Introduction to Electronic Instruments and

Principles of Communication

By B. B. Mangaraj
CONTENTS
Introduction to Electronic Instruments:
• Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
• Waveform Display,
• Applications of CRO
• Electronic Multimeter
• Audio Signal Generator: Block diagram, Front Panel Controls.
Principles of Communication:
• Fundamentals of AM & FM
• Block diagram of Transmitter and Receivers
 CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)
• It is a versatile measuring instrument used to visually observe wave shapes of
different signals and measure its different parameters.
• Different parameters are amplitude, frequency, phase, rise time, fall time,
distortion, time interval, etc.
• It is typically divided into four sections which are display, vertical controllers,
horizontal controllers, and Power supply.
• We can analyze the waveform by plotting amplitude along y-axis and time in x-
axis.
• The applications of CRO mainly involve in the TV receivers, in laboratory work
involved research and design. In modern electronics, the CRO plays an
important role in identifying signal strengths in different electronic circuits.
Cathode Ray Tube
Basic Principles
• Electron Gun: It generates the beam which moves towards the tube and strikes the
screen. The screen glows at the point of collision, producing a bright spot. Electric
or magnetic fields are used to deflect and move the spot to trace out a pattern.
• Y plates (Vertical deflection plates): These are used to deflect the beam vertically.
• X plates (Horizontal deflection plates): These are used to deflect the beam
horizontally.
• The cathode ray tube (CRT) being an evacuated glass tube is the heart of the CRO.
The high voltage (HV) required by this is supplied by power supply.
• To produce an image on the screen, complex signals are applied to the deflecting
coils, and also to the apparatus that controls the intensity of the electron beam.
• This causes the spot to race across the screen from right to left, and from top to
bottom, in a sequence of horizontal lines called the raster.
 Cont..
• For ac signal display the signal voltage is applied to the vertical plates and it moves
the spot vertically to positions, corresponding to the instantaneous values of the
signal. Simultaneously the spot is moved horizontally by a sweep voltage applied to
the horizontal plates. The sweep must be linear and must move in one direction.
• As viewed from the front of the CRT, the spot moves in a pattern similar to the way
our eyes move when you read a single-column page of text.
• But the scanning takes place at such a rapid rate that our eye sees a constant image
over the entire screen.
• When voltage is applied to the vertical and horizontal plates simultaneously the
deflection of the beam is proportional to the resultant of the two voltages and the
position of the beam is in between the vertical and horizontal axis of the screen.
• This is typical of a monochrome, or single-color, CRT. How ever, virtually all
CRTs today render color images. These devices have three electron guns, one for
the primary color red, one for the primary color green, and one for the primary
color blue.
• The CRT thus produces three overlapping images: one in red (R), one in green
(G), and one in blue (B).
• This is the so-called RGB color model.
• In computer systems, there are several display modes or sets of specifications
according to which the CRT operates.
• The most common specification for CRT displays is known as SVGA (Super
Video Graphics Array). Notebook computers typically use liquid crystal display.
The technology for these displays is much different than that for CRTs.
Analog Oscilloscope Digital Oscilloscope

1. Single beam single trace

2. Single beam dual trace
3. Dual beam dual trace
Horizontal and Vertical Deflection System: The vertical and horizontal system consists
of amplifiers to amplify the weak input signals, but they are different. The horizontal
deflection plates are provided with a time base signal. Whereas the test signal is applied to
Vertical deflection plates. The trigger circuit triggers the time base generator to generate
the saw tooth wave. In fact the trigger circuit receives the actuating signal from the
vertical amplifier immediately after the test signal is applied.
Synchronization: The synchronization is done to produce the stationary pattern. The
synchronization is between the sweep and the signal being measured. There are some
sources of synchronization which can be selected by the synchronization selector. Which
are discussed below.
Internal: In this case the signal is measured by the vertical amplifier and the trigger is
generated by this input signal.
External: In this external trigger case, the trigger is applied from external circuit.
Line: The line trigger is produced by the power supply.
Deflection Sensitivity: The dc or peak to peak ac voltage applied to the deflecting plates
to displace the spot by 1 mm on the screen is termed as the deflection factor. The
reciprocal of this factor is known as deflection sensitivity.
Intensity Modulation: This modulation is produced by inserting the signal between the
ground and cathode. This modulation causes by brightening the display.

Positioning Control: By applying the small independent internal direct voltage source to
the detecting plates through the potentiometer the position can be controlled and also we
can control the position of the signal.

Intensity Control: The intensity has a difference by changing the grid potential with
respect to the cathode.

Applications of CRO
• Voltage measurement
• Current measurement
• Examination of waveform
• Measurement of phase and frequency
• Time interval
Deflection Sensitivity:
The dc or peak to peak
ac voltage applied to
the deflecting plates to
displace the spot by
1 mm on the screen is
termed as the deflection
factor. The reciprocal of
this factor is known as
deflection sensitivity.

