Casting in computer networks means transmitting data (stream of packets) over a network.

Following are the different types of

casting used in networking −
•Unicast transmission
•Broadcast transmission
•Multicast transmission

Unicast Transmission (One-to-One)

In Unicast transmission, the data is transferred from a single
sender (or a single source host) to a single receiver (or a single
destination host).
The network switches hear the MAC addresses of the devices on
the networks to which they are connected. They can then
forward packets only onto those networks containing devices
with the connected MAC addresses. Unicast gradually becomes
less efficient as more receivers need to see identical data.
Example
In the following figure, Host A sends the IP address 11.1.2.2
data to the Host B IP address 20.12.4.3.
•Source Address = IP address of host A is 11.1.2.2
•Destination Address = IP address of host B is 20.12.4.3

Broadcast Transmission (One-to-All)

In Broadcast transmission, the data is transmitted from one or
more senders to all the receivers within the same network or in
other networks. This type of transmission is useful in network
management packets such as ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol) and RIP (Routing Information Protocol) where all the
devices must see the data.
There are two types of broadcast transmission −
•Directed Broadcast, and
•Limited Broadcast
Directed Broadcast
Directed Broadcast transmits data from one source host to all
the other hosts that exist in some other network. It is used in two
scenarios −
•When the hosts are responsible for parsing data from broadcast
packets.
•When all the hosts require the same data.
•This is achieved by translating all the Host ID part bits of
the destination address to 1, referred to as Direct
Broadcast Address in the datagram header for
information transfer.
Limited Broadcast
In Limited Broadcast, the data is transmitted from a single
source host to all the other hosts residing in the same network.

For example: Suppose you have to send a stream of packets to all the devices over the network that your reside,
this broadcasting comes in handy. For this to achieve, it will append 255.255.255.255 (all the 32 bits of IP address
set to 1) called Limited Broadcast Address in the destination address of the datagram (packet) header which is reserved for
information transfer to all the recipients from a single client (sender) over the network.

Multicast Transmission (One-to-Many)

When the data is transmitted from a single source host to a specific group
of hosts having the interest to receive the data, it is known as multicast
transmission. Multicast can be more efficient than unicast when different
groups of receivers need to see the same data.
Example − Multicast is the technique used in Internet streaming of video
or audio teleconference, sending an email to a particular group of people,
etc.

Feature Unicast Broadcast Multicast

Data is sent to a single Data is sent to all Data is sent to a group of

Transmission
recipient recipients in a network recipients

Uses a unique destination Uses a special broadcast Uses a special multicast

Addressing
address address address

Not all devices may be Not all devices may be

Delivery Guaranteed delivery
interested in the data interested in the data

Generates the least Generates the most Generates moderate

Network Traffic
amount of network traffic amount of network traffic network traffic

More secure because data Less secure because data Moderately secure
Security is sent to a specific is sent to all devices in the because data is sent to a
recipient network specific group of devices

DHCP requests, ARP Video streaming, online

Examples Email, file transfer
requests gaming
 The Network Layer
Network Layer is majorly focused on getting packets from the source to the destination,
routing, error handling and congestion control.
Functions of Network Layer are.
Addressing:
Maintains the address at the frame header of both source and destination and performs
addressing to detect various devices in network.
Packeting:
This is performed by Internet Protocol. The network layer converts the packets from its
upper layer.
Routing:
It is the most important functionality. The network layer chooses the most relevant and
best path for the data transmission from source to destination.
Inter-networking:
It works to deliver a logical connection across multiple devices.

Network layer Design Issues:

The network layer comes with some design issues they are described as follows:
1. Store and Forward Packet Switching:
The host sends the packet to the nearest router. This packet is stored there until it has
fully arrived once the link is fully processed by verifying the checksum then it is
forwarded to the next router till it reaches the destination. This mechanism is called
“Store and Forward packet switching.

2. Services provided to Transport Layer:

Network layer transfers it’s services to the transport layer.
Offering services must not depend on router technology.
The transport layer needs to be protected from the type, number and topology of the available router.
The network addresses for the transport layer should use uniform numbering pattern also at LAN and WAN
connections
Based on the connections there are 2 types of services provided :
Connectionless – The routing and insertion of packets into subnet is done individually.No added setup is
required.
Connection-Oriented – Subnet must offer reliable service and all the packets must be transmitted over a single
route
3. Implementation of Connectionless Service:
Packet are termed as “datagram’s” and corresponding subnet as “datagram subnets”. When the message size that
has to be transmitted is 4 times the size of the packet, then the network layer divides into 4 packets and transmits
each packet to router via. a few protocol.Each data packet has destination address and is routed independently
irrespective of the packets.
4. Implementation of Connection Oriented service:
To use a connection-oriented service, first we establishes a connection, use it and then release it. In
connection-oriented services, the data packets are delivered to the receiver in the same order in which they have
been sent by the sender
It can be done in either two ways:
Circuit Switched Connection – A dedicated physical path or a circuit is established between the communicating
nodes and then data stream is transferred.
Virtual Circuit Switched Connection – The data stream is transferred over a packet switched network, in such a way
that it seems to the user that there is a dedicated path from the sender to the receiver. A virtual path is established
Connection-Oriented Services
In a connection-oriented service, each packet is related to a source/destination connection. These packets are routed along a
similar path, known as a virtual circuit. Thus, it provides an end-to-end connection to the client for reliable data transfer.
It delivers information in order without duplication or missing information. It does not congest the communication channel
and the buffer of the receiving device. The host machine requests a connection to interact and closes the connection after the
transmission of the data.
Mobile communication is an example of a connection-oriented service.

Connection Oriented Services

1)It can generate an end to end connection between the senders to the receiver before sending the data over the same or multiple
networks.
2) It generates a virtual path between the sender and the receiver.
3) It needed a higher bandwidth to transmit the data packets.
4)There is no congestion as it supports an end-to-end connection between sender and receiver during data transmission.
5) It is a more dependable connection service because it assures data packets transfer from one end to the other end with a
connection.

Connectionless-Service
In connectionless service, a router treats each packet individually. The packets are routed through different paths through the
network according to the decisions made by routers. The network or communication channel does not guarantee data delivery
from the host machine to the destination machine in connectionless service.
The data to be transmitted is broken into packets. These independent packets are called datagrams in analogy with telegrams.
The packets contain the address of the destination machine. Connectionless service is equivalent to the postal system. In the
postal system, a letter is put in an envelope that contains the address of the destination. It is then placed in a letterbox.
The letter finally delivers to the destination through the postal network. However, it does not guarantee to appear in the
addressee's letterbox.

•It can transfer the data packets between senders to the receiver without creating any connection.
•It does not make any virtual connection or path between the sender and the receiver.
•It requires low bandwidth to share the data packets.
•There can be congestion due to not providing an end-to-end connection between the source and receiver to transmit data
packets.
•It is not a dependent connection service because it does not ensure the share of data packets from one end to another for
supporting a connection.
 ALOHA Random Access Protocol
It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared medium to transmit data. Using this
method, any station can transmit data across a network simultaneously when a data frameset is available for transmission.
Aloha Rules
1.Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.
2.It does not require any carrier sensing.
3.Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through multiple stations.
4.Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision detection.
5.It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

Pure Aloha
Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure
Aloha. In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without
checking whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision may
occur, and the data frame can be lost. When any station transmits the data
frame to a channel, the pure Aloha waits for the receiver's acknowledgment.
If it does not acknowledge the receiver end within the specified time, the
station waits for a random amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb). And
the station may assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it
retransmits the frame until all the data are successfully transmitted to the
receiver.
1.The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.
2.Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is 18.4%.
3.Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.

As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for
accessing a shared channel and transmitting data frames. Some
frames collide because most stations send their frames at the
same time. Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 3.2, are
successfully transmitted to the receiver end. At the same time,
other frames are lost or destroyed. Whenever two frames fall on
a shared channel simultaneously, collisions can occur, and both
will suffer damage. If the new frame's first bit enters the channel
before finishing the last bit of the second frame. Both frames are
completely finished, and both stations must retransmit the data
frame.

Slotted Aloha
The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because pure Aloha has a very high possibility of frame
hitting. In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots. So that, if a station wants to send a
frame to a shared channel, the frame can only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each
slot. And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the station will have to wait until the beginning of the
slot for the next time. However, the possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at the beginning of two or more
station time slot.
1.Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%.
2.The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted Aloha is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
3.The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.
Key Pure Aloha Slotted Aloha
Time Slot In Pure Aloha, any station In Slotted Aloha, any
can transmit data at any station can transmit data
time. only at the beginning of a
time slot.

Time In Pure Aloha, time is In Slotted Aloha, time is

continuous and is not discrete and is globally
globally synchronized. synchronized.

Vulnerable time The vulnerable time or In Slotted Aloha, the

susceptible time in Pure vulnerable time is equal to
Aloha is equal to (2×Tt). (Tt).

Probability The probability of The probability of

successful transmission of successful transmission of
a data packet S=G×e−2G data packet S=G×e−G

Maximum efficiency Maximum efficiency = Maximum efficiency =

18.4%. 36.8%.
Number of collisions Does not reduce the Slotted Aloha reduces the
number of collisions. number of collisions to
half, thus doubles the
efficiency