chloro Fluoro Carbons:
CFC’s (also known as Freon) are non- toxic. They contain Carbon, Fluorine and Chlorine atoms.The
five main CFCs are the following:
CFC – 11 ( Trichloro Fluoro Methane CFCl3 )
CFC – 12 ( Dichloro Fluoro Methane CF2Cl2 )
The major uses of CFCs are as coolants in refrigerators and in air conditioners; as solvents in
cleaners particularly for electronic circuit boards etc.. CFCs are the main cause of ozone depletion.
CFCs have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100 years, and as a result one free chlorine
atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of damage.
SECONDARY POLLUTANTS:
1) Ozone (O3) / Ozone layer Depletion:
Ozone consists of oxygen molecules which contain three oxygen atoms. It is not emitted directly into
the air but produced in the atmosphere when oxygen combines with oxygen radical (O.) in the
presence of sunlight. Ozone protects us from ultra violet radiation and other harmful rays.
It is observed that over the last few years, many manmade processes release gases into atmosphere
causing drastic depletion of ozone layer. The chlorine atoms cause depletion of ozone slowly and holes
are formed in the ozone layer. Ozone reacts with tissues and cause for breathing and decrease the
working ability of the lungs, chest pains and coughing. It lowers the human body resistance power and
leads to cold; pneumonia also.
Antarctic Ozone depletion:
According to NIMBUS-7 satellite picture which was taken on 5th October, 1987 the protective ozone layer
showed a hole over 50% of the area of the Antarctica continent covering 7 million sq km. On Jan 1st 1989,
the country Montreal (Canada) proposed redesigning refrigeration, air conditioning technology replacing
the use of CFCs by ozone friendly substitutes.
2) Smog:
Smog is a combination of smoke and fog or various gases when react in the presence of sunlight. The effects
of smog on human health cause for respiratory, irritation to the eyes, diseases related to nose, throat,
bronchitis, pneumonia, headache, nerves, liver, and kidneys.
The first smog related deaths were recorded in London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1892,
December, London had worst experiences causing 1000 deaths. In 1940’s severe smog began covering the
cities of Los Angeles in USA.
3) Acid rain:
Acid rain has become one of the most important global environmental problems and poses
significant adverse impact on soils, rivers, lakes, forests and monuments. The phenomenon
occurs when SOx and NOx from the burning of fossil fuels such as Petrol, Diesel,
Coat etc combine with water vapour in atmosphere and fall as rain or snow or fog. Natural
sources like volcanoes, forest fires, etc also contribute SOx and NOx. Increased nurban and
industrial activities cause air pollution resulting in the rise of concentration of SO2 and NOx.
Sulphur dioxide and NO2 combines with water vapour in the atmosphere produce sulphuric
macid and Nitric acid respectively and results acid rain. Some of the examples are: Europe and
parts of W Asia have experienced rain with water pH range of 4.5 to 5.0 (acidic) in 1958.
AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS, PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES:

Human beings breathe 22000 times a day on the average, inhaling 16 kg of air. Atmosphere constitutes a
protective cover of gases surrounding the earth which sustains life and saves it from unfriendly environment.
The atmosphere consists of several layers viz. Troposphere, Stratosphere; Mesosphere; Thermosphere &
Exosphere.
The lower atmosphere i.e., the troposphere contains 70% of gaseous components of major, minor and traces.
Ultra violet radiation from the sun is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere which is so called ozone layer
located between 17 - 26 kms above sea level.
Effects of Air pollution:
The effects of pollution may be direct and affect certain organisms.
The effects of pollution may possess a hazard or nuisance. Long continued pollution even affects the
evolution of a species and eliminates organisms that cannot tolerate certain pollutants and favor
others who can eat.
Air pollution causes deaths, Impair health, reduce visibility and brings vast economic losses. It can also
cause intangible losses to historic monuments such as Taj Mahal.
Finally, Air pollution can affect the environment on a global scale.
Prevention and control of Air Pollution:
• Inputs that do not contain the pollutants.
• Operating process to minimize generation of the pollutants.
• Replacing the process with one does not generate the pollutant.
• Removing the pollutants from the process.
• Substitution of raw materials Eg: The substitution of high sulphur coal with low sulphur coal in
power plants.
Eg: Changing a fossil fuel with nuclear energy can eliminate sulphur emission.
• By involving the Process Modification:
Eg: Chemical and petroleum industries have changed by implementing
Automated operations, computerized process control by reducing the Oxidation of SO2 to SO3 by
reducing excess air.
• By involving the control technologies: Control equipment viz., Wet Collector
(scrubber), Gravity Settling chamber; Cyclone Collectors, Dry Scrubbers, filters,
electrostatic precipitators etc. are to be used to minimize the air pollution.
 WATER POLLUTION
Hydrosphere in the universe contains water in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, tanks
and many other water sources.
Water sources in the world are of two types.
They are:
(1) Marine water bodies and
(2) Fresh Water bodies.
Water is a good solvent for many substances. Because of this property water cannot
exist in its pure form at many parts of the world. Water pollution is mainly because of
sewage, industrial disposals i.e., effluents.
PARAMETERS OF WATER POLLUTION:
Chemical examination of water (tests):
pH; Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), etc are some of the
chemical tests to find the stage of pollution of water.
1. pH: The value of pH gives the degree of acidity or alkalinity of polluted water.
Determination of pH is important in calculating the coagulant (thick or thin) dose.
2. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
It is defined as the quantity of oxygen utilized by micro organisms at a temperature of 20oC,
generally measured for 5 days. When water is polluted by unwanted materials, naturally the O2
content gets reduced and that water become not fit for consumption either by human beings or
animals or plants. Living organisms require water with some quantity of sustainable oxygen in it.
That oxygen is necessary for living organisms is generally called BOD. If there is reduction in
oxygen content of water, it becomes unfit for biological consumption because there is change in
BOD.
COMMON TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS:
A) Based on sources
B) B) Based on natures

A) Based on sources:
a) Disease-causing agents: Bacteria, viruses, and protozoan that enter water from domestic
sewage
and animal wastes.
b) Water soluble inorganic chemicals:
Acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such as Lead and mercury can make water unfit to
drink, harm fishes and other aquatic life. Also Nitrate, Phosphate compounds dissolve in water
that can cause excessive growth of algae, which then die and decay, depleting dissolved O2 in
water and killing fish.
c) Water Soluble Organic chemicals: Oil, gasoline (a type of oil is obtained from petroleum),
pesticides, detergents and many other water soluble chemicals that threaten human health
and harm fish.
d) Heat: Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in the cooling towers of thermal
power plants. When this hot water is discharged into the nearby water bodies, it causes an
increase in its temperature.
e) Sewage: sewage is wastewater from the municipal area where there is human habitation.
Sewage that comes from homes is called domestic sewage
B) Based on natures:
In nature, water pollution is classified into three types by Kimball (1975). They are:
1. Domestic water pollution: Sewage is a part of domestic water pollution. Domestic sewage not
only contains unwanted waste materials, but it is also infested with harmful bacteria, virus, etc.
These are responsible for causing diseases in animals and human beings, if they drink this polluted
water and even plants may die if polluted water is provided. Domestic water pollution leads to
Diarrhea, Cholera and Typhoid in human beings.
2. Agricultural Water Pollution:
Water is required for plant growth. Major irrigation, minor irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip
irrigation, and lift irrigation carry waste substances and cause water pollution in addition to the
utilization of fertilizer and pesticides. Agricultural water pollution leads to Eutrophication & Water
Bloom.
Ecological effects: The important troubling ecological impacts are:
1. Excessive nutrients in water bodies promote plant growth which leads to a drop in water quality;
2. Disruption of the natural ecosystem E.g. lack of oxygen for shelf marine life (causing a drop in their population).
3. Decrease in the recreational and aesthetic value of water bodies
4. Health problems when it occurs in drinking water reserves
5. Coral reef decline
6. Decreased biodiversity,
7. Changes in species composition and dominance, and
8. Toxicity effects.
9. Toxic phytoplankton species
10. Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
11. Color, smell, and water treatment problems
12. Dissolved oxygen(DO) depletion
13. Increased incidences of fish kills
14. Loss of desirable fish species
3. Industrial water pollution:
Many industries discharge waste materials containing harmful chemicals. Such
Industrial wastes are called effluents. The river Godavari is polluted because of
effluents released by the paper industry. It affects the entire water ecosystem causing
enormous damage to fish, prawns, and freshwater animals.
Eg: Minamata disease & Fluorosis.
Minamata disease:
➢ It is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning.
➢ Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of
the field of vision and damage to hearing and speech.
➢ In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and death follow within weeks of the onset of symptoms.
➢ Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Japan in 1956.
➢ It was caused by the release of methyl mercury from, the Chisso Corporation's chemical factory,
which continued from 1932 to 1968. This highly toxic chemical bio- accumulated in shellfish and fish
in Minamata.
Bay which when eaten by the local people resulted in mercury poisoning. While cat, dog, pig, and human
deaths continued for over 30 years, the government and companies did little to prevent the pollution.
Fluorosis:
People suffer from a disease called fluorosis after consuming water containing fluorine for sufficiently a
long time. The quantity of fluoride in water is only 1 ppm. Diseases caused by fluorosis are Back pain and
inability to easily bend. Joints get stiffened so movement of joints is impaired. Teeth are the worst
affected and a brown coating appears on the enamel of teeth giving a bad appearance. Persons with
fluorosis cannot erect freely.
CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION:
1. Drinking water should be boiled, cooled, and then used.
2. Disinfection of drinking water should be done by using chemicals like bleaching powder.
3. Pesticides and insecticides should be prevented from nearby use of water lakes, ponds and pools.
4. Drainage water should not be allowed to mix with drinking water.
5. The drainage system should be maintained properly.
6. The chlorination process is to be adopted for drinking water. For 1 liter of water, 30 – 40 mg of chlorine
is to be added to get perfect disinfection. It kills bacteria, fungi, fungal spores, and other microbes also.
 SOIL POLLUTION
Definition:
➢ Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts,
Radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth
and animal health.
➢ Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth’s rocky surface.
➢ The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and animals, is
concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil.
➢ The inorganic portion made up of rock fragments, was formed over thousands of years by
physical and chemical weathering of bedrock. Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to
supply the world with sufficient food.
There are many different ways that soil can become polluted, such as:
➢ • Seepage from a landfill
➢ • Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
➢ • Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
➢ • Rupture of underground storage tanks
➢ • Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
➢ • Solid waste seepage
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:
• Petroleum hydrocarbons
• Heavy metals
• Pesticides
• Solvents
Types of Soil Pollution
• Agricultural Soil Pollution and pollution due to urban activities
i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Pollution of underground soil
• Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes
i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Disturbances in soil profile
CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION:
➢ Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alterations in the
natural
➢ soil environment.
➢ This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage links,
application of pesticides, and percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata,
oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills, or direct discharge of industrial wastes
to the soil.
➢ The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead
and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of
industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.
➢ A soil pollutant is any factor that deteriorates the quality, texture, and mineral content of the
Soil or which disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the soil. Pollution in soil has an
adverse effect on plant growth.
Pollution in soil is associated with
➢ • Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
➢ • Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
➢ • Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
➢ • Deforestation and soil erosion
1. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers:
Soil nutrients are important for plant growth and development. Plants obtain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
from air and water. But other necessary nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
sulfur and more must be obtained from the soil. Farmers generally use fertilizers to correct soil deficiencies.
Fertilizers contaminate the soil with impurities, which come from the raw materials used for their manufacture.
Mixed fertilizers often contain ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), phosphorus as P2O5, and potassium as K2O. For
instance, arsenic, lead and cadmium present in traces in rock phosphate mineral get transferred to super
phosphate fertilizer. Since the metals are not degradable, their accumulation in the soil above their toxic levels
due to excessive use of phosphate fertilizers becomes an indestructible poison for crops.
The over use of NPK fertilizers reduce quantity of vegetables and crops grown on soil over the years. It also
reduces the protein content of wheat, maize, grams, etc., grown on that soil. The
carbohydrate quality of such crops also gets degraded. Excess potassium content in soil decreases Vitamin C and
carotene content in vegetables and fruits. The vegetables and fruits grown on over fertilized soil are more prone
to attacks by insects and disease.
2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides:
The first widespread insecticide use began at the end of World War II and included DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and gammaxene. Insects soon became resistant to DDT and as the chemical
did not decompose readily, it persisted in the environment. Since it was soluble in fat rather than water, it
biomagnified up the food chain and disrupted calcium metabolism in birds, causing eggshells to be thin and
fragile. As a result, large birds of preym such as the brown pelican, ospreys, falcons, and eagles became
endangered. DDT has now been banned in most Western countries. Ironically many of them including the USA
still produce DDT for export to other developing nations whose needs outweigh the problems caused by it.
The most important pesticides are DDT, BHC, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, aldrin,
malathion, dieldrin, furodan, etc. The remnants of such pesticides used on pests may get adsorbed by the
soil particles, which then contaminate root crops grown in that soil. Th consumption of such crops causes
the pesticides remnants to enter human biological systems, affecting them adversely.
An infamous herbicide used as a defoliant in the Vietnam War called Agent Orange (dioxin), exposure to
Agent Orange.
Pesticides not only bring toxic effects on human and animals but also decrease the fertility of the soil. Some
of the pesticides are quite stable and their bio- degradation may take weeks and even months.
Pesticide problems such as resistance, resurgence, and health effects have caused scientists to seek
alternatives. Pheromones and hormones to attract or repel insects and using natural enemies or
sterilization by radiation have been suggested
3. Dumping of large quantities of solid waste:
In general, solid waste includes garbage, domestic refuse, and discarded solid materials such as Those from
commercial, industrial, and agricultural operations. They contain increasing amounts of paper, cardboard,
plastics, glass, old construction material, packaging material, and toxic or otherwise hazardous substances.
Since a significant amount of urban solid waste tends to be paper and food waste, the majority is recyclable
or biodegradable in landfills. Similarly, most
Agricultural waste is recycled and mining waste is left on site.
The portion of solid waste that is hazardous such as oils, battery metals, heavy metals from smelting
industries, and organic solvents are the ones we have to pay particular attention to. These can in the long
run, get deposited to the soils of the surrounding area and pollute them by altering their chemical and
biological properties. They also contaminate drinking water aquifer sources. More than 90% of hazardous
waste is produced by chemical, petroleum, and metal-related industries and small businesses such as dry
cleaners and gas stations contribute as well.
4. Deforestation and soil erosion:
Soil Erosion occurs when the weathered soil particles are dislodged and carried away by
wind or water. Deforestation, agricultural development, temperature extremes,
precipitation including acid rain, and human activities contribute to this erosion. Humans
speed up this process by construction, mining, cutting of timber, cropping, and overgrazing.
It results in floods and causes soil erosion.
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
1. Agricultural
➢ • Reduced soil fertility
➢ • Reduced nitrogen fixation
➢ • Increased erosion
➢ • Larger loss of soil and nutrients
➢ • Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
➢ • Reduced crop yield
➢ • Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
2. Industrial
➢ • Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
➢ • Ecological imbalance
➢ • Release of pollutant gases
➢ • Release of radioactive rays causing health problems
➢ • Increased salinity
➢ • Reduced vegetation
3. Urban
➢ Clogging of drains
➢ • Inundation of areas
➢ • Public health problems
➢ • Pollution of drinking water sources
➢ • Foul smell and release of gases
➢ • Waste management problems
 CONTROL MEASURES OF SOIL POLLUTION
The following steps have been suggested to control soil pollution. To help prevent soil erosion, we can
limit construction in sensitive areas. In general, we would need less fertilizer and fewer pesticides if we
could all adopt the three R's: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. This would give us less solid waste.
1. Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use Applying bio-fertilizers and manures can reduce
chemical fertilizer and pesticide use. Biological methods of pest control can also reduce the use of
pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.
2. Reusing of materials
Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth, etc. can be reused at domestic levels rather
than being disposed, reducing solid waste pollution.
3. Recycling and recovery of materials
This is a reasonable solution for reducing soil pollution. Materials such as paper, some kinds of plastics
and glass can and are being recycled. This decreases the volume of refuse and helps in the conservation
of natural resources. For example, recovery of one tonne of paper can save 17 trees.
4. Reforesting
Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted by restoring forest and grass cover to check
wastelands, soil erosion, and floods. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can improve the fertility of the
land.
5. Solid waste treatment
Proper methods should be adopted for the management of solid waste disposal. Industrial wastes can
be treated physically, chemically, and biologically until they are less hazardous. Acidic and alkaline
wastes should be first neutralized; the insoluble material if biodegradable should be allowed to degrade
under controlled conditions before being disposed of.
 THERMAL POLLUTION
Introduction
Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water thereby
making it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life.
Sources of Thermal Pollution
The following sources contribute to thermal pollution.
1. Nuclear power plants:
Nuclear power plants including drainage from hospitals, research institutions, nuclear
experiments, and explosions discharge a lot of heat that is not utilized along with traces of
toxic radio nuclides into nearby water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and processing
installations are also responsible for increasing the temperatures of water bodies.
The operations of power reactors and nuclear fuel processing units constitute the major
contributor of heat in the aquatic environment. Heated effluents from power plants are
discharged at 10 C higher than the receiving waters that affect the aquatic flora and fauna.
2. Coal-fired power plants:
Coal fired power plants constitute a major source of thermal pollution. The condenser coils in
such plants are cooled with water from nearby lakes or rivers. The resulting heated water is
discharged into streams thereby raising the water temperature by 15C. Heated effluent decreases
the dissolved content of water resulting in the death of fish and other aquatic organisms.
The sudden fluctuation of temperature also leads to "thermal shock" killing aquatic life that
has become acclimatized to living in a steady temperature.
3. Industrial effluents:
Industries like textile, paper, pulp and sugar manufacturing release huge amounts of cooling
water along with effluents into nearby natural water bodies. The waters polluted by sudden
and heavy organic loads result in severe drop in levels of dissolved oxygen leading to death
of several aquatic organisms.
4. Domestic Sewage:
Domestic sewage is discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams with minimal treatment
or without any treatment. These wastes have a higher organic temperature and organic load.
This leads to a decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the receiving waters resulting in the
set-up of anaerobic conditions causing the release of foul and offensive gases in water.
Eventually, this leads to the development of anoxic conditions resulting in the rapid death of
aquatic organisms.
5. Hydroelectric power:
The generation of hydroelectric power sometimes leads to negative thermal loading in water
systems. Apart from electric power industries, various factories with cooling requirements
contribute to thermal loading.
Thermal pollution in streams by human activities
➢ Industries and power plants use water to cool machinery and discharge the
warm water into a stream.
➢ Stream temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing shade are
cut.
➢ Soil erosion caused due to construction also leads to thermal pollution
➢ Removal of stream-side vegetation and poor farming practices also lead to
thermal pollution
 Effects of Thermal Pollution
1. Reduction in dissolved oxygen: Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) decreases with increase in temperature.
2. Increase in toxicity: The rising temperature increases the toxicity of
the poison present in water. A 10oC increase in temperature of water
doubles the toxicity effect of potassium cyanide, while 80oC rise in
temperature triples the toxic effects of o-xylene causing massive mortality
to fish.
3. Interference in biological activity: Temperature is considered to be of
vital significance to physiology, metabolism and biochemical processes that
control respiratory rates, digestion, excretion, and overall development of
aquatic organisms. Temperature changes cause total disruption to the entire
ecosystem.
4. Interference in reproduction: In fishes, several activities like nest building,
spawning, hatching, migration and reproduction depend on optimum temperature.
5. Direct mortality: Thermal pollution is directly responsible for mortality of aquatic
organisms. Increase in temperature of water leads to exhaustion of microorganisms
thereby shortening the life span of fish. Above a certain temperature, fish die due to
failure of respiratory system and nervous system failure.
6. Food shortage for fish: Abrupt changes in temperature alter the seasonal
variation in the type and abundance of lower organisms leading to a shortage of the
right food for fish at the right time.
 Control measures for thermal pollution:
The following methods can be adapted to control high temperatures caused by thermal discharges:
1. Cooling towers:
The use of water from water systems for cooling purposes, with subsequent return to the waterway after
passage through a condenser, is called the cooling process. Cooling towers transfer heat from hot water to
the atmosphere by evaporation. Cooling towers are of two types:
(i) Wet cooling tower: Hot water coming out from the condenser (reactor) is allowed to spray over
baffles. Cool air, with high velocity, is passed from the sides, which takes away the heat and cools the
water.
(ii) (ii) Dry cooling tower: Here, hot water is allowed to flow in long spiral pipes. Cool air with the help
of a fan is passed over these hot pipes, which cools down hot water. This cool water can be recycled.
2. Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best way to cool thermal discharges.
Heated effluents on the surface of the water in cooling ponds maximize the
dissipation of heat to the atmosphere and minimize the water area and volume.
The warm water wedge acts like a cooling pond.
3. Spray ponds: The water coming out from condensers is allowed to pass into
the ponds through sprayers. Here water is sprayed through nozzles as fine
droplets. The heat from the fine droplets gets dissipated into the atmosphere.
4. Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are manmade water bodies that offer once-
through cooling. The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end
and water for cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The heat
is eventually dissipated through evaporation.
 NOISE POLLUTION
Introduction Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable
sound that causes discomfort to all living beings".
Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB) , which is the tenth part of the
longest unit Bel. One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.
Types of noise: Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years.
Noise is classified as:
1. Industrial Noise
2. Transport Noise
3. Domestic Noise
Industrial Noise:
It is sound with a high-intensity sound caused by industry machines. Sources of such noise
pollution are caused by machines from machines in various factories, industries, and mills. Noise
from mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable and a nuisance to the public. The Indian
Institute of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai reported that increasing industrial pollution damages
hearing ability by at least 20%. Workers in the steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial
blowers, are exposed to 112dB for eight hours and suffer from occupational pollution.
 Transport Noise:
Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft. The number of
automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles, buses, trucks and diesel
engine vehicles has increased enormously in the recent past further aggravating the
problem of transport noise. Noise levels in most residential areas in metropolitan cities are
hovering around the border line due to increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level
of noise pollution leads to deafening in the elderly.

Domestic noise:
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and community. Common
sources of noise are musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios, Transistors, Telephones, and
loudspeakers etc. Statistically ever since the industrial revolution, noise in the
environment has been doubled every ten years.
 Effects of Noise pollution
Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:
➢ contraction of blood vessels
➢ making skin pale
➢ Excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for high blood pressure.
➢ Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress.
➢ Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion.
➢ Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc
➢ The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which in-turn
increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive spams and dilation of the pupil
of the eye.
➢ Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behavior. Noise pollution may cause damage to
the heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional disturbance.
➢ The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that diminishes some
part of the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain frequency pattern leads
to chronic damage to the inner ear.
➢ Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders
➢ Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and semicircular
canals of the internal ear.
➢ The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes. People are
subjected to psychiatric illness.
➢ Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.
➢ The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severe noise pollution
causes:
▪ Popularly dilation
▪ Impairment of night vision and
▪ Decrease in rate of color perception
 Control measures
1. SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic treatment to machine
surface, design changes, limiting operational timings, etc
2. TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the source inside a sound-
insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or provision of sound absorbing materials along
the path.
3. RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering the work schedule or
provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery. The
measure may include dissipation and deflection methods.
4. OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.
 Preventive measures
1. Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic.
2. Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas
3. Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals
4. Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof
5. Reduction of traffic density in residential areas
6. Giving preference to mass public transport system.
 MARINE POLLUTION
Introduction
The discharge of waste substances in to the sea resulting in harm to the living resources, hazards
to the human health hindrances to the fishery and impairment of quality use of sea water.
Sources
1. Dumping the wastes: Dumping of untreated wastes and sewages in the oceans by coastal
towns, cities and industries. Rivers on the way to sea carry huge amount of sewage garbage
agricultural discharge pesticide heavy metals. Huge quantity of plastic dumped in to the sea.
2. Oil: This is discharged in to the sea as crude oil and as separate fraction. Oil and it’s
fractions are used in houses automobiles and industries. This causes devastation of
marine environment
3. Radioactive materials enter the ocean from nuclear weapon testing.
4. Toxics: Toxic waste is the most harmful form of marine pollution. Once toxic wastes
affects an organism it quickly passes along the food chain and as sea food which cause
various problems.
5. Marine Debris: Garbage like plastic bags, ropes helium balloons.
Effects of marine pollution
1. Heavy metals and organic pollutants damages birds by thinning of egg shells and tissue damage of
egg.

