CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar report titled ‘4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY’ is
bonafide record of the Seminar presented by SANJITH S(LADR19ME106) in the
partial fulfilment of requirement of the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology
in Mechanical Engineering of APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University at College
of Engineering Adoor during the year 2022-2023.

Oral presentation held on: 01 DECEMBER 2022

GUIDED BY SEMINAR COORDINATOR

Prof. Praveen A Prof. Santhosh T

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Dept. of ME Dept. of ME

HEAD OF DEPT.

Dr. Suresh Kumar N

Assistant professor
Dept. of ME
 ABSTRACT

3D printing has gained immerse popularity since its introduction and finds application
in areas such as prototyping, engineering and medical field largely due to its advantage
of being able to quickly and inexpensively transform computer 3D files into physical
objects. 3D printing has the capability of printing geometrically fixed structures which
are static and not suited for multifunctional use. 4D printing was developed when
researchers combined smart materials and 3D printing. 4D printing uses the fourth
dimension of time to create shape morphing 3D printed objects when exposed to stimuli
after using conversional 3D printing technology such as fused deposition modelling
(FDM) and selective laser sintering (SLS). 4D printed materials respond to stimuli such
as ph., humidity and temperature to activate the 3D printed components without the use
of electronics or motors. There has been a lot of research done on smart materials
capable of sensing external stimuli and responding to it. In this paper 4D printing is
reviewed according to activation stimuli and the uses of this technology are explored.
4D printing has the prospective to simplify the design and manufacturing of different
products and has the vast potential to create parts that self-actuate to react to their
environment. Applications of 4D printing are in areas such as biomedical devices,
security, fabrication of patterned surfaces for optics and structures with multi directional
properties.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to convey my heartfelt gratitude to Assistant Prof.Praveen A for his

tremendous support and assistance in the completion of my seminar. I would also like
to thank our seminar coordinators, Prof. Santhosh T, Prof. Sanjayraj C R and Prof. John
Seprian Fernandez S, for providing me with this wonderful opportunity to work on a
seminar with the topic “4D printing technology”. The completion of the seminar would
not have been possible without their help and insights.

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 CONTENTS

TITLE. PAGE
NO
ABSTRACT Ⅰ
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Ⅱ
LIST OF ABBREVIATION Ⅳ
LIST OF SYMBOLS Ⅴ
LIST OF FIGURES Ⅵ
LIST OF TABLES Ⅶ
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 3
CHAPTER 3: 4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY 4
3.1 PROCESS FOR 4D PRINTING 4
3.1.1 Generic Addictive Manufacturing Process 5
CHAPTER 4: SMART MATERIALS 8
4.1 SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT 8
4.1.1 List of Smart Materials 11
4.1.2 Trigger or Interaction Mechanisms 14
4.1.3 Smart Design 17
CHAPTER 5: PROPERTIES OF SMART MATERIALS 19
5.1 SELF-ASSEMBLY 19
5.2 SELF ADAPTABILITY 20
5.3 SELF REPAIR 20
CHAPTER 6: APPLICATION AREA AND FUTURE 21
DEVELOPMENT
6.1 MEDICAL FIELD 21
6.2 AERONAUTICS AND ROBOTICS 22
6.3 MILITARY AND AUTOMOBILE APPLICATIONS 23
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 24
REFERENCES 25

Ⅲ
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

RR Strain Recovery Rate

RF Strain Fixity Rate

SMP Shape Memory Polymers

AM Addictive manufacturing

Ⅳ
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

mm Millimeter

% Percentage

Ⅴ
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. Name Pg.

No
3.1 Schematic of 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4D concepts 4
3.2 Generic process of CAD to part, showing all 7 stages 6
4.1 one-way shape memory effect 10
4.2 re programming procedure for one-way shape memory effect 10
4.3 two-way shape memory effect. 10
4.4 Natural piezoelectric materials 12
4.5 Self-cubic folding mechanism 15
4.6 Self-Folding Strand 15
4.7 Self-Folding Truncated Octahedron (Self-Assembly Lab, 2016) 16
4.8 Curved-Crease Origami 17
4.9 Schematic of the folding mechanism 18
4.10 Folding processes of cubes printed with a composite material with a 18
hinge made of shape memory polymer.
6.1 Computational image-based design of 3D-printed tracheobronchial 22
splints.
6.2 Design model of morphing aircraft 22
6.3 Camouflage military vehicle 23
6.4 BMW NEXT 100 4d printed car 23

Ⅵ
 LIST OF TABLES

Table no. Name Pg. No

4.1 List of smart materials 11

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4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY SEMISTER Ⅶ 2022

