Book 9

1.1
 How Plants Make Food:
 Plants produce food through a process called photosynthesis.
 "Photo" means light, and "synthesis" means making, so photosynthesis is making with
light.
 During photosynthesis, plants utilize water from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air,
and energy from sunlight.
 The green pigment chlorophyll, located inside some leaf cells, captures sunlight energy.
 Plants use this captured energy to chemically combine water and carbon dioxide.
 The result of this chemical reaction is the production of two new substances: glucose
and oxygen.
 The word equation for photosynthesis is:
Water + carbon dioxide → glucose + oxygen.
 Photosynthesis primarily occurs in the leaves of plants.

 Why is photosynthesis important?

 Photosynthesis provides energy, in the form of chemical energy stored in nutrients, for
most organisms.
 Plants use sunlight energy to synthesize glucose and other carbohydrates, containing the
original energy from sunlight.
 Food chains demonstrate how this captured energy is transferred from plants to animals
when consumed.
 Photosynthesis is crucial for producing oxygen for the Earth's atmosphere.
 Oxygen, necessary for respiration in both animals and plants, is a byproduct of
photosynthesis and is released from plant leaves.
 Approximately 20% of the Earth's atmosphere consists of oxygen.
 The process of photosynthesis, initiated by bacteria, is believed to be responsible for the
accumulation of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere over billions of years.
 If photosynthesis had not started, the Earth would lack the oxygen required for the
survival of animals and many other organisms.
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1.2
 Chloroplasts and chlorophyll
 Chlorophyll is crucial for photosynthesis as it captures sunlight energy, aiding the
reaction between water and carbon dioxide.
 Chlorophyll is housed within chloroplasts, found inside plant cells.
 Photosynthesis primarily occurs within chloroplasts, and not all plant cells
possess them, limiting their ability to photosynthesize.
 Leaves, particularly the cells within them, often contain the highest
concentration of chloroplasts in most plants.
 Inside leaf cells, the reaction between carbon dioxide and water takes place,
resulting in the production of carbohydrates and oxygen.
 Plants can produce more carbohydrates than needed on warm, sunny days,
storing the excess as starch inside chloroplasts.
 Starch storage allows plants to use the stored carbohydrates during periods with
less sunlight, such as at night or during seasons with reduced sunlight.
 Testing for starch is a method to determine whether a leaf has been actively
engaged in photosynthesis.
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 Inside a Leaf:
 Photosynthesis takes place within chloroplasts, which are situated inside some cells
within a leaf.
 Leaves, being thin, facilitate easy penetration of sunlight to reach these chloroplast-
containing cells.
 Adequate water for photosynthesis is transported to leaf cells through the veins.
 Carbon dioxide, a key component of photosynthesis, diffuses into the leaf from the
surrounding air through tiny holes known as stomata (singular: stoma).
 Stomata serve as openings that allow gases to diffuse in and out of the leaf.
 The gases move through the air spaces between cells inside the leaf, supporting the
process of photosynthesis.

 Minerals and plant growth

 Farmers enhance crop growth and increase yields by adding fertilizers to their fields, as
shown in the picture.
 Fertilizers are rich in minerals, essential for plant development.
 Plants, like humans, require specific minerals in relatively small quantities for optimal
growth.
 Roots absorb minerals from the soil, but certain soils may lack enough specific minerals,
hindering optimal plant growth.
 Two crucial minerals for plants are magnesium and nitrate.

Magnesium

 Magnesium is crucial to produce chlorophyll, the green pigment responsible for capturing sunlight energy
during photosynthesis.
 Insufficient magnesium can result in yellow leaves, hindered growth, and reduced photosynthetic capacity.

Nitrate

 containing nitrogen atoms, is essential for converting carbohydrates to proteins in plants.

