i

ii
 MODULE 7

MANGROVES:
ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING

iii
COPYRIGHT

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................................................ ix
Preface ................................................................................................................................................................................. xi
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................................................ xiii
About the Module ........................................................................................................................................................... xv
Objectives ..................................................................................................................................................................... xv
Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................................................................... xvi
Acronyms and Abbreviations...................................................................................................................................... xvii
1. Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Distribution ............................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 The Mangrove Ecosystem ................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Ecological Functions and Services ................................................................................................................... 10
2. Threats to Philippine Mangrove Forests .............................................................................................................. 15
2.1 Conversion of Mangrove Areas....................................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Inappropriate Reforestation/Rehabilitation Practices ................................................................................ 17
2.3 The Changing Climate and Extreme Weather Events ............................................................................... 18
3. Identification of mangrove species in the Philippines ......................................................................................... 20
3.1 How to Use Taxonomic Keys to Identify Mangrove Species .................................................................. 22
3.2 Common Mangrove Species in the Philippines............................................................................................ 25
4. Mangrove Assessment and Monitoring .................................................................................................................. 38
4.1 Reconnaissance .................................................................................................................................................... 38
4.2 Sampling Design................................................................................................................................................... 42
4.3 Testing Ecological Functionality Similarities of Sampling Sites ................................................................. 45
4.4 Sampling Parameters .......................................................................................................................................... 46
4.5 Logistics ................................................................................................................................................................. 46
4.6 Field Sampling Protocol ..................................................................................................................................... 48
4.7 Standardization of Collected Mangrove Data .............................................................................................. 53
4.8 Analysis and Interpretation of Mangrove Data ............................................................................................ 54
5. Mangrove Restoration .............................................................................................................................................. 63
5.1 Restoration and Rehabilitation ........................................................................................................................ 63

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 5.2 Active and Passive Restoration........................................................................................................................ 63
5.3 Key Considerations For Implementing Reforestation ............................................................................... 64
5.4 Some Recommendations for Mangrove Restoration ................................................................................. 65
6. Towards Adaptive Management .............................................................................................................................. 66
6.1 Applying DPSIR Framework to Mangrove Ecosystems in the Philippines ............................................ 66
6.2 Mangrove conservation efforts in the Philippines ....................................................................................... 68
6.3 Synthesis................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................................... 73
E-books.......................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Other Online Sources ............................................................................................................................................... 73
Other Recommended Online Resources on Mangrove Restoration/Rehabilitation: ................................ 74
Literatures Cited ......................................................................................................................................................... 76

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. List of mangrove species and some of their associates globally and in the Philippines. ................. 20
Table 2. Sample data sheet used to record variables to be measured in each plot (modified from English,
Wilkinson, and Baker 1997). ......................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 3. How to distinguish among seedlings, saplings, and mature trees. ....................................................... 50
Table 4. General characteristics of sediment substrate (Wentworth 1922). ................................................... 51
Table 5. Assessing the human impact on mangrove ecosystems (English, Wilkinson, and Baker 1997) ... 53
Table 6. Example of site characteristics and estimated diversity indices of three mangrove areas in
Balabac, Palawan . ............................................................................................................................................................ 58
Table 7. Mangrove species in the IUCN Red List (Polidoro et al. 2010)........................................................... 68
Table 8. Relevant national laws and policies on mangrove conservation in the Philippines .......................... 69

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1. Global distribution of mangrove species (Spalding et al. 2010). ........................................................... 1

Figure 2. Distribution of coastal habitats relative to tidal level (top; modified from Primavera et al. 2012)
and the typical zonation pattern of the mangrove forest in the Indo-West Pacific Region
(bottom; Waycott et al. 2011) ......................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 3. Mangrove forest types according to geomorphology.............................................................................. 4
Figure 4. Satellite image and photo of fringe-type mangrove forest ..................................................................... 5
Figure 5. Satellite image (left) and actual photo of riverine-type mangroves (dark green areas as indicated
by red arrow) in Bongao, Tawi-Tawi and along Balingasay river in Bolinao, Pangasinan,
respectively. ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 6. Satellite image and photo of basin-type mangroves ................................................................................. 6
Figure 7. Overwashed forest forming mangrove islets in Aborlan, Palawan. ...................................................... 6
Figure 8. Scrub type mangrove forest in Bongabong, Oriental Mindoro. ............................................................ 6
Figure 9. Hammock-type mangrove forest in the Cuatro Islas Protected Landscape and Seascape in
Inopacan, Leyte.................................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 10. Morphological and physiological adaptations of mangroves to the estuarine environment. ....... 7
Figