Unit # 1

COMPUTER SYSTEMS
EXERCISE
Select the suitable answer for the following Multiple choice Questions (MCQs)
I What computing machine was capable of taking input from punch cards and storing data in
memory?
A Abacus B Analytical Engine C Tabulating Machine D Difference Engine
II What technology replaced vacuum tubes in second generation computers?
A Transistors B Integrated Circuits C Microprocessors D Magnetic Tapes
III Which computer generation introduced the use of Integrated Circuits (ICs)?
A First generation B Second generation C Third generation D Fourth generation
IV Which of the following is an example of a natural system?
A Telephone network B Human Body C Database D Automobile
V Which component of the microprocessor controls the working of input/output devices and
storage devices?
A Arithmetic Logic B Control Unit (CU) C Memory Address D Data Register (DR)
Unit (ALU) Register (MAR)
VI Which type of memory retains data even when the computer is turned off?
A RAM B ROM C Cache D Register
VII What is the main purpose of Cache memory?
A Store program B Provide high speed C Control input / D Perform arithmetic
instructions storage output devices operations
VIII What is the smallest unit of memory in a digital computer?
A Kilobyte B BIT C Byte D Megabyte
IX Which memory type used laser beams to read and write data?
A RAM B Optical memory C Cache memory D ROM
X In Von Neumann architecture, where are instruction data and program data stored?
A In separate memory B In the same memory C In the processor’s D In the cache
unit unit registers memory
XI What is the primary function of the buses in a computer’s memory system?
A Control memory B Display graphics C Transmit data D Perform arithmetic
operations between components operations
XII What is the primary function of the presentation layer in OSI model?
A Establishing B Converting data into C Deciding the D Sending data in
connections a standard format physical path of both directions
between computers data simultaneously
XIII In which network topology is data transmission unidirectional, like radio or television broadcasts?
A Star topology B Bus topology C Mesh topology D Ring topology
XIV Which data communication standard is used for transferring web pages and related data on the
World Wide Web?
A TCP / IP B HTTP C FTP D SMTP
XV Which network architecture required each computer to act as either a server or a client but not
both simultaneously?
A Client/server B Peer-to-Peer C Metropolitan Area D Wide Area Network
network network Network (MAN) (WAN)
Give short answers to the following short response questions (SRQs)
(i) What is the function and significance of Napier’s Bone in early computing?
Ans In 1614, a Scottish mathematician named John Napier invented the Napier Bone’s calculating
machine. A Napier’s bone device consists of a wooden box containing rotating cylinders with digits
ranging from 0 to 9. Napier’s bones could multiply, divide, and find the square roots. Napier’s
bones was also extensively used and utilized for the purpose of calculations. It was also the first
machine to calculate using the decimal point system.
(ii) How did Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine differ from the Analytical Engine?
Ans Analytical Engine Difference Engine
It can do the 4 basic mathematical operation such as It can only do one mathematical operation
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division addition only
It is a general-purpose computer system It is a type of simple mechanical computer
It is slower in speed It is faster in speed
Analytical Engine is not been constructed because of its Difference Engines are constructed
mechanical complexities
It is very heavily detailed and technical in nature It is very impressive in nature
It does not provide much overview of the designs It helps in solving the various types of
general-purpose complex problems
Analytical Engine designed by Charles Babbage in 1837 Difference Engine designed by also Charles
Babbage but in 1820
(iii) What is the primary goal of fifth generation computers?
Ans Fifth generation computers aim to understand natural languages and possess thinking
capabilities, relying on artificial intelligence (AI) and enabling user commands in any language.
(iv) Name the three types of memory mentioned on the motherboard in the Von Neumann
architecture?
Ans Cache, RAM, Secondary storage, Registers
(v) Differentiate between volatile and non-volatile memory?
Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory
 Volatile, meaning data is lost when power is lost  Non-volatile, meaning data is retained even
or turned off. when power is lost or turned off.
 Temporary storage of data with fast access and  Permanent storage of data with slower
data retrieval access and data retrieval
 Mainly used for short term storage  Used for long term storage, firmware and
 Examples are RAM (Random Access Memory), system software
Cache memory  ROM (Read Only Memory), Flash memory,
 Requires constant power supply to maintain hard disk drive (HDD), solid state drive (SSD)
data.  Does not require power to retain data.
(vi) Show memory hierarchy with the help of diagram
Ans
(vii) Why is the word size of a processor important, and how does it affect the computer’s
performance
Ans Word size refers to the number of bits that a computer’s CPU can process in a single
operation (instruction). The word size is a fundamental characteristic that affects its
performance and capabilities. A larger word size generally allows a CPU to handle larger
integers, perform more complex arithmetic operations and address larger memory spaces.
(viii) What is pipelining, and how does it improve the efficiency of a CPU?
Ans Many modern CPUs use pipelining to increase efficiency. In a pipeline, multiple instructions
are in different stages of execution simultaneously (at the same time). This allows for better
utilization of the CPU’s resources and faster execution of instructions.
(ix) Imagine you are building a custom computer for a friend. Give three considerations you
would take into account when choosing the type and size of memory for this computer?
Ans DDR4 RAM: DDR4 modules are more energy efficient. The reduced power consumption
gives substantial power savings and allows operation at higher speeds without higher power
and cooling requirements.
NVMe SSD: NVMe is much faster because it provides more bandwidth than SATA models
which improves performance in heavier productivity applications.
Hard Disk: Hard disk drive 7200 rpm barracuda for storage of data
(x) You are a computer technician tasked with upgrading an older computer with a slow CPU.
How might you improve its performance without replacing the entire CPU?
Ans Replacing the CPU can be a drastic and expensive step for an older computer. Here are some
ways to improve its performance without swapping the CPU:
 We will upgrade the ram.
 We will Expand the Storage.
 We will Install a faster storage Media
(xi) Your school is planning to purchase new printers for the computer lab. Give three
advantages and disadvantages of impact and non-impact printers to help them make a
decision
Ans Impact Printers Non-Impact Printers
Advantages Advantages
i) It prints characters or images striking i) It prints characters and images without
print hammer or wheel against an inked striking the papers
ribbon ii) It speed is faster
ii) It normally uses continuous paper sheet iii) Its printing quality is higher
iii) It is less expensive Disadvantages
Disadvantages i) It is more expensive
i) Its speed is slower ii) It uses toner or cartridges which are
ii) Its printing quality is lower expensive too
iii) It generate noise during printing iii) It normally uses individual paper sheet
(xii) Define “protocol” in the context of data communication
Ans A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices are connected but
may not communicate with each other.
(xiii) Define simplex, half duplex and full duplex modes of communication with one example
Ans Simplex Mode: In simplex mode, data can flow only in one direction. It cannot be moved
in both directions. The direction of flow never changes
Example: An example is traditional TV broadcast. The signal is sent from the transmitter to
TV antenna. There is no return signal
 Half Duplex Mode: In half duplex mode, data can flow in both direction but NOT at the
same time. It is transmitted one way at one time. A device with half duplex can send or
receive data but not at the same time.
Example: Internet surfing is an example of half duplex communication. The user issues a
request for a web page. The web page is downloaded and displayed to the user.
Full Duplex Mode: In full duplex mode, data can travel in both directions at the same
time. Full duplex mode is faster way of data transmission as compared to half duplex.
Example: A telephone is a full duplex device. Both persons can talk at the same time.
(xiv) What are the start and stop bits, and where are they used in data transmission?
Ans The start and stop bits are used in asynchronous transmission. The start bit tells the receiver
that a character is coming and stop bit indicates that the transmission of character has
ended
(xv) How does a switch differ from hub in a network?
Ans Switch Hub
Switch is a networking device that performs Hub is a connectivity device used in LAN. It
the same job as the hub but is considered connects multiple LAN devices on one
as intelligent as hub. It gathers information network and makes them act together as a
about the data packet and forwards it to single network. A hub is a non-intelligent
only the node. device and sends output to all the devices
on the network.
(xvi) How does asynchronous transmission differ from synchronous transmission, and in what
situations are they typically used?
Ans Asynchronous Transmission Synchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, data is In synchronous mode, saved data is
transmitted character by character. There transmitted block by block. Each block may
are irregular gaps between characters. It consist of many characters. It uses a clock
uses flow control instead of clock to to control the timing of bits being sent.
synchronous data between source and Synchronous transmission is much faster
destination. It is cheaper because data is than asynchronous because there is no gap
not saved before it is sent. between characters.
Example of asynchronous transmission is Example of synchronous transmission is
keyboard data transmission data transmission between devices in
network communication links
(xvii) Explain the concept of peer-to-peer network and its limitations compared to a client server
network
Ans All computers in peer-to-peer model have same status. There is no server computer to
control other computers. Each computer in this network can have access to the devices and
files on the other computers. Each computer independently store its own software and
information.
Disadvantages of Client/Server model Disadvantages of peer-to-peer model
 It is expensive model  It is slower in speed. Heavy use can
 The operations stop across the network slow down the network speed
when server goes down  It also provides less security of data as
files are stored at different locations in
the network
(xviii) Compare and contrast the star and ring network topologies
Ans Star network topology Ring network topology
 Advantages Advantages
 It is easy to maintain and modify  It is less expensive than star topology
network  Every computer has equal access to the
 Adding or removing computers can be network
done without disturbing the network Disadvantages
 Finding faults becomes very simple  Failure of one computer in the ring can
 Single computer failure does not bring affect the whole network
down the whole network
 It is difficult to maintain (troubleshoot)
 It is more flexible among the remaining
Disadvantages  Adding or removing computers affect
 If central hub fails, the entire network the whole network
breaks down
 It requires a large amount of cable to
connect computers
 It is more expensive
(xix) Why is mesh topology considered the most reliable but also the most expensive to
implement
Ans In mesh topology each node is directly connected to all the nodes. It is most reliable network
topology. Data can be routed around failed computers. It can manage high traffic. It is most
expensive to implement and its setup and maintenance is very difficult.
(xx) What is the role Application Layer in OSI model?
Ans Application layer provides services to end user. It interacts with the operating system or
application software whenever the user wants to send files, read messages or perform other
network related activities.
 LONG QUESTIONS
Give Long answers to the following extended response questions (ERQs)
Q1 Describe the evolution of computer generations from the first generation to the fourth
generation, highlighting the key technological developments and their impact on computing
Ans: First Generation Computers (1940 – 1956)
Characteristics: The following are some characteristics of the first generation computers:
 Vacuum tubes were used in first generation computers
 The processing speed was slow
 Memory capacity was limited
 These computers were massive, occupying entire rooms
 First generation computers were both costly and unreliable
 They consumed significant power and generated substantial heat
 Input relied on punched cards
 Output was obtained through printouts via electric typewriters
 Machine language was only programming paradigm (model/pattern)
Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 604, Mark-I and EDSAC
Second Generation Computers (1956 – 1963)
Characteristics: The following are some characteristics of the second generation computers:
 Second generation computers replaced vacuum tubes with transistors, leading to enhanced
efficiency
 Due to transistors, computer size was reduced and improved the speed and memory capacity
 Second generation computers demonstrated increased reliability and cost-effectiveness
 Key input and output methods included punch card readers, magnetic tapes, magnetic disks and
printers
 Assembly language was employed for programming purposes
 High level languages (such as FORTRAN and COBOL) were introduced
Examples: UNIVAC II, IBM 7030, General Electric GE 635, and Control Data Corporation’s CDC 1604
Third Generation Computers (1963 – 1971)
Characteristics: The following are some characteristics of the third generation computers:
 Third generation computers used Integrated Circuit (IC) chips
 The utilization of IC chips led to enhancements in computer speed and memory
 These computers demonstrated improvements in energy efficiency, size reduction, cost
effectiveness and reliability compared to second generation computers
 Introduce keyboard and monitor in this generation
 These computers had the capability to concurrently run multiple application programs
Examples: IBM System/360 and Control Data Corporation’s 3300 and 6600 computers
Fourth Generation Computers (1971 – Present)
Characteristics: The following are some characteristics of the fourth generation computers:
 Introduction of microprocessor marked a defining feature, leading to the emergence of
microcomputer
 This generation computers are known for their exceptional speed, large storage capacity and
advance input/output devices
 Microcomputers in this generation are characterized by their small size, high reliability, low
power consumption and affordability
 A wide variety of software became available for use in microcomputers
 Operating system with Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) were developed during this period
  This generation computers support multimedia software, enabling the integration of text,
image, sound and video
 These computers are compatible with modern programming languages such as Visual Basic (VB),
C++, Java and Python facilitating the development of powerful software applications
 Fourth generation computers support a diverse range of portable and wireless input / output
devices.
Examples: Intel Pentium Series, Dual Core, Core2Duo, Core i3, i5, i7 and AMD Athlon. Notable fourth
generation computer models include the IBM ThinkPad series, HP Pavilion series, Dell Inspiration series,
as well as Apple’s MacBook Pro and MacBook Air series

Q2 Discuss the importance of categorizing and understanding different types of systems, both
natural and artificial, and provide example of each type
Ans: System
A “System” refers to a collection of interconnected or interrelated components or elements that work
together to achieve a specific purpose or function.
Natural Systems
A natural system is an interconnected collection of elements or components that exist in the nature.
These systems are typically found in the environment and are characterized by their ability to self-
regulate, adapt and maintain a certain degree of stability. The following are a few examples:
Ecosystem: Ecosystems are perhaps the most common and diverse nature systems. They
encompass various types, including:
 Forest Ecosystems: Such as a tropical rainforest with its many plant and animal species
 Aquatic Ecosystems: Like freshwater lakes, rivers and marine ecosystems such coral reefs
 Grassland Ecosystems: Such as the African savanna, home to grazing animals like zebras and
wildebeests
Weather Systems: Weather systems involve the interactions of the Earth’s atmosphere, including
phenomena like rainfall, wind patterns and temperature changes
Geological Systems: These systems encompass geological processes and features like:
 Plate Tectonics: The movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates, leading to earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions
 Mountain Systems: Such as the Himalayas, formed by tectonic plate collision
Hydrological Systems: These systems involve the movement, distribution and quality of water on
Earth, including rivers, lakes and the water cycle
Solar System: Our solar system itself is a natural system, with the Sun, planets, moons, asteroids, and
comets all interacting under the influence of gravity
Biological System: Biological systems encompass a wide range of living organisms and their
interactions:
 Human Body: A complex biological system with organs, tissues, cells and biochemical processes
 Coral Reef: An ecosystem built by coral colonies and inhabited by various marine species
 Rainforest Canopy: The upper layer of a rainforest, home to a unique set of plants and animals
Artificial Systems
Artificial systems, also known as man-made or human-made systems, are created and designed by
humans to server specific purposes, solve problems, or achieve particular goals. Artificial systems are
essential components of modern society, contributing to our ability to meet a wide range of needs and
advance in various fields. They often require careful planning, engineering and maintenance to function
efficiently and effectively.
The following are some common examples:
Communication Systems:
 Telephone Networks: Created to facilitate communication over long distances
 Internet and Computer Networks: Built to enable data sharing and digital communication
globally.
 Satellite Communication System: Developed to long-distance, wireless communication
Information Systems:
 Databases: Used for storing and retrieving data efficiently
 Software Application: Such as word processors, spreadsheets, and video editing software
Transportation Systems:
 Automobiles: Designed for personal and mass transportation on roads
 Aircraft: Engineered for air travel, including commercial airplanes, helicopters, and drones
 Trains and Rail Systems: Developed for efficient land transportation on tracks
 Subways and Mass Transit: Designed to move large numbers of people within urban areas
Energy Systems:
 Power Plants: Designed to generate electricity using various energy sources like coal, gas etc.
 Renewable Energy System: Including solar panels, wind turbines and hydroelectric plants
 Electric Grids: Infrastructure for the distribution of electrical power
Manufacturing Systems:
 Factory Automation: Systems that automate manufacturing processes, such as robotics and
conveyor systems
 Assembly Lines: Organized systems for mass production goods
Healthcare Systems:
 Hospital Information System (HIS): Designed to manage patient records, billing and other
healthcare data.
 Medical Devices: Including MRI machines, X-ray equipment and artificial organs

Q3 Explain the characteristics and potential challenges associated with fifth generation computers
that aim to understand natural languages and possess thinking capabilities. What are the
implications (suggestions) of such advancements in computing on society?
Ans: The timeline for the fifth generation is not as precisely defined as the earlier generations, but it
is generally associated with ongoing advancements in computing that were expected to emerge in the
late 20th century and beyond. The main objective of fifth generation of computers is to develop devices
that can understand natural languages and have thinking power. This is a big challenge for computer
developers and programmers to design such systems and software for them.
IBM's Watson, as a contestant was featured on the TV show Jeopardy that is more common example of
artificial intelligence in computers. Other more examples that used AI are: on Windows 8 and Windows
10 computers, Microsoft's Cortana and Apple's Siri on the iPhone. Also, AI is used by the Google search
engine to process user searches. Other examples included: Ultra Book, Chrome book,
Notebook, Desktop, and Laptop

Characteristics of fifth generation of computers

There are various features of 5th generation computers, which are as follows:
Use of Artificial Intelligence: One of the main features of 5th generation computers is the use of AI,
which helps to make computers more powerful. The applications of AI are everywhere, from navigating
to browsing. Also, it is applied for video analyzing, image processing, and more.
The huge development of storage: Although there is available SSD storage that is faster as compared to
HDD. And, the development is running on a few other technologies. Therefore, fifth-generation
computers, expecting faster and larger storage
Multi-processor-based system: Presently, one processor per CPU is used; however, special computers
are already available that are used with parallel computing, but these computers are not complete and
have very limited functionalities
o Another feature is the use of optical fiber in circuits.
o Development of the elements of programs and Natural language processing (NLP)
o The computer made in the fifth generation used ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) technology.
o Advancement in Superconductor technology and Parallel Processing.
o These computers have user-friendly interfaces including multimedia features.
o Development of large powers with artificial intelligence.
o Magnetic enabled chips
o These computers are planned to incorporate advanced ES (Expert System), which are software
programs designed to replicate the decision making capabilities of a human experts in specific
fields.
o In this generation of computers user interfaces have become more intuitive (natural) and user-
friendly, including features like voice recognition and gesture based controls.
Advantages of Fifth Generation Computer
The computers made in the fifth generation are more powerful, functional, fast in speed, even if they
are still in the development phase. There are some advantages of the computers that use ULSI (Ultra
Large-Scale Integration) technology, which are given below:
o The computers of fifth-generation use AI (artificial intelligence) technology that includes:
Development of expert systems, Game Playing, Robotics, Natural language understanding.
o The AI technology made these computers to understand human language as well as recognize
graphs and pictures.
o The development of fifth-generation computers is intended to solve highly complex problems,
including working with natural language.
o Hopefully, they will be able to use more than one CPU and less expensive compared to the
recent generation.
o It is very easy to take these computers from one place to another and to repair them.
o The computers made in the fifth generation can be handling easily.
Disadvantages of Fifth Generation of Computer
Although there are different benefits of the fifth generation of computers, they also have some
limitations. Some are discussed below:
Fear of Unemployment: Although AI offers numerous benefits, there are many people who feel fear
about their job and think AI will replace their jobs in the future.
Taking over the world: Artificial intelligence is not healthy for the world. It is somehow true, because AI
is very close to handle all the world, like the science fiction movies.
Spying on people: One of the other disadvantages of fifth-generation computers is spy on the people,
which is somehow true.

Q4 Explain the fundamental components of network communication, and how do they work
together to facilitate data transfer?
Ans: Data communication is the process of transferring information from one point to another in a
networking environment. Network communication consists of five basic components as follows:
 Sender
 Message
 Medium
 Protocol
 Receiver
Sender: Sender, also called transmitter is a computer/device that sends the message from
source to destination in a communication network. It may be a computer, workstation, cell phone or
camera. The sender device converts the electrical signal into a form that is suitable for transmission over
the communication network.
Message: Message is the data or information that is to be transmitted. Message can be in the
form of text, audio, video or any combination of these.
Medium: Medium is the path through which message travels from source to destination. Medium
can be wired, e.g. telephone cable, coaxial cable and fiber optics. It can also be wireless for example
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, microwave, radio wave and satellite.
Receiver: Receiver is the device which receives transmitted message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset or television set. The data received from the transmission media may
not be in proper form to be accepted to the receiver and it must be converted to suitable form before it
is received.
Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices are connected but
may not communicate with each other.

Q5 Describe the roles of common communication devices like hubs, switches, routers and gateways
in data communication. How do they contribute to the functionality of a network
Ans: A device that is used in telecommunication systems for transmitting data from one location to
another is known as communication device.
Hub: Hub is a connectivity device used in LAN. It connects multiple LAN devices on one network and
makes them act together as a single network. It is non-intelligent device and sends output to all the
devices on the network. A hub has multiple input/output ports, in which an input in one port results in it
being an output in all the other parts.
Switch: Switch is a networking device that performs the same job as the hub but is considered as
intelligent as hub. It gathers information about the data packet and forwards it to only the node
(computer) it was pointed out. A data packet is a basic unit of communication over a computer network.
When data is transmitted, it is broken down into packets which are re-assembled to the original form
once they reach the destination.
Router: Router is a communication device which is used to connect two or more networks. Today, most
of the networks are connected to internet. When computers is sending data to another computer on the
internet, router receives the data packets, looks for the remote computer address and forwards it to a
computer that is closer to the remote computer. It forwards the data packets by selecting the best path-
way based on network traffic. Many routers take part in transmitting the data packets from one location
to another.
Gateway: Gateway is a device that is used to connect a network to another network that uses
different protocols. If we have to link different kinds of networks, such as a network of mainframe
computers and a network of PCs, we might have to use a gateway. Gateways change the format of data
packets but not the contents of the message, to make it conform to the application program of the
remote computer.

Q6 Discuss the advantages and limitations of different network topologies, including bus, star, ring
and mesh. When should each topology be used in a network design?
Ans: The arrangement of network nodes (computers) and connections between them is called the
network topology. Topology is simply a map of the layout of nodes and connections in the network.
Bus Topology:
Bus network topology connects each node to the network along a single piece of cable called a bus.

Advantages (Salient Features( Disadvantages (Limitations)

 Suitable for a small network  If the single cable is damaged or broken at any
 Easy to connect a computer or a peripheral point, the entire network can go down.
device to the network  Difficult to identify the problem if the entire
 Requires less cable to implement network goes down
 Terminator is installed at each end of the cable  Not suitable for large network
to prevent signals from reflecting back onto
the bus and cause errors. Terminator is a
device that is attached to ground.
Star Topology:
In a star network topology, each network node is connected to a
central device called a hub. Large networks can require many hubs
and hubs can be connected to each other to create a single large
network.

Advantages (Salient Features( Disadvantages (Limitations)

 It is suitable for both small and large networks  Failure of hub causes the entire network to go
 Easy to install and wire down
 Easy to detect and remove faults  Expensive topology to implement. Lengthy
 Failure of cables does not stop functioning of cable with a hub is required to install star
the entire network topology
Ring Topology:
Ring topology is shaped just like a ring. It is made of an unbroken circle of network
node.
Advantages (Salient Features( Disadvantages (Limitations)
 Each node is directly connected to  If the ring is broken, the entire
the ring network stops functioning
 Easy to install and wire  Slower than other network
 Data on network flows in one topologies
direction
 Not costly to implement
Mesh Topology:
In mesh topology, each node is directly connected to all the nodes.

Advantages (Salient Features( Disadvantages (Limitations)

 Most reliable network topology  Most expensive topology to
 Data can be routed around implement
failed computers or busy ones  Setup maintenance is very
 Can manage high traffic difficult

Q7 What is OSI model, and how does it help in understanding the process of data communication?
Explain each of the seven layers and their functions
Ans: The International Standard Organization (ISO) based in Geneva,
developed standards for international and national data
communications. In the early 1970s, ISO developed a standard model of
a data communication system and called it the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. The OSI model consists of seven layers.
Each layer performs a specific task during data communication. These
seven layers of OSI model are described below:
Layer 7 – Application Layer
Application layer provides services to end user. It interacts with the
operating system or application software whenever the user wants to
send files, read messages or perform other network related activities.
Layer 6 – Presentation Layer
Presentation layer takes the data provided by the application layer and
converts it into a standard format that the other layers can understand. At the receiving end it also
formats the information so that it looks the way the user can understand.
Layer 5 – Session Layer
Session layer performs functions that enable two applications or two pieces of the same application to
communicate across the network. It performs security, name recognition, logging and other similar
function. It also established, maintains and ends communication with the receiving computer.
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
Transport layer establishes connections between two computers on the network. It handles quality
control by making sure that the data received is in the right format and the right order.
Layer 3 – Network Layer
Network layer decides which physical path-way the data should take to reach the destination. The
communication device router works in network layer.
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer
Data Link layer defines the format of data on the network. This layer converts the data into packets and
checks them before putting them on the path-way. The communication device Switch works in this
layer.
Layer 1 – Physical Layer
Physical layer defines cables and signaling. It provides hardware means such as cables and connectors
for sending and receiving data. Cables, hubs and repeaters work in this layer.
Q8 Explain the evolution of the Internet from its origins to the modern day global network. What
major technological advancement contributed to its growth?
Ans: The Internet
The internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks that allows for the exchange of
data, information and communication among users and devices across the world. It is a vast and
decentralized network that spans continents and connects billions of computers, servers and other
devices.
Evolution of Internet
ARPANET and the Birth of the Internet:
The journey of internet technologies began with the creation of ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network) in the 1960s. Developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, ARPANET was the first
network to use the packet-switching technique, allowing for decentralized communication between
computers. This laid the foundation for the internet as we know it today.
The World Wide Web (WWW):
The 1990s saw the emergence of the World Wide Web, a system of interlinked hypertext documents
accessed via the internet. Tim Berners-Lee's invention of the HTTP protocol and the first web browser
marked a significant milestone. This era democratized information access, leading to the proliferation of
websites and online services.
Broadband and High-Speed Connectivity:
Advancements in internet speed and connectivity in the late 20th century facilitated faster data transfer
and improved user experiences. The transition from dial-up to broadband and the deployment of fiber-
optic networks contributed to a more seamless online experience, enabling multimedia content and
real-time communication.
Mobile Internet and the Rise of Smartphones:
The 21st century witnessed the integration of the internet with mobile devices, particularly
smartphones. Mobile internet, made possible by 3G, 4G, and now 5G technologies, transformed the way
people access information on the go. The app ecosystem flourished, introducing new possibilities for
communication, productivity, and entertainment.
Cloud Computing:
Cloud computing revolutionized the internet landscape by offering on-demand access to computing
resources and storage. Companies and individuals could now store and process data remotely, leading
to increased scalability, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. Services like Amazon Web Services (AWS) and
Microsoft Azure became integral to modern web applications.
Social Media and Online Collaboration:
The rise of social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram transformed the internet into a
dynamic, interactive space for global communication and collaboration. These platforms redefined how
people connect, share information, and engage in online communities.
Internet of Things (IoT):
In the current era, the Internet of Things has emerged as a paradigm that connects everyday objects to
the internet, enabling them to collect and exchange data. Smart homes, wearable devices, and industrial
IoT applications represent the diverse applications of this technology. The interconnectedness of devices
has paved the way for more efficient processes, predictive analytics, and enhanced user experiences.
Conclusion:
The evolution of internet technologies has been a remarkable journey, from the early days of ARPANET
to the present era of the Internet of Things. As technology continues to advance, the internet will likely