2. Oil pollution causes damage to marine animals and plants including algae bird, fish etc.
3. Oil spilling in the sea causes abnormal low body temperature in birds resulting in hypothermia.
During Exxon Valdez accident 150 rare species of bald eagles are affected by ingested oil.
4. Oil films are able to retard the rate of oxygen uptake by water.
5. Hydrocarbon and benzpyrene accumulate in food chain and consumption of fish by man may cause
cancer.
6. Many marine birds ingest plastic that causes gastrointestinal disorders.
7. Oil spills inhibit photosynthesis and the growth of planktons. All aquatic animals depend either
directly of indirectly on planktons the basis of tropic chain.
 Control of marine pollution
Nature and world conservation union suggest the principles

1. The industrial unit on the coastal lines should be equipped with pollution control instrument.
2. Urban growth near the coast should be regulated.
Methods of removal of oil
1. Physical methods.
skimming the oil off the surface with suction device
Floating oil can be absorbed using absorbing materials like ploy urethane foam. Chopped straw and
saw dust also used to absorbed oil from the sea water.
2. Chemical methods like dispersion , emulsification and using chemical additives are used to
coagulated the oil
Protective method
1. Municipal and industrial waste should be treated before disposing into sea.
2. Coastal waste are periodically analyzed for detecting pollution level.
3. Soil erosion in the coastal land should be arrested be suitable techniques.
4. Recreation beaches should be maintained to meet hygienic and aesthetic standard.

Nuclear Pollution
Nuclear pollution is the physical pollution of air, water and soil by radioactive materials.
Sources of Nuclear Pollution
The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade
 Effects of Nuclear Pollution
Studies have shown that the health effects due to radiation are dependent on the level of
dose, kind of radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells irradiated. Radiation
effects can be somatic or genetic.
1. Somatic effects: Somatic affects the function of cells and organs. It causes damages to
cell membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting in abnormal cell functions, cell
division, growth and death.
2. Genetic effects: Genetic effects the future generations. Radiations can cause mutations,
which are changes in genetic makeup of cells. These effects are mainly due to the damages
to DNA molecules. People suffer from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to doses
around 100 to 1000 roentgens.
 Management of Radioactive Waste
➢ The radioactive waste which comes out from industry, nuclear reactors should be stored and
allowed to decay either naturally in closed drums or in very large underground air tight
cemented tanks (Delay and Decay).
➢ The intermediate radioactive waste should be disposed off into the environment after
diluting it with some inert materials (Dilute and Disperse).
➢ Now-a-days small quantities of high activity wastes are converted into solids such as concrete
and then it is buried underground or sea. (Concentrate and contain) .
 Control Measures
➢ Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and scientifically.
➢ Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the geology of the area,
tectonic activity and meeting other established conditions.
➢ Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
➢ Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of radioactive elements as
fuel and careless handling of radioactive isotopes must be prevented.
➢ Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be ensured in nuclear
plants.
➢ Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x-rays.
➢ Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area should be ensured.
➢ Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury the waste in hundreds of
meters deep in the earth’s crust is considered to be the best safety long term option.
 CLIMATE
It is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather condition, seasonal variations of the
region. The average of such conditions for a long period is called climate.
Causes of climate changes:
1. Presence of green house gases in the atmosphere Increases the global temperature.
2. Depletion of ozone layer increases the global temperature.
Effects of climate change:
1. Small climate changes disturb agriculture which leads To migration of animals and human.
2. Climate change may upset hydrological cycle which results in floods and droughts in different
parts of the world.
3. Global pattern of winds and oceans currents also gets disturbed by climate change.
 Green house effect
➢ Green house gases are CO2, Methane .Nitrous oxide NO2, CFC
➢ Among these CO2 is the most important green house gas. O3 and SO2 act as
serious pollutants causing global warming.
➢ Progrssive warming up of a gas surface due to blanketing effect of man made
CO2 atmosphere.
GLOBAL WARMING:
Green house gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb IR
radiation. These gases allow sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and are
absorbed by the earth surface. This sunlight is radiated back as IR which is
absorbed by gases. As a result the earth surface and lower atmosphere becomes
warm. This is called global warming.
➢ EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING:
➢ Sea level increases as result of melting and thermal expansion of ocean.
➢ High CO2 level in the atmosphere have a long term negative effect on crop production
and forest growth.
➢ Global rainfall pattern will change .Drought and floods will become more common.
Raising temperature will increase domestic water demand.
➢ Many plants and animal species will have a problem of adapting. Many will be at the
risk of extinction, more towering verities will thrive.
➢ As the earth becomes warmer the floods and drought becomes more frequent. There
would be increase in water-borne diseases.
MEASURES TO CHECK GLOBAL WARMING:
1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel.
2. Plant more trees.
3. Shifting from coal to natural gas.
4. Stabilize population growth.
5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks.
6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae.
 ACID RAIN
Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of Co2 present
in the atmosphere gets dissolved in it. Because presence of SO2 and NO2
gases as pollutants in the atmosphere. The pH of the rain is further lowered.
This type of precipitation of water is called acid rain.
Formation:
Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The
thermal power plants industries and vehicles release NO2 and SO2 in to the
atmosphere due to the burning of coal and oil. These gases reacts with
water vapor in the atmosphere and from acids like HNO3,H2SO4.These acids
descends on to the earth as acid rain through rain water.
SOx +H2O H2SO4
NOy +H2O HNO3
EFFECTS:
Effect on human being:
Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by acid rain.
It cause premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis.
On building:
At present Taj Mahal in Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from Madura
refinery. Acid rain corrodes houses, monuments ,statues ,bridges and fences.
Acid rain causes corrosion of metals.
Terestrial and lake Ecosystem.
➢ Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation.
➢ Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans, potatoes ,carrot ,spinach.
➢ Acid rain reduces fish population ,black flies, mosquitoes ,deer flies occurs largely which
causes number of complications in ponds rivers and lakes.
➢ Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic water.
➢ The dead materials are not rapidly decomposed. Hence the nutrients like N,P are locked
up in dead matter.
Control of acid rain:
➢ Emission of No2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipment's.
➢ Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of acid rain. In
thermal points low Sulphur content coal should be used.
Control of acid rain:
Emmision of No2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be
reduced by using pollution control equipments.
Liming of lakes nad soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of
acid rain. In thermal points low sulphur content coal should be used.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Ozone gas is present in the atmosphere. It is highly concentrated at the
stratosphere Between10to 50 Km above the sea level and is called as
ozone layer.
Importance: O 3 protects us from damaging UV radiation of the sun. It
filters UV- B radiation. Now days certain parts of O3 layer is becoming
thinner and O 3 holes are formed. Because of this more UV–B radiation
reaches the earth’s surface. UV –B radiation affects DNA molecules, causes
damages to the outer cell of plants and animals.
It causes skin cancer and eye disease in human beings.
Formation of O3 : It is formed in the atmosphere by photochemical reaction
O 2 + hv ------------) O * + O *
The atomic oxygen reacts with molecular O 2 to form O 3 O * + O 2 + M ----------)
O 3+ M
Where M = third body like nitrogen.
Causes of O 3 layer depletion : Refrigerators , air conditioners , aerosol sprays
and cleaning solvents release CFC s into the atmosphere. CFCs releases chlorine
which breakes O3 to O2
Cl + O 3 ----------- ) Cl O + O 2 (g)
Cl O + O * -----------) Cl + O 2
Each chlorine atom is capable of breaking several O 3 molecules . It
is a chain reaction. 1% loss of O3 results in 2% increase in UV rays
reaching the earth surface .
Ozone depletion chemicals CFC , HCFC , BFC. Some times
atmospheric sulfur dioxide Is converted in to H 2 S O 4 which
increases the rate of O 3 layer depletion.
Effects ozone layer depletion:
Effects on human beings
1.UV rays causes skin cancer.
2.Increases the rate of non melanin skin cancer in fair colored people.
3.Prolonged expose to UV rays leads to actinia Katatities ( slow blindness) and
cataracts.
Effects on aquatic system :
1.UV rays affects phytoplankton , fish , larval crabs.
2. phytoplankton consumes large amounts of CO 2 .
3.Decrease in phytoplankton results in more amount of CO2 in atmosphere. This
contributes to global warming.3. Ozone Depleting chemicals can causes global
warming
Control measures: Manufacturing and using of O3-depleting
chemicals should be stopped. Use of methyl bromide which is a crop
fumigant should be controlled.
Replacing CFCs with other materials that are less damage.