Discourse and genre

What is a genre? • Relationship between genres • Written genres

across cultures • Spoken genres across culture • Steps in genre
analysis • The social and cultural context of genre • Applications
of genre analysis

What is a genre?

Schmidt (2002): A type of discourse that occurs in a particular

setting that has distinctive recognizable patterns and norms of
organization and structure and that has particular and distinctive
communicative functions.

Some examples of genre • A letter to the editors • News •

Reports • Parliamentary speeches • Summing up in a court of
law

Use of the notion of genre

Teaching ESP: based on Swales (1981, 1990)

Teaching of writing: Sydney School (Hyon 1996)
Schematic structure, generic structure

Genres are … Ways in which people get things done through

their use of spoken and written discourse.

Genre embedding ?

Bhatia (1997) : Genre embedding is when a genre is used for

another ‘conventionally distinct’ genre.
Defining Genre

Martin (1984): A staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity in

which speakers engage as members of our culture.

Swales (2004): Definitions are often not true in all possible

worlds and all possible times and can prevent us from seeing
newly explored or newly emerging genres for what they really
are.

Swales (2004): Genres are dynamic and open to change, but it is

not a case of ‘free for all’ or ‘anything goes’.

Devitt (2004): Conformity among genre users ‘is a fact of genre,

for genres provide an expected way of acting’. Constraint and
choice are necessary and positive component of genres.

Genre Category

Cook (1989): • Author or speaker • Intended audience • Purpose

of text • The situation in which the text occurs • The physical
form • The title • Pre-sequence to the text • Content of the text •
The level of formality • Particular uses of language • The style
or register • Spoken or written

Askehave and Swales (2000): While discourse structure is

clearly a characterizing feature of some genres, it is not always
the case that every instance of a particular genre will have
exactly the same discourse structures (nor indeed the same
communicative purpose).
Swales (2002): Genres are seen as ‘resources for meaning’
rather than ‘systems of rules’.

Relationship Between Genres

The way a use of one genre may assume, or depend on the use
of a number of other interrelated genres. Job interview

Relationship Between Genres

Genre chain Vs. Genre network • Genre repertoire – Phone calls,

an email, casual conversation, a letter, a fax

Genre sequence and hierarchy • Occluded or supporting genre

Vs. Open genre

Job advertisement Position description Letter of application

Resume Job interview Offer of appointment Negotiation of offer

Written genres across cultures

Kaplan (1966): Different patterns in the academic essay of

student from different languages and cultures.

Connor (1996): Contrastive rhetoric

Connor (2004): Intercultural rhetoric

Contrastive Rhetoric

Leki (1997): Contrastive rhetoric can be seen, not as the study of

culture-specific thought patterns, but as the study of ‘differences
or preferences in the pragmatic and strategic choices that writers
make in response to external demands and cultural histories.

Canagarajah (2002): Contrastive rhetoric research needs ‘to

develop more complex types of explanation for textual
differences’ if it is to enjoy continued usefulness in teaching of
academic writing.

Spoken genres across culture

Nakanishi (1998): Examination of going on a first date in

Japanese and U.S. 61 women and 67 men Japanese

Conclusion: While there maybe ways of performing the same

genre across cultures that are quite the similar, there may be
parts of the genre that are significantly quite different.

Steps in genre analysis

1. Consider what is already known about the particular genre.

(knowledge of situational, cultural context as well as
conventions that associated with the genre).

2. Refine the analysis by defining the speaker or writer of the

text, the audience of the text and their relationship, the goal and
purpose.
3. Select collection of texts to examine.

The Discourse Structure of Genres

The example of discourse analysis of theses and dissertations

Conclusion: There are at least four different types of pattern that

writers choose from, depending on the focus and orientation of
their thesis or dissertation. Simple traditional, complex
traditional, topic-based and compilations of research articles.

Applications of genre analysis

Hammond and Macken-Horarick (1999): Genre-based teaching

can help students gain access to texts and discourses which help
them participate more successfully in L2 spoken and written
interactions.

Luke (1993): Teaching ‘genre of power’ leads to uncritical

reproduction of the status quo and does not necessarily provide
the kind of access we hope for our learners.

Chiristie (1993) and Martin (1993): Not teaching genres of

power is socially irresponsible.

DISCOURSE & GENRE

PREVIEW • Discourse is a group of sentences which link one

proposition to another one and makes a coherent unit of the
sentences. • Genre is a directional, patterned, continuous, and
purpose-oriented activity. • Genre is a distinctive part of culture
that has purpose and steps, as well as language features which
has relationship to the purpose, steps, and the distinctive culture
that the definitions should be interpretated by refering to the
social and cultural context in which the context exists.

What is discourse?
Discourse is the use of language both in written and spoken.

What is genre?
Genre refers to the type and structure of language typically used
for a particular purpose in a particular context.

What is relationship between discourse and genre?