undergo further transformations, shaping the way we live, work, and communicate in the years to come.
Keeping abreast of these developments is crucial as we navigate an increasingly interconnected and
digitized world
Q9 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the Internet, considering factors like global
connectivity, information access, privacy concerns and digital addiction
Ans: Advantages of Internet
Internet technology has numerous advantages. You can connect with anyone in this world without
facing any errors. The internet has brought the world close to each other. Have a look at some
essential benefits of internet.
1. Source of Information 2. Source of Entertainment
3. Keep Informed 4. Online Shopping
5. Communication 6. Social Networking
7. Learning 8. Earn Money from the Internet
9. Online Banking 10. Accessibility
1. Source of Information
The main advantage of the internet is a source of information. The internet is full of thousands of
knowledgeable websites and valuable content. You can find all types of solutions via internet sites,
whether academic or scientific information. The internet has made life easier and more flexible.
Moreover, students can research their subjects or assignments at home.
2. Source of Entertainment
The internet provides a lot of entertainment to its users in several ways. You can listen to music, play
games, watch movies, and chat via social networking sites. The internet provides many free entertaining
websites for people to talk about and share their content. It is difficult to get bored on the internet since
there's an eternal means of fun.
3. Keep Informed
The internet keeps you up to date with news regularly. Without waiting for news headlines, you can
easily access current news on the internet within seconds. Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn are all social
media platforms that allow users to stay aware of current affairs worldwide.
4. Online shopping
Over the last two decades, both consumers and retailers have benefited from the rise of online
shopping. With the convenience of mobiles or laptops, consumers can easily access an array of products
with just a few clicks. An internet user can purchase many goods at a reasonable price.
5. Communication
The internet is beneficial for communication. It offers a variety of free communication platforms,
including Facebook, Zoom, Twitter, and LinkedIn. Thanks to the Internet, individuals can be connected
via email, video conferencing, chatting, blogs, and news feeds.
6. Social Networking
The internet's primary benefit is that it allows you to remain connected. You can reach anyone,
anywhere on the globe, at any time. You can quickly communicate with friends and family no matter
where they are. Different internet applications allow you to communicate all over the world.
7. Learning
We can now learn and teach more effectively due to the Internet. The Internet offers a variety of
learning and teaching resources to its consumers, including well-researched subject-related content,
video lectures etc. The online videos, lectures, and notes have made the learning process unique.
8. Earn Money on the Internet
Many freelancing marketplaces are available online, where you can sell your services and get paid
immediately. Making your website, freelancing, virtual association, affiliate marketing, and many other
options are available. You can make a nice monthly income with Internet-based jobs.
9. Online Banking
Another advantage of using the internet is online banking. Due to online marketing, the transfer of
payments is also going online. Many online banking services are available on the internet, allowing you
to transfer money from one location to another regardless of whether the bank is open. There is no
need to visit a physical bank if you use online banking services.
10. Accessibility
Many users use the internet to promote their businesses regardless of whether they shop online. You
may locate various services on the internet, such as home services, medical services, plumbers, etc. This
change helps others grow their internet businesses by bringing in additional customers and making you
at ease.
Disadvantages of Internet
The internet has many conveniences, but excessive usage of the internet can affect you in a variety of
ways. There are a lot of uses and limitations of the internet. So, let's explore the drawbacks of the
internet.
1. A Waste of time 2. Not Safe Place for Children
3. Privacy Exposure 4. Money Frauds
5. Virus/Malware 6. Online Threatening or Harassment
7. Cyber bullying 8. Wrong Information
9. Health Issues
1. A Waste of Time
The main disadvantage of the internet is that it wastes time. Most internet users waste a lot of time on
social networking sites while doing nothing productive. Users become addicted to these online services
because of this activity.
2. Not Safe Place for Children
The internet is unsafe for children because many unethical websites harm the younger generation.
Students get disconnected from their studies, which leads to distraction from education.
3. Privacy Exposure
The internet has a significant impact on human privacy and personal data. Many websites on the
internet are insecure. Certain uneducated internet users use those websites, and their personal
information is hacked in unethical ways.
4. Money Fraud
Internet fraud is a scheme that involves offering fraudulent advertisements and requesting advance
payments via email, websites, chat rooms, or message boards. Advertisers mislead customers and gain
all their bank account information using this type of fraud conducted over the internet.
5. Virus/Malware
An internet virus or malware is harmful software that damages your data or slows down your
computer's performance. Email, removable media, and downloading infected files from the internet can
propagate this virus.
6. Online Threatening or Harassment
Social media sites like Facebook, Whatsapp, and Instagram are used to steal much personal information.
The attacker first obtains your personal information and then targets you for harassment. This can also
lead to criminal activity.
7. Cyber bullying
Cyber bullying is an online form of harassment. It's most common in gaming and social media platforms.
People make disparaging or hateful remarks about cyber bullying victims, humiliating them.
8. Wrong Information
Although the internet is regarded as the primary source of information, some websites include
inaccurate and worthless information. Sometimes, Users can have trouble distinguishing between what
is correct and what is incorrect material.
9. Health Issues
Excessive use of the internet causes many health issues. People who use the internet suffer from eye
strain, migraines, bad posture, lack of sleep, depression, and stress. People are becoming victims of such
dangerous diseases due to the internet.