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The history of 4D (four-dimensional) printing starts with the developments and

advances in the 3D (three dimensional) printing technology. Therefore, it is very
important to know about some history about 3D printing technology which eventually
led to the introduction of 4D printing. A brief knowledge about 3D printing, its history,
printing techniques, etc. Will help the reader in better understanding the concept of 4D
printing and its evolution. 3D printing is a technique of layer-by layer printing simple
or complex structures using computer aided design (CAD) under the control of a
computer. The 3D printing saw its boom when a patent filed by Chuck Hull (of 3D
Systems Corp.) for the stereolithographic process met a huge interest in the world. But
the term 3D printing was associated later to the adhesive jetting technology utilizing
powder bed in MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology). There is also another term
called additive manufacturing (AM) or Rapid Prototyping (RP) used for 3D printing on
the industrial scale. The 3D printing technology is currently used by media and
consumer communities in the form of various printings such as stereolithography
(SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modelling (FDM), jet 3D
printing (3DP), selective laser melting (SLM), direct ink writing (DIW), electron beam
melting (EBM), etc. Due to the attainment of high speed, high accuracy, low cost of
production, 3D printing has attracted immense interest from the industrial giants and
academic institutions.

3D printing is multidisciplinary and involves the collaboration of various fields of

science and technology such as material science, mechanical engineering, data
processing, etc. The developments in 3D printing in recent years have enabled
researchers to create complex shapes that were impossible to produce using the old
traditional techniques. The researchers have been successful in creating remotely
actuated robots, designs using algorithms and machine learning, multi-material
(bioinspired) designs, microenvironments for tissues, and drug delivery systems using
the 3D printing technology. In 3D printing, fused deposition modelling (FDM) and
stereolithography (SLA) are the most commonly used techniques. In FDM, molten
material is deposited on a bed layer-by-layer using a heated nozzle, whereas the SLA
uses a laser for printing. The other commonly used techniques for 3D printing are

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4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY SEMISTER Ⅶ 2022

powder bed fusion, material extrusion, binder jetting, material jetting, sheet lamination
process, vat photopolymerization process, and directed energy deposition. There has
been a huge advancement in research and development in 3Dprinting and it is used by
researchers for its ability to print complex structures. But s till, it is not ready to be used
at large scale due to its slow cycle time. Also, the lack of printing material having high
performance adds to the barrier in 3D printing technologies. Moreover, in 3D printing,
the main focus is on the fabrication of structures that are mostly static using a single or
more materials. Hence, the applications where a dynamic function is needed, the 3D
printing cannot meet the demands. Such dynamic functions include self-folding
packages, wind turbines which are adaptive, and soft grippers for surgical applications.
Research conducted by Momeni et al discovered that the use of shape memory polymers
(SMP) greatly improves the mechanical and structural properties of wind turbine blades.
Theses MPs based blades were fabricated in one print cycle for which we require an
additional dimension to 3D printing i.e. time. The introduction o f a new dimension in
3D printing introduced a new era of printing called Fourth-dimensional printing (4D
printing). This paper is divided into various sections and we will first discuss the 4D
printing-basics, materials, techniques used. And then is the latter part of the paper we
will focus on its application and future scope.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Conventional 3D-printing technologies focus on fabricating static structures from a

single material, which cannot meet all the demands of dynamic functions needed for
applications such as soft grippers for surgery, self-folding packaging, and adaptive wind
turbines. According to research from Momeni et al., printing wind turbine blades that
mimic plant leaf structures by shape memory polymers (SMP) can greatly improve the
structural and mechanical properties of the blades. The blade can deform when heated
to adapt to the wind and retain its original shape when reheated in a calm environment.
The smart blade is fabricated in one print cycle with no electromechanical parts or post-
assembly needed. This kind of functionality benefits from a fourth printing dimension:
time, which will allow for transformation. This idea of a fourth dimension introduced a
new research area branched from AM called four-dimensional(4D)-printing. 4D-
printing, thus, generates metamaterial structures with different superimposed structural
responses triggered by changes in their operational environment.
The idea of 4D-printing was first introduced by Tibbit, after which the definition has
been refined by researchers as 3D-printed structures that display targeted shape or
property transformation under external stimulus. Currently, most research focuses on
the shape changing ability of 4D-printed structures including bending, elongating,
twisting, and corrugating. These behaviours can be further programmed to make lockers
,lifters, microtubes, robots, and even toys. To achieve directional shape change
(contrary to trivial uniform swelling), the 4D-printed structure will consist of material
anisotropy. This requires congruently printing a combination of multiple materials.