“Discourse analysis analysis” is genre
Text types Generic Structure Language Features Narrative
•Orientation •Complication •Sequence of Events •Resolution
•Coda •Specific character •Time words •Words showing actions
•Descriptive words Recount •Orientation •Past Tense •Sequence
of Events •Proper nouns •Conclusion •Descriptive words
Procedures •Introduction •Words showing •Sequences of steps
order •Verb as command •Technical terms
1. 10. Why should we use genre to analyze discourse?
2. 11. Discourse  Genre Unlimited Limitation
3. 12. How do we analyze discourse through genre?
4. 13. Analyzing discourse Analyzing genre Characteristics
Language features Structures
5. 14. Discourse is neither absolutely homogenous nor
absolutely heterogeneous.
1. Genre Analysis<br />
2. 2. KEY CONCEPTS FOR UNDERSTANDING<br />
3. 3. DiscourseCommunity<br />Swales (1990) gives the
followingdefinitions:<br />A discoursecommunity has a
broadlyagreed set of common public goals.<br />It has
mechanisms for intercommunication
amongitsmembers(e.g., meetings, correspondence,
newsletter, mailing list).<br />
4. 4. DiscourseCommunity<br />c. It uses
participatorymechanismsprimarilyto provide information
and feedback (in accordance with the common goal).<br
/>d. A discoursecommunity has developed and continues to
developdiscoursal expectations (pp. 25-26).<br />
5. 5. Genreis a termfor grouping texts together, representing
how writers typically use language to respond to recurring
situations (Hyland, 2004).<br />
6. 6. A genre comprises a set of communicative events, the
members of which share some set of communicative
purposes (Swales, 1990).<br /> Exemplars of a genre
exhibit various patterns of similarity in terms of structure,
style, content and intended audience.<br />
7. 7. Genreis a social action and a speech eventthat has
communicative goal shared by the members of a
particulardiscoursecommunity.<br />
8. 8. <ul><li>Genre: in literary studies, film, anthropology,
study of folklore, music
9. 9. In applied linguistics, three approaches to genre:
10. 10. The English for specific purposes (ESP) approach
11. 11. The New Rhetoric approach
12. 12. The functional-systemic approach
(Halliday)</li></li></ul><li>Can you think of some
academic genres?<br />
13. 13. research article, conference proposal, business
report, grant application, letter to the editor, reference
letter, MA dissertation, MA dissertation proposal, lecture,
seminar<br />
14. 14. Some examples are public and occluded.(Swales
and Feaks 2000)<br />
15. 15. Public / Open Genres<br />- are accessible to
everyone, often published, and are easily visible and
audible<br />
16. 16. Occluded / Supporting Genres<br />- are ‘closed’,
not public in nature, and often difficult to access examples
of.<br />
17. 17.
18. 18. <ul><li>Genre sets: abstract and introduction in
the research paper
19. 19. Genres and subgenres:
20. 20. Review > book review, film review, CD review
21. 21. Promotional writing > sales letter, tourist
brochure</li></li></ul><li>Professional Genresare
characterized by the following (Bhatia, 1999):<br />Genre
Integrity<br /> This refers to genericcharacterthatmakesit
acceptable to the members of a
particulardiscoursecommunity. It meansthata
particularcommunityunderstands the implicit and explicit
objectives of a genre. <br />
22. 22. This genre alsofollows the acceptable rhetorical
structure popular in that discipline. <br />Example: <br />
An adjustmentletter in a discoursecommunitylike the
 Baggage Claims in an airport must adhere to the policies
and format in thatdepartment. It must
alsobewrittenfollowingbaiscprinciples of business
communication. If itdoes not followtheseprinciples, its
genre integrityisatstake as well as the integrity of the
departmentthatproducedit.<br />
23. 23. b. Discursive Processes and Genre <br />Bhatia
(1999) points out thatprofessional genres are often the
"products of a set of establishedproceduresthatform an
important part of the disciplinary culture within a
profession" (p.23).<br />
24. 24. Example:<br /> In the field of information
technology, a project proposal is a collaborative work that
follows a cyclical process as groups collaborate with
clients, with other members of the company, and with other
members of the design group.<br />
25. 25. c. GenericPurposes and Intentions<br />
"Althoughmany of the genres employed in well-
establishedprofessionalcontexts serve recognizable and
somewhatstandardized set of communicative purposes,
theyrarely, if ever, serve a single purpose. If nothingelse,
theyalmostalways combine a more immediate single
purposewith the moststanderdizedones of maintenance and
continuance of goodwill and a
mutuallybeneficialprofessionalrelationship" (Bhatia, 1999,
p. 25).<br />
26. 26. Example:<br /> - the use of newsletters by
universities to inform the community about the
developments in their institution and to market fund raising
programs to the alumni<br />
27. 27. d. Genre Participants<br /> "Practicing genre