𝑙d LVd where Ed = Vd/d

D= and Va is the
dVa accelerating
anode voltage
Waveform on CRO Screen
 Multimeter
They are two types
1. Analog Multimeter
2. Digital Multimeter

This does the operation of Ammeter, Voltmeter,

Ohmmeter, Continuity test, diode test, transistor
test, capacitor test, etc.

Analog Multimeter
Ammeter, Voltmeter, and Ohmmeter (PMMC):
I IS1 IS2 IS3 Rm
T = BAIN; B = flux density, A = Effective coil area,
I = Current in coil, N = Turns of the coil RS1 RS2 RS3 Im
Vshunt = Vmeter
IsRs = ImRm  Rs = ImRm/ Is
Is = I – Im, Rs = ImRm/ (I – Im)
IsRs = ImRm = I(Rs // Rm) = I (RsRm/ (Rs + Rm)
 Im = RsI/ (Rs + Rm) & I = RmI/ (Rs + Rm)
I R1
+
R2
V = Im(Rs + Rm)  Im = V/ (Rs + Rm) Rm
R3 Im
Vs = ImRs & Vm = ImRm = VRm / (Rs + Rm)

–
I = V / (R + Rm) = V/ R  I  1/R
 Digital Multimeter

Signal i/p
Vi
Signal Display unit
ADC
Preparation
 Signal Generator
• A signal generator is one of a class of electronic devices that generates electronic signals with set
properties of amplitude, frequency, and wave shape.
• These generated signals are used as a stimulus for electronic measurements, typically used in designing,
testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or electroacoustic devices, though it often has artistic uses
as well.
• A signal generator may be as simple as an oscillator with calibrated frequency and amplitude. More
general-purpose signal generators allow control of all the characteristics of a signal.
• Modern general-purpose signal generators will have a microprocessor control and may also permit control
from a personal computer.
• Signal generators may be free-standing self-contained instruments, or may be incorporated into more
complex automatic test systems.
• There are many different types of signal generators with different purposes and applications and at varying
levels of expense.
• These types include Audio function generators, RF and microwave signal generators, pitch generators,
arbitrary waveform generators, digital pattern generators, and frequency generators.
• In general, no device is suitable for all possible applications.
Block Diagram of Audio Function Generator
Audio Signal Generator
Front Panel of AFSG
Front Panel Controls
• Frequency Selector
• Frequency Multiplier
• Amplitude Multiplier
• Variable Amplitude
• Function Switch (Not available here)
• Output Section
• Auxilary Output Section
• Fine Tuning
• Sync Control
• Symmetry Control
 Principles of Communication:
Channel
Transmitter Receiver
• AM • AM
• Twin wire
• FM • FM
• Co-axial cable
• PM • PM
• Waveguide
• DM • DM
• Optical fibre

Modulation is the process by which some characteristics of a high frequency wave called the carrier, is
changed according to the instantaneous value of a low frequency wave called the modulating wave. The
resultant wave is called the modulated wave. The need of modulation are:
• Reduction in the height of antenna
• Avoids mixing of signals
• Increases the range of communication
• Multiplexing is possible
• Reduce noise and improves quality of reception
Amplitude Modulation:
Amplitude modulation is obtained by varying the amplitude of the carrier by the
modulating signal. The change in amplitude from the unmodulated value being
proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal independent of its
frequency.
Let say carrier is 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
and baseband is 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡
Then, the expression for AM is
𝑣𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
= 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
= 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2 2
Amplitude modulated wave:
Frequency Modulation:
Frequency modulation is obtained by varying the frequency of the carrier by the modulating
signal. The change in frequency from the unmodulated value being proportional to the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal independent of its amplitude.
Let say carrier is 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
and baseband is 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡
Then, the expression for AM is
𝑣𝐹𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡
= 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑚𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − 𝑉𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡
Where 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑚𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐽0 𝑚𝑓 + 2𝐽2 𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 2𝐽4 𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + ⋯ +
2𝐽2𝑛 𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + ⋯
and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐽1 𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 2𝐽3 𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 2𝐽5 𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + ⋯ +
2𝐽2𝑛−1 𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛 − 1 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + ⋯
Bessel function with first kind different order:
Frequency modulated wave:
Block diagram of AM Transmitter
Block diagram of AM Transmitter
CARRIER OSCILLATOR: A oscillator is used to operate the transmitter at a desirable fixed
radio frequency (RF). The power output of the oscillator, being not sufficiently large, is amplified
in several stages.
BUFFER AMPLIFIER: This amplifier isolates the oscillator from the succeeding stage, so that
the variation of coupling and antenna loading do not influence the oscillator frequency.
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIER: Oscillator cannot generate very high carrier frequencies. To
obtain such frequencies, the frequency multiplier is used to multiply the frequency of oscillator
output signal to the required value.
POWER AMPLIFIER: The modulated carrier is fed to this stage for final amplification before
being supplied to the antenna.
AUDIO AMPLIFIER: This amplifier is used to amplify the audio signal output of the
microphone that converts the speech or music to an equivalent electrical signal.
MODULATOR: The function of the modulator is to amplitude modulate the RF carrier in
accordance with the amplified of audio signal.
Block diagram of AM Receiver
ANTENNA
• The antenna picks up all radiated signals and feeds them into the RF amplifier.
• These signals are very small (usually only a few microvolt).

RF AMPLIFIER
• This circuit can be adjusted (tuned) to select and amplify any carrier frequency within the AM broadcast band.
• Only the selected frequency and its two side bands pass through the amplifier. (Some AM receivers don't
have a separate RF amplifier stage.)

LOCAL OSCILLATOR
• This circuit generates a steady sine wave at a frequency 455 KHz above the selected RF frequency.

MIXER
• This circuit accepts two inputs, the amplitude modulated RF signal from the output of the RF amplifier
(or the antenna when there is no RF amplifier) and the sinusoidal output of the local oscillator (LO).
These two signals are then "mixed" by a nonlinear process called heterodyning to produce sum and
difference frequencies. For example, if the RF carrier has a frequency of 1000 KHz, the LO frequency is
1455 KHz and the sum and difference frequencies out of the mixer are 2455 KHz and 455 KHz,
respectively. The difference frequency is always 455 KHz no matter what the RF carrier frequency.
IF AMPLIFIER
• The input to the If amplifier is the 455 KHz AM signal, a replica of the original AM
carrier signal except that the frequency has been lowered to 455 KHz, The IF amplifier
significantly increases the level of this signal.

DETECTOR
• This circuit recovers the modulating signal (audio signal) from the 455 KHz IF. At this
point the IF is no longer needed, so the output of the detector consists of only the audio
signal.

AUDIO AND POWER AMPLIFIERS

• This circuit amplifies the detected audio signal and drives the speaker to produce sound.
Block diagram of FM Transmitter
FM TRANSMITTER:
• REACTANCE MODULATOR: This transforms the change in audio amplitude into change
in frequency of the transmitter oscillator.
• CARRIER OSCILLATOR: A oscillator is used to operate the transmitter at a desirable
fixed radio frequency (RF). The power output of the oscillator, being not sufficiently large, is
amplified in several stages.
• BUFFER AMPLIFIER: This amplifier isolates the oscillator from the succeeding stage, so
that the variation of coupling and antenna loading do not influence the oscillator frequency.
• TRANSMITTER OSCILLATOTR: An RF oscillator is used here to generate the desired
oscillations.
• FREQUENCY MULTIPLIER: A number of frequency multipliers are used in this
stage to raise the frequency to the required value.
• DRIVER AMPLIFIER: A driver RF amplifier is used as a current amplifier with impedance
match at the operating frequency to drive a low-impedance load such as a 50- or 75-Ω
coaxial cable.
• POWER AMPLIFIER: The modulated carrier is fed to this stage for final amplification
before being supplied to the antenna.
Block diagram of Armstrong FM Transmitter
Block diagram of FM Receiver
 FM Receiver:
• The RF amplifier amplifies the received signal intercepted by the antenna. The amplified
signal is then applied to the mixer stage.
• The second input of the mixer comes from the local oscillator. The two input
frequencies of the mixer generate an IF signal of 10.7 MHz. This signal is then
amplified by the IF amplifier.
• The output of the IF amplifier is applied to the limiter circuit. The limiter removes the
noise in the received signal and gives a constant amplitude signal. This circuit is
required when a phase discriminator is used to demodulate an FM signal.
• The output of the limiter is now applied to the FM discriminator, which recovers the
modulating signal. However, this signal is still not the original modulating signal.
Before applying it to the audio amplifier stages, it is de-emphasized.
• De-emphasizing attenuates the higher frequencies to bring them back to their original
amplitudes as these are boosted or emphasized before transmission. The output of the
de-emphasized stage is the audio signal, which is then applied to the audio stages and
finally to the speaker.
• It should be noted that a limiter circuit is required with the FM discriminators. If the
demodulator stage uses a ratio detector instead of the discriminator, then a limiter is not
required. This is because the ratio detector limits the amplitude of the received signal.
• In the given Figure a dotted block that covers the limiter and the discriminator is marked
as the ratio detector.
• In FM receivers, generally, AGC is not required because the amplitude of the carrier is
kept constant by the limiter circuit. Therefore, the input to the audio stages controls
amplitudes and there are no erratic changes of the volume level.
• However, AGC may be provided using an AGC detector. This generates a dc voltage to
control the gains of the RF and IF amplifiers.
Any Queries