 Proteins are vital for generating new cells, facilitating healthy plant growth.
 Inadequate nitrogen leads to leaf death and stunted plant growth.
 Nitrogen is also integral to chlorophyll production.
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1.3
 Carbon and living organisms
 Carbon is an element with the symbol C, existing naturally in various forms.
 Diamonds and graphite (used in pencils) are different forms of carbon.
 Living organisms require carbon, but not in its elemental form; they utilize it when it's
part of compounds.
 Carbon is a component of various compounds that constitute cells, including
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
 Plants play a crucial role in producing these substances. Through photosynthesis, plants
convert carbon dioxide from the air into carbohydrates, where carbon becomes an
integral part.
 The carbon-containing carbohydrates are then used by plants to create proteins and fats.
 Animals, including humans, obtain these carbon-containing nutrients by consuming
plants or other animals.
 Decomposers acquire carbon by breaking down waste products from plants and animals.

 Returning carbon dioxide to the air

 Plants play a role in returning carbon dioxide to the air through respiration.
 Respiration in plants and animals involves the breakdown of glucose and oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide and water.
 During respiration, organisms release carbon dioxide into the air, a process common to
all living entities.
 Plants respire continuously, including at night when they cannot photosynthesize.
 Decomposers, as they break down waste from plants and animals, also release carbon
dioxide into the air.
 The respiration equation: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water.
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 Fossil Fuels and Combustion:

 When organisms die and are not rapidly decomposed, their remains can be buried in
places with limited oxygen, forming fossil fuels like coal, oil, or natural gas.
 Over time, pressure and heat transform the remains of dead organisms into fossil fuels
in a process that takes millions of years.
 Most fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas, were formed hundreds of millions
of years ago.
 Oil and natural gas, formed from marine organisms, are extracted through drilling, like
the oil rig off West Africa, to be used as fuel.
 Coal, originating from ancient plants in swamps, is mined for various uses, particularly in
power stations to generate electricity.
 Fossil fuels, rich in carbon, are a result of the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the
original organisms.
 When fossil fuels burn (combustion), the carbon in them combines with oxygen,
producing carbon dioxide.
 The combustion of fossil fuels contributes to the release of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
 These processes are integral parts of the carbon cycle, completing the journey of carbon
from the air to living organisms and back to the air again.

 Fossil Fuels:
 Formed from the remains of dead organisms over millions of years.
 Include coal, oil, and natural gas, serving as significant energy sources.
 Fossils:
 Preserved remains or traces of organisms turned into rock.
 Maintain the original structure and provide insights into Earth’s history.
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1.4
 Greenhouse gases
 Carbon dioxide and methane are considered greenhouse gases, contributing to the
Earth's natural warming effect.
 In the absence of carbon dioxide, the Earth would be too cold to support life. However,
the current levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are considered excessive.
 The carbon cycle diagram illustrates that some carbon from the atmosphere becomes
part of fossil fuels, which, when extracted and burned, release carbon dioxide back into
the air.
 The extraction and combustion of fossil fuels contribute to the increasing levels of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

 Climate change
 Elevated carbon dioxide levels are linked to climate change, impacting the long-term
patterns of temperatures, wind, and rainfall on Earth.
 The Earth's climate has undergone significant changes throughout its history, with
variations in temperature, wind, and rainfall patterns.

o Ice ages
 Approximately 2 billion years ago, the Earth witnessed its first recorded ice age, marking the
beginning of cycles between warm and cold periods.
 During warm periods, there was no ice at the poles, while colder periods, known as ice
ages, saw the presence of ice at the poles.

o Snowball Earth
 A remarkable event, known as "Snowball Earth," occurred around 650 million years ago,
where the entire Earth might have been covered in ice and snow. Some uncertainty
remains, as scientists debate whether everything was completely frozen or in a partial slush
state.
 The concept of "Snowball Earth" indicates a period of extreme coldness, with global ice
coverage.
 The Earth's appearance during this era, with continents in different positions than today,
contributes to the mystery of this ancient climatic event.

o Asteroids colliding with each other

 Approximately 470 million years ago, scientists hypothesize that two asteroids collided
between Earth and Mars in space.
 The collision resulted in the creation of substantial amounts of dust.
 The dust, when dispersed, had a significant impact on Earth's climate by reducing the
amount of sunlight and heat reaching the planet's surface.
 This environmental change induced an ice age, causing a considerable drop in
temperatures.
 The effects included the expansion of ice caps, reaching further from the poles, and a
decrease in sea levels.
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o Asteroids colliding with Earth

 Around 67 million years ago, Earth experienced a catastrophic event when an asteroid
collided with the planet.
 Scientists have identified the impact site on the coast of Mexico, marked by a massive
crater.
 The asteroid impact caused devastation locally, with shock waves and high temperatures
spreading from the crater.
 However, the effects were global, as the collision ejected large amounts of rock and dust
into the atmosphere.
 The event likely triggered a massive tsunami that could have affected all Earth's oceans.
 The dust in the air blocked sunlight, leading to disrupted food chains and a colder climate,
impacting photosynthesis and plant growth.
 Many scientists attribute the extinction of dinosaurs, as well as numerous other species, to
the climate changes resulting from this asteroid impact.
 This event is considered a mass extinction, causing up to 75% of Earth's species to become
extinct.
 There are approximately 175 known asteroid impact craters worldwide, with one in the USA
estimated to be formed about 50,000 years ago.

 Could other objects collide with Earth?

 Smaller space objects than asteroids, known as meteoroids, become meteors when
entering Earth's atmosphere. Some call them shooting stars.
 Meteors usually burn up in the atmosphere due to friction, creating the streaking effect
across the sky.
 Larger meteors can create shockwaves upon entry. In 2013, a meteor exploded over
Russia, causing window shattering.
 Meteoroids that reach Earth's surface are called meteorites, with approximately 500
reaching Earth each year.
 Objects causing local or global damage are usually larger. In 1998, scientists began
monitoring objects posing potential risks to Earth.
 Risk assessment considers factors such as mass, diameter, and the closest possible
approach to Earth.
 An asteroid's mass and proximity to Earth determine its risk level. Sometimes, asteroids
passing further away might pose a greater risk due to their mass.
 An example is the asteroid 2006 DP14, which passed 2.4 million km from Earth in 2014.
Measuring 200m × 400m, it's considered a potential risk.
 A collision with an asteroid like 2006 DP14 could cause an explosion equivalent to about
20 million tonnes of explosives.
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 Climate change today and in the future

 Over the past 2000 years, climate stability has allowed people to adapt to predictable
rainfall patterns and temperature changes, aiding agriculture.
 However, recent trends indicate an increase in mean temperatures on Earth.
 This rise is attributed to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere,
acting as a greenhouse gas that traps heat near the Earth's surface.
 The upward trend signals a global warming trend, raising concerns about climate change
and its impacts on ecosystems, weather patterns, and sea levels.

 Impacts of climate change

o More extreme weather changes
 The rise in Earth's temperature is already influencing our climate.
 Elevated temperatures mean increased energy in the atmosphere, contributing to a
higher likelihood of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and typhoons.
 Tropical cyclone Idai, striking southern Africa in 2019, stands as one of the most
devastating storms in African history, claiming over 1300 lives and causing severe
flooding and destruction.
 While linking a specific storm to climate change is challenging, the observed trend
indicates a rise in the occurrence and intensity of such events.

o Less predictable rainfall

 Climate change disrupts traditional weather patterns, making rainfall less predictable in
various regions.
 Late or absent rains, altered precipitation timings, or increased intensity contribute to
challenges in agriculture.
 In 2019, the South Asian monsoon rains arrived late and were unusually heavy, causing
floods in Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, affecting millions.
 Crop failures due to inadequate rainfall and extended droughts pose risks to food
security.
 Extended periods of drought raise the likelihood of wildfires, impacting both ecosystems
and human communities.
 This Australian wildfire, following a prolonged drought, exemplifies the interconnected
effects of changing climate on agriculture and the environment.

o Rising sea levels

 The Earth's rising mean temperature contributes to increasing sea levels through
multiple mechanisms.
 As water warms, it expands, leading to a rise in sea levels.
 Melting ice caps and glaciers, like the retreating glacier shown, contribute additional
water to the oceans.
 This phenomenon poses a significant threat to coastal areas, especially megacities like
Shanghai, Mumbai, and Los Angeles.
 Scientists estimate a sea-level rise of about 3 mm per year, potentially affecting over 600
million people by the century's end.
 The vulnerability of coastal regions emphasizes the urgent need for global strategies to
address and mitigate the impacts of rising sea levels.