isalmostlikeplaying a gamewithitsrules and conventions.
Established genre participants, bothwriters and readers, are
likeskillfulplayers, whosucceed by their manipulation and
exploitation of, ratherthan a strict compliancewith, the rules
of the game" (Bhatia, 1999, p.24).<br />
28. 28. e. Genre Versality<br />Although genres like
business lettersfollowconventional formats, different
institutions and companies have theirownnorms for
structuringtheircomminications. This is the reasonwhy new
employeesneed to acquaintthemselveswith the corporate
culture in theirworkplace. <br />
29. 29. Genre Analysisis a process of
lookingatseveralsamples of a particular genre to
analyzetheirsimilarities and differences in terms of
theirpurposes, macrostructure and languagechoice.<br />
30. 30. Genre Analysis: The CARS Model<br /> Swales
(1990): Move and step analysis of introductions to research
articles: the CARS (creating a research space) model<br
/>Move 1: Establishing a territory <br />Step 1. Claiming
centrality and/or<br /> Step 2. Making topic
generalizations and/or<br /> Step 3. Reviewing items of
previous research<br />Move 2: Establishing a niche <br
/>Step 1a Counter-claiming or<br />Step 1b Indicating a
gap or<br /> Step 1c Question-raising or<br /> Step 1d
Continuing a tradition<br />Move 3: Occupying the
niche<br />Step 1a Outlining purposes or<br /> Step 1b
Announcing present research<br /> Step 2 Announcing
principle findings<br /> Step 3 Indicating Research article
structure<br />
31. 31. Genre Analysis: Recent Trends in Research<br
/><ul><li>Move and step analysis of other genres
32. 32. Sales promotion letters (Bhatia, 1993),
33. 33. PhD thesis (Bunton, 2005)
34. 34. Cross-cultural comparisons of genres
35. 35. German and American lectures (Schleef, 2009)
36. 36. English and Spanish book reviews (Moreno &
Suárez, 2008)</li></li></ul><li>Genre Analysis: Recent
Trends in Research<br /><ul><li>Intercultural influences
37. 37. Genres written by writers from different L1
backgrounds writing in English (Precht’s (1998) study of
recommendation letters written by British, American,
German and Eastern European lecturers)
38. 38. Diachronic (historical) studies of genres
39. 39. Bazerman’s (1988) work on the evolution of
scientific report in physics
40. 40. Salager-Meyer et al’s (2007): book reviews in
French and English medical journals, a comparison
between the last decades of the 19th and the 20th
centuries</li></li></ul><li>The followingsteps are
useful:<br />a. Collectsamples of the same
genre.Althoughthereis no specificrequired, 30 are usually
the minimum for statisticalpurpose. On the other hand, if
you are doing the analysis to becomefamiliarwith the
conventions, getenoughsamplesuntilyou are able to see
patterns of organization. <br />
41. 41. b. Look for available in-house style guides or
documentation manual.<br />c. If you are doing the genre
analysis for a graduatepaper, itis best to look for
relatedresearch. This isalsoa good idea if you are
 conductingneedsanalysis to design an EOP (English for
OccupationalPurpose) course.<br />
42. 42. d. Next, ask about theirpurposes, intendedreaders,
and writingprocesses<br />e. Look for macro patterns.
Theserefer to the major sections of a document. If you
notice deviations to the pattern, find out theirreasons.<br
/>f. Next, analyze how each section isorganized<br />
43. 43. g. Finally, pay attention to the languagefeatures.
For example, you check the use of voice, tense, and idioms.
Manycompanieswant to have a distinct "voice ", and
onlythosewhobelong to thosecompaniesunderstand how
that "voice"isprojected.<br />
44. 44. "Genre analysisadds to ourunderstanding of how
languageisusedwithin an important discoursecommunity,
and is a model of appliedlinguistics in its best sense –
itdraws on linguistic and sociolinguistictheory to classify
the nature of language use and languagelearning in an
educational setting". – Long and Richards<br />
45. 45. References<br /><ul><li>Bhatia, V. (1993).
Analysing genre. Language use in professional settings.
London: Longman. Section on Sales promotion letters (pp.
45-59).
46. 46. Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD
conclusion chapters. Journal of English for Specific
Purposes, 4: 207-224.
47. 47. Hartford, B., & Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1992). Closing
the Conversation: Evidence from the Academic Advising
Session. Discourse Processes, 15, 93-116.
48. 48. Hoey, M. (1983). On the surface of discourse.
London: Allen and Unwin.
49. 49. Hoey, M. (1994). Signalling in discourse: a
functional analysis of a common discourse pattern in
written and spoken English (pp. 26-45). In: M. Coulthard
(Ed.). Advances in written text analysis. New York:
Routledge.
50. 50. Hyland, K. (2004). Genre and second language
writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
51. 51. Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in
academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge
UP.</li>