Q10 Explore common applications of the internet and their impact on various aspects of society,
including communication, education, business, entertainment and research
Ans: Common Applications of Internet
Main applications of the internet include:
 Communication: Email, messaging, and video calls
 Information Retrieval: Web browsing, search engines, and online databases
 E-Commerce: Online shopping, banking, and digital payments
 Social Media: Networking, content sharing and social interaction
 Entertainment: Streaming, online gaming, and multimedia content
 Education: Online courses, research, and e-learning platforms
 Business and Work:Remote work, collaboration and e-commerce
 Research and Innovation: Access to research materials and innovation platforms
Communication
Communication is all about how we talk to each other and share important things. The Internet has
email, instant messaging, social media, online discussion forums, video, and voice calls for the major
portion of communication. The following tools make it easier for us to connect, collaborate, and learn
from one another.
 Email: Email was one of the earliest and most important uses of the Internet. It allows people to
send messages, share files, photos, and videos, and communicate for both personal and
business purposes. While there are now many others advanced collaboration tools available,
email remains extremely popular for official and personal communication.
 Social Media Platforms for Connecting: Social media is where we connect with friends, family,
and others online. We can share updates, pictures, and videos on platforms like Facebook,
Twitter, and Instagram.
 Video and Voice Calls: Sometimes, we can’t meet in person, but we still want to see and talk to
each other. That’s where video and voice calls come in. Apps like Skype, Zoom, or Google Meet
let us talk to someone using our computer or phone.
Education
Education through internet is make life so simple. It includes:
 Access to vast online libraries: With the uses of internet, researchers, students, and teachers
can find many articles, books, and other resources without leaving home. This means we can
find the information we need quickly and easily.
 E-learning platforms and online courses: Now, we can learn online! There are special websites
where we can take courses on different subjects. These courses are flexible so that we can learn
at our own speed and whenever possible.
 Virtual classrooms for online learning programs: Sometimes, we can’t go to a physical
classroom. But the Internet lets us attend classes online. We can join virtual classrooms using
video calls and special software. Platforms like Zoom and Microsoft Teams are used for virtual
classrooms.
Entertainment
Entertainment and media have become much easier and more fun because of the Internet.
 Streaming of movies, TV shows, and music: Streaming services on the Internet are like giant
libraries where we can watch and enjoy TV shows and movies and listen to music without
buying them.
 Online gaming and multiplayer platforms: Online gaming lets us play video games with people
worldwide through a global internet connection. Platforms like Xbox Live and Steam on the
Internet bring gamers together.
 Content Creators and Influencers: Social media has also allowed creative people to show their
talents and get recognized for their work. Influencers create videos or posts on the Internet
through platforms like YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok, where many people enjoy their
contents
Business
The internet has eliminated geographical barriers and opened up a world of opportunities for
businesses.
 Remote Work: We can work at home as part time or full time
 E-commerce and Online Retail: The rise of e-commerce has been one of the most
transformative aspects of the Internet for businesses. Companies like Amazon and Alibaba have
become giants in the industry. E-commerce offers convenience, choice, and competitive pricing,
making it an attractive option for consumers.
 Collaboration: In on line business there is importance of team work. Through social media,
search engine optimization, email marketing, and targeted online advertisements measure the
effectiveness of their campaigns, and adjust their strategies accordingly.
Research
Technological advances, especially the internet, opened new horizons for almost all scientific
fields. As an integral part of science, research also took advantage of the benefits internet brought.
Thousands of companies around the world use it for this purpose.
There is no doubt that the web is the biggest source of information. There were times when
researchers needed to acquire physical copies of books, journals or other publications in order to use
them. The internet provides a chance to get almost everything in digital format. Search engines yield
billions of results with just one click. Researchers needed to travel to various locations for specific
purposes before the internet age, but now there is no need for it all the time. No geographical
restrictions mean it is possible to find participants from all over the world without depending on one
place. It is especially helpful if the research topic requires international participation. Research with this
kind of involvement may also have a positive impact on global issues.
One of the downsides of using the internet for research is that it is not always possible to
confirm the source of information. Anyone can create a website and put information on it without
acknowledging the source material. Using this kind of information can misdirect the research
process. All kinds of online platforms are disposed to hacking.