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CHAPTER 3

4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY

4-dimensional printing (4D printing; also known as 4D bioprinting, active origami, or

shape-morphing systems) uses the same techniques of 3D printing through computer
programmed deposition of material in successive layers to create a three-dimensional
object. However, 4D printing adds the dimension of transformation over time. It is
therefore a type of programmable matter, wherein after the fabrication process, the
printed product reacts with parameters within the environment (humidity, temperature,
etc.,) and changes its form accordingly. light. Figure 1 depicts a schematic of the 1-, 2-
, 3-, and 4D concepts. The concepts of 1-, 2-, and 3D represent line, plane, and 3D space
structures, respectively. For 4D, the concept of changes in the 3Dstructure (x, y, z) with
respect to time (t) is added, as indicated by curved arrows...

Figure 3.1 Schematic of 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4D concepts. A 4D structure is a structure (x,y,
z) made by 3D changes over time (t). Arrows indicate the direction of change with
respect to time.

3.1 PROCESS FOR 4D PRINTING.

4d printing similar to current additive manufacturing process (3D printing). The main
difference is the programmable materials or smart materials which are used for making
the product. The4D printing relies predominantly on four factors.

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➢ The basic additive manufacturing process,

➢ Types of stimulus-responsive material, and
➢ Interaction mechanisms.
➢ Smart design.
3.1.1 Generic additive manufacturing process
AM involves a number of steps that move from the virtual CAD description to the
physical resultant part. Different products will involve AM in different ways and to
different degrees. Small, relatively simple products may only make use of AM for
visualization models, while larger, more complex products with greater engineering
content may involve AM during numerous stages and iterations throughout the
development process. Furthermore, early stages of the product development process
may only require rough parts, with AM being used because of the speed at which they
can be fabricated. At later stages of the process, parts may require careful cleaning and
post processing (including sanding, surface preparation and painting) before they are
used, with AM being useful here because of the complexity of form that can be created
without having to consider tooling.The use of AM processes enables freeform objects
to be produced directly from digital information without the need for intermediate
shaping tools. Most AM processes can support 4D printing as long as the selected
stimulus-responsive material is supported by or compatible with the printer. Steps
involved in process

➢ CAD
➢ STL convert
➢ File transfer to machine
➢ Machine setup
➢ Build
➢ Remove
➢ Post Process

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Figure 3.2 Generic process of CAD to part, showing all 7 stages

Step 1: CAD
All AM parts must start from a software model that fully describes the external
geometry. This can involve the use of almost any professional CAD solid modelling
software, but the output must be a 3D solid or surface representation. Reverse
engineering equipment (e.g., laser scanning) can also be used to create this
representation.
Step 2: Conversion to STL.
Nearly every AM machine accepts the STL file format, which has become a defect
standard, and nearly every CAD system can output such a file format. This file describes
the external closed surfaces of the original CAD model and forms the basis for
calculation of the slices.
Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation
The STL file describing the part must be transferred to the AM machine. Here, there
may be some general manipulation of the file so that it is the correct size, position, and
orientation for building.

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Step 4: Machine Setup

The AM machine must be properly set up prior to the build process. Such settings would
relate to the build parameters like the material constraints, energy source, layer
thickness, timings, etc.
Step 5: Build
Building the part is mainly an automated process and the machines can largely carryon
without supervision. Only superficial monitoring of the machine needs to take place at
this time to ensure no errors have taken place like running out of material, power or
software glitches, etc.
Step 6: Removal
Once the AM machine has completed the build, the parts must be removed. This may
require interaction with the machine, which may have safety interlocks ensure for
example that the operating temperatures are sufficiently low or that there are no actively
moving parts.
Step 7: Post processing
Once removed from the machine, parts may require an amount of additional cleaning
up before they are ready for use. Parts may be weak at this stage or they may have
supporting features that must be removed. This therefore often requires time and
careful, experienced manual manipulation.

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CHAPTER 4
SMART MATERIALS
Stimulus-responsive material, often known as smart materials or programmable
materials, is highly dynamic in form and functions. The type of stimuli-responsive
materials is the key element to grant the capability of self-transformation and
determines the type of stimuli needed to trigger the change in property and the
functionality of the component in 4D printing. The properties of stimuli responsive
materials permit the phenomena of coupling or conversion of energy between various
physical domains; for example, converting thermal energy into mechanical work. This
coupling of energy can be direct or indirect. Direct energy coupling refers to mechanical
response due to field induced eigen strain in the stimulus-responsive materials, whereas
indirect is mechanical response due to field-induced. Change in stiffness or other
properties. The types of stimulus-responsive materials capable of change in physical
properties can be classified into shape-change material and shape memory material.
Shape-change material possessed stimulus-induced behaviour known as shape-change
effect (SCE). Shape-change material transforms instantly and spontaneously in
response to its stimulus, and returns to its original or permanent shape when the stimulus
is removed. Shape memory polymers have the ability to memorize and recover to their
trained shape from a temporary shape when stimulus is applied, known as shape
memory effect (SME).
4.1 SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT
The main characteristic of shape memory materials (SMMs) is the ability to recover to
their programmed shape from a temporary shape when stimulus is applied. This is
known as the shape memory effect (SME). SMMs require two processes to form a
complete shape memory cycle. The first step is to deform the material into a temporary
shape through the “programming process”, followed by the “shape recovery process”.
SMMs will remain constant in its temporary shape until the right optimum stimulus is
applied to trigger the shape recovery process. The rapidity of shape change from a
temporary shape depends on the responsiveness of the material and the physical design
of the geometrical part. The network elasticity of the SMM determines the “memory”
of one or more shapes. The two significant factors that determine the shape memory
effect of SMMs are the strain recovery rate (Rr) and the strain fixity rate (Rf). The strain
recovery rate (Rr) refers to the ability of the material to memorize its permanent shape,

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whereas the strain fixity rate (Rf) refers to the ability of the switching segments within
the mechanical deformation. Both Rr and Rf have to add up to 100% to be measured as
an effective SMP. The calculation for strain recovery and fixity rate is made up of
Rr=100%×(ε−εrec)/ε and Rf=100%×ε/εload; whereby ε = fixed strain after cooling and
unloading; εrec = strain after recovery; and εload=maximum strain under load.
a) One-way shape memory effect:
The majority of SMPs have a one-way shape memory effect which is irreversible. When
an external stimulus is applied, the deformation (temporary) shape will become a
permanent shape. A programming step (Fig.4.1) is needed for the object to return back
to its temporary shape. Figure 4.1 describes the process of the one-way shape memory
effect where the SMP changes from its temporary shape (A) back to the permanent
original shape (B) under an applied stimulus. In the programming process, the SMP is
first heated above transition temperature to soften the material, so that a deformation
force (e.g., loading) can be applied to the original shape. The preformed shape is cooled
under the load to a fixed temporary shape. When the unloaded fixed temporary shape is
exposed to stimuli, in this case is heat, the original shape (B) is recovered (Fig.4.2)
b) Two-way shape memory effect
SMP with two-way shape memory effect has the ability to remember two different
shapes when exposed to stimuli. The material can change from a temporary shape back
to its permanent shape (Fig. 4.3) and the change is reversible.
Zhou emphasized that this behaviour is neither mechanically nor structurally
constrained, thereby allowing for multiple switching between encoded shapes without
applying any external force. The two-way SME can be found in liquid crystalline
elastomers and photo-actuated deformation polymers. Chen et al. successfully
demonstrated the two-way shape memory behaviour using a polymer laminate prepared
from a 1.0 mm-thick active layer of PHAG5000 polyurethane-based shape memory
with a 1.0 mm-thick substrate of PBAG600-based polyurethane. The effect was
observed by bending upon heating from 25 to 60 °C and reverse bending upon cooling
from 60 to 25 °C.

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Figure 4.1 one-way shape memory effect

Figure 4.2 re programming procedure for one-way shape memory effect.

Figure 4.3 two-way shape memory effect.

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4.1.1 List of smart materials.

MATERIALS INPUT OUTPUT APPLICATION

STIMULATION RESPONSE

Polymeric gal pH change Swelling or Artificial muscle

contracting
Torsional steering
Electro- rheological fluid Electric signal Viscosity change system damper

Personnel sensor
Pyroelectric material Temperature Electric signal (open super- market
door)
Polymer
(eg. thin film cellulose), Humidity change Capacity/ Humidity sensors
ceramic resistance change

Self-Healing Materials Force Force Smart phone chassis

Smart metal alloys Temperature Shape Motor actuators

Dielectric Elastomers Voltage Strain Robotics

Table 4.1
a) Piezoelectric materials
Those materials capable of generating electric charge in response to applied mechanical
stress are piezoelectric materials. Not all the smart materials do exhibit a shape change
but they do carry significant properties such as electro and magneto theological fluids.
Those fluids can change viscosity upon application of external magnetic or electric
field. Naturally occurring crystals like quartz and sucrose, human bone, ceramics,
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) are known to have piezoelectric characteristics.
Followed by the automotive industry and medical instruments, global demands for these
materials have huge application in industrial and manufacturing sector. Researchers

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from University of Warwick in UK have developed new micro stereolithography (MSL)

3D printing technology that can be used to create piezoceramic object. Piezoceramics
are special type of ceramic materials that can create electrical response and responds to
external electrical stimulation by changing shape. These are very useful materialsand
applicable all around, sensor in airbag systems, fuel injectors in engines, electric
cigarette lighter and electronic equipment.

Figure 4.4. Natural piezoelectric materials

b) Shape Memory polymers

Shape memory alloy or polymers are emerging smart materials that have dual shape
capability. Shape memory alloys go transformation under predefined shape from one to
another when exposed to appropriate stimulus. Initially founded on thermal induced
dual shape research, this concept has been extended to other activating process such as
direct thermal actuation or indirect actuation. The applications can be found in various
areas of 41 our everyday life. Heat shrinkable tubes, intelligent medical parts, self-
deployable part in spacecraft are few used area with potential in broad other
applications. The process in shape memory polymer is not intrinsic, it requires
combination of a polymer and programmed afterwards. The structure of polymer is
deformed and put it into temporary shape. Whenever required, the polymer gains its

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final shape when external energy is applied. Most of the shape memory polymers
required heat as activating agent. The material used in tube is poly demethylate polymer.
Initially the shape was programmed to form flat helix, using heat energy ranging from
10 degree to 50-degree centigrade, flat helix transformed into tube shape structure.
Magnetostrictive Materials Similar to piezoelectric and electro strictive materials
magneto strictive materials uses magnetic energy. They convert magnetic energy into
mechanical energy or other way. Iron, terbium, Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) and
dysprosium (D) are most common magneto strictive materials. Those materials can be
used as transducers and actuators where magnetic energy is used to cause shape change.
The application includes telephone 42 receivers, oscillators, sonar scanning, hearing
head, damping systems and positioning equipment. The development of magneto
strictive material alloys with better features will certainly help the 4D printing
technology.
c) Shape Memory polymers
Shape memory alloy or polymers are emerging smart materials that have dual shape
capability. Shape memory alloys go transformation under predefined shape from one to
another when exposed to appropriate stimulus. Initially founded on thermal induced
dual shape research, this concept has been extended to other activating process such as
direct thermal actuation or indirect actuation. The applications can be found in various
areas of 41 our everyday life. Heat shrinkable tubes, intelligent medical parts, self-
deployable part in spacecraft are few used area with potential in broad other
applications. The process in shape memory polymer is not intrinsic, it requires
combination of a polymer and programmed afterwards. The structure of polymer is
deformed and put it into temporary shape. Whenever required, the polymer gains its
final shape when external energy is applied. Most of the shape memory polymers
required heat as activating agent. The material used in tube is poly demethylate polymer.
Initially the shape was programmed to form flat helix, using heat energy ranging from
10 degree to 50-degree centigrade, flat helix transformed into tube shape structure.
d) Magnetostrictive Materials
Similar to piezoelectric and electro strictive materials magneto strictive materials uses
magnetic energy. They convert magnetic energy into mechanical energy or other way.
Iron, terbium, Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) and dysprosium (D) are most
common magneto strictive materials. Those materials can be used as transducers and
actuators where magnetic energy is used to cause shape change. The application

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includes telephone 42 receivers, oscillators, sonar scanning, hearing head, damping

systems and positioning equipment. The development of magneto strictive material
alloys with better features will certainly help the 4D printing technology.

4.1.2 Trigger or Interaction Mechanisms

A major challenge for 4D printing technology is design structure including both
hardware section and software section. In order to design hardware part, special
measures need to be addressed. Since, this requires complex and advanced material
programming, precise multi- material printing, designing complex joints for folding,
expansion, contraction, curling, twisting process. Software section is even challenging
that cooperates with hardware design. Sophisticated simulation, material optimization
and topology transformation are few of the challenges for software part. Following
explanation demonstrates structural transformation regarding its joint angle, folding,
curling and bending.
a) Fabrication
As the printer deposits UV curable polymer and cures layer by layer using UV light
thereby creating complete 3D structure, printers are capable of printing multiple
composite materials with various properties such as color pattern, material hardness and
transparency allowing creation of complex, multiple composite parts in single process.
Digital materials can be printed with this process. The properties can be digitally
adjusted and altered with the digital material. The combination of digital material with
different proportion and spatial arrangements plays significant role providing additional
flexibility. 4D printed parts are generally composed of rigid plastic and digital material
that reacts upon external energy source. In case of hydrophilic UV curable polymer,
when exposed to water, the structure absorbs and creates hydrogel with upto 150
percentage of original volume. The shape transformation of the structure is linear in this
case, but when the polymer structure is combined with different composite material that
reacts differently with water, complex geometric transformation occurs. Transformation
can be controlled by adjusting pure expandable polymer with digital composite material
as per requirement.

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Figure 4.5. Self-cubic folding mechanism

b) Joint and folding angle strands

For any bending or folding structure, joint plays important role as controlling of joints
adjusts the desired shape of structure. Self-Folding Strand Printing 4D joint includes
multiple layers of material. Composition of rigid polymer, expanding material and
digital material depicts the folding direction and pattern. Those materials are placed
above or below of each other depending upon the type of transformation.

Figure 4.6. Self-Folding Strand

If the expanding composite is placed above rigid polymer, the surface will fold
downwards and if placed below, the surface will fold upwards. This folding happens
due to downward or upward force applied to rigid material. With the digital polymer

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composite, the control of folding the joints becomes much desirable. The time duration
of folding depends upon the expandable material or digital material. If higher expanding
composite is used, there will be more folding force increasing folding time. Similarly,
less expanding composite will generate less folding force thereby decreasing folding
time.
c) Custom Angle Surfaces
In his research, Skyler Tibbits demonstrated custom angle transformation creating
truncated octahedron shape. Similar mechanism as folding strand described previously,
series of flat two-dimensional structures were generated with edge joints. The position
and spacing of materials at each joint specify the desired fold angle hence positioned
accordingly. After the digital model was sent to be printed, physical model was
immersed in water. The transformation process occurred within certain time with the
final desired model having edges aligned perfectly aligned with neighbouring edges.
With this technique, a two-dimensional polyhedral shape was folded and self-
transformed into precise three-dimensional structure. Self- Folding Truncated
Octahedron. The advantage of this process includes efficiencies of printing flat shape
with quick printing time and minimal resources used. If the final model were to be
printed directly, it would have taken longer time consuming more support materials. On
the long run, this technology can be effective for logistics operation where flat surface
material can be created, shipped and self-transformed into three-dimensional structure
when required

Figure 4.7. Self-Folding Truncated Octahedron (Self-Assembly Lab, 2016)

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d) Curved surface Folding

Curved surface folding mechanism is based upon a technique called curved-crease
origami, where two dimensional flat sheets are folded along curved creases forming
double curved surface with mountain and valley shaped linear pattern. (Figuring, 2016)
This mechanism can be further explained with the example of concentric circles made
of expanding polymers separated by rigid or less expanding polymer. The position of
expanding polymer above or below rigid polymer in each circle with the ring being
neutral, creates mountain and valley folds. When the design print is placed in water,
after certain time period, the structure transforms itself from two-dimensional crease to
doubly curved structure.

Figure 4.8. Curved-Crease Origami

4.1.3 Smart design

In addition to smart materials, one of the core techniques for 4D printing is the design
of materials for structural change. Although the smart material itself plays a pivotal role
in transforming a printed object into another shape or configuration, sophisticated
design based on a rigorous understanding of mechanisms, predicted behaviours, and
required parameters should be performed to achieve controllable results. By designing
the orientation and location of smart materials such as shape memory polymer fibers
within composite materials, we can facilitate morphological changes in response to
external stimuli. For example, Ge et al. investigated the design variables that are
important for creating a laminated architecture. A two-layer laminate consisting of one
lamina layer with fibers at a prescribed orientation and one layer of pure matrix material
was constructed (Figure 4.9). When the samples were heated, the printed two-layer
laminates transformed into bent, coiled, and twisted strips; folded shapes; and complex
contoured shapes with nonuniform and spatially varying curvatures depending on each
sample’s prescribed fibre architecture (Figure 4.8)

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Figure 4.9 Schematic of the folding mechanism and (b) representative images for
folding by heat.

They also fabricated a self-folding and self-opening box with two-layer printed active
composites as hinges connecting six inactive plates of a stiff plastic. Using this model,
Ge et al. could actuate the hinges created from composites with polymer fibers, making
the hinges fold to a prescribed angle. Finally, the group created a number of active
origami components, including a box, a pyramid, and two origami airplanes based on
different design parameters. They demonstrated that the folding of the printed
composite hinges depended on the material properties of the polymers (including the
shape memory behaviour of the fibers), the lamina and laminate architecture, and the
thermo mechanical loading profile.

Figure 4.10, Folding processes of cubes printed with a composite material with a hinge
made of shape memory polymer. Reprinted with permission (b) Folding processes of
cubes printed with a single shape memory material. (c) Hinge design of a heat-induced
folding cube made from a single material

Department of Mechanical Engineering 18 College of Engineering Adoor

4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY SEMISTER Ⅶ 2022

CHAPTER 5

PROPERTIES OF SMART MATERIALS

4D printing opens new fields for application in which a structure can be activated for
self-assembly, reconfiguration, and replication through environmental free energies.
There are several advantages brought about by this technology such as significant
volume reduction for storage, and transformations that can be achieved with a flat pack
4D printed structures. Another example is instead of directly creating complex
structures using 3D printing, simple components from smart materials can be 3D printed
first and then self- assembled to reach the final complex shape. The potential
applications of 4D printing can be broadly classified into three main categories which
include self-assembly, multi-functionality and self-repair. The ability of 4D printed
structures to self-assemble and self-repair opens new opportunities of application, such
as the fabrication of minimally invasive surgery devices that can be placed in human
body through a little surgical incision and then assembled at the required position for
surgical operations.

5.1 SELF-ASSEMBLY

A future application can be on a large scale and in a harsh environment. Individual parts
can be printed with small 3D printers and then self-assembled into larger structures,
such as space antennae and satellites. This capability can be exploited for the creation
of transportation systems for complex parts to the International space station. Further
applications include self-assembling buildings, this is especially useful in war zones or
in outer space where the elements can come together to give a fully formed building
with minimum work force. There is also the added advantage that some limitations in
construction can be eliminated by the use of 4D printing. Rigid materials can be can be
3D printed along with smart materials to create specific areas of a part that act as joints
and hinges for bending. Raviv et al argue that construction must be made smarter and
solve problems of wasting large amounts of energy, materials, money and time for
building. These issues can be solved using design programs and software to embed
information into the materials that makes the material and construction more accurate.
Self-assembly may not be efficient for every purpose, which implies different sectors
and applications must be identified that benefit most from self-assembly.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 19 College of Engineering Adoor

4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY SEMISTER Ⅶ 2022

5.2 SELF ADAPTABILITY

4D printing allows the integration of sensing and actuation directly into a material
rendering external electromechanically systems unnecessary. This decreases the
number of parts in a structure, assembly time, material and energy costs as well as the
number of failure prone devices, which is associated with electromechanical systems
[10]. This technology is finding use in self-adaptive 4D printed tissues and 4D printed
personalized medical devices such as tracheal stems.

5.3 SELF REPAIR

The error correct and self-repairing capability of 4D manufactured products shows

tremendous advantages with regard to reusability and recycling. Self-healing pipes and
self-healing hydrogels are some of the potential applications of 4D printing. Self-
healing of polymers can be achieved by a few categories of reactions, which include
covalent bonding, supramolecular chemistry, H-bonding, ionic interactions, and π-π
stacking. Self- healing materials have also been shown to have great potential for
producing soft actuators with enhanced durability, due to their ability to self-repair
damage ranging from bulk cracks to surface scratches. The use of self-healing hydrogels
as inks for additive manufacturing has been successfully demonstrated.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 20 College of Engineering Adoor

4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY SEMISTER Ⅶ 2022

CHAPTER 6

APPLICATION AREA AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

4D printing technology has the potential to change the current business environment.
Future advancement of this mechanism depends and remains focused on variety of
capabilities. For example, current process that allows 4D printed structure to expand
when exposed to water and when structure is allowed to dry, it tends to unfold and
regain its original shape. However, when similar process is repeated again and again,
the material degrades over time and process is not infinitely repeatable. To control
directionality and reversibility process, further research and development need to be
conducted. This development points towards changing future of education and science.
With the study of existing self-changing structures and models, new experiment with
new material properties and functional behaviors can be tested. The self-changing
ability of material leads to range of applications in various industries. It is essential for
any business to reduce manufacturing cost and increase profit to stay in fierce
competitive environment. The concept of 4D printing technology along with 3D
printing provides platform for new business ideas that can adapt and compete current
market trend by lowering capital requirement, time efficient, less space for holding
inventory and increasing efficiency of the business. 4D printing promotes maintaining
sustainable environment as the self-transforming capability of 4D printed item allows
after use disposition, changing back to original shape.

6.1 MEDICAL FIELD

University of Michigan developed a 3D printed stint that gets absorbed into the body
over time. For the patient with weak cartilage in walls of bronchial tubes, the stint was
used to open airways for two or three years, which is enough time for bronchial cartilage
to form back to the shape. This biomedical splint which was printed using 3D printing
technology changes shape and conforms over time as the body moves or grows. There
has been a successful implant of those 4D printed structure, which needs to be
biocompatible with patient’s immune system and able to adapt the external surrounding
tissues within the body. The process started with virtual model of trachea through CT
scan of patient and designing model of virtual stint with medical imaging software
called Mimics. Polycaprolactone (PCL), a biomaterial was used to print the stint with
the help of Formiga P100 3D printer. (Mearian, 2016) Most likely, upcoming future of

Department of Mechanical Engineering 21 College of Engineering Adoor

4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY SEMISTER Ⅶ 2022

4D printing technology will include all types of implants and reconstructive surgery.
Beyond helping patients with respiratory issues, researchers are exploring their use to
correct human skeletal deformation such as facial reconstruction, rebuilding ears.

Figure 6.1 (a) Computational image-based design of 3D-printed tracheobronchial

splints. (b) 4d printed stent that is introduced into an artery.

6.2 AERONAUTICS AND ROBOTICS

Overcome limitations of current flight technology by adapting the geometry of lifting

surfaces to pilot input and different flight conditions characterizing a typical mission
profile Improvement to long-term performance, reliability and response of metal
actuators is required for this to become a reality Designing roots requires ability to
develop responsive and highly sensitive parts. 4D printing will allow those machineries
far more advanced adaptive and dynamic ability to perform complex task effectively.
A team of researchers at MIT and Harvard University developed origami robots, which
is reconfigurable robots capable of folding themselves into arbitrary shapes and
crawling away. The prototype robot was made up of printable parts entirely.

Figure 6.2 Design model of morphing aircraft

Department of Mechanical Engineering 22 College of Engineering Adoor

4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY SEMISTER Ⅶ 2022

6.3 MILITARY AND AUTOMOBILE APPLICATIONS

Programmable matter will have vast application areas in military sector. US army and
Navy are developing three dimensional printed spare parts in the field and developing
programmable elements that form into full building with all the necessary components
such as electricity, plumbing and other technical structures. As the technology allows
the materials to change its shape, military equipment, cars and fabrics could enable them
to alter its camouflage. Military advancements with 4D printing technology would
develop coating material in automobile that changes its structure to cope with humid
environment and corrosion. Similarly, transformation of tires depending upon road and
weather condition. In 2013, US Army Research Office granted $855,000 to researchers
at three universities, Harvard's School of Engineering and Applied Science, The
University of Illinois and The University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering.
In automobile industries this technology helps in printing body parts so that they can
change their shape with external conditions. For example, with variation in speed the
front portion will get air foil shape it reduces load on the car. BMW Company used 4d
printing technology for printing body parts.

Figure 6.3 Camouflage military vehicle Figure 6.4 BMW NEXT 100 4d printed car

Parts

Department of Mechanical Engineering 23 College of Engineering Adoor

4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY SEMISTER Ⅶ 2022

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

Developments and the applications of 4D printing were reviewed. 4D printing is an

advancement of already existing 3D printing by including time. 4D structures can
deform with time depending upon the stimuli to which they are exposed. They can
respond to heat, water, light, electric energy, magnetic energy, stress, strain, pressure,
etc. These structures can self-assemble, self-repair, and are self-compatible with
changes. 4D printing involves the use of 3D printing techniques for printing smart
materials i.e., single material, multi-material, or nonactive material. 4D printing finds
its applications in medical sciences, soft robotics, self-healing products, active origami,
etc. In tissue engineering, 4D bioprinting has advanced the field of tissue and organ
development for transplants. It has the potential to physically replicate the development
path of biology and bring organ printing one step closer to reality. 4D printing has also
been active in developing target drug delivery systems. 4D printing has its limitations
when it comes to printing techniques, materials used, and designing techniques of the
structures. But there is a huge scope for 4D printing in the future, as more smart
materials can be discovered along with new and more efficient printing technologies.
4D printing which is mostly confined to structural changes can be developed to achieve
multi-functional applications. Also, the range of applications of 4D printing can be
expanded in the future to various other fields. Being a multi-disciplinary research field,
it will enjoy the feature of having applications in different fields such as engineering,
material science, medical science, nanoscience, etc. In the future as well. To conclude,
one thing is certain that 4D printing will not remain confined to shape change in the
future. It will develop in various other applications and advance as a new area of
controlled smart structure printing.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 24 College of Engineering Adoor

4D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY SEMISTER Ⅶ 2022

REFERENCES

1. Fatemeh Kabirian Petra Mela and Ruth Heying (2022)‘‘4D Printing

Applications in the Development of Smart Cardiovascular Implants’’.

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Ajit Khosla c,(2021) ‘‘4D printing: Fundamentals, materials, applications and
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3. Abdussalam Ali Ahmed, Ali Musbah, and Abdelrazag Atiyah (2020) ‘‘4D
Printing Technology: A Revolution Across Manufacturing’’ Vol. 7, Issue 2, pp:
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4. Ma Quanjina b, M. R. M. Rejaba b, M. S. Idrisa, Nallapaneni Manoj

Kumar, M. H. Abdullaha, Guduru Ramakrishna Reddy (2020) ‘‘Recent 3D
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perspective’’.

5. Ankur Bajpai, Anna Baigent, Sakshika Raghav, Conchúr Ó. Brádaigh,

Vasileios Koutsos and Norbert Radacsi (2020)‘‘4D Printing: Materials,
Technologies, and Future Applications in the Biomedical Field’’.

6. Zhizhou Zhang, Kahraman G. Demir & Grace X. Gu (2019) ‘‘Developments

in 4D-printing: a review on current smart materials, technologies, and
applications, International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials’’.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 25 College of Engineering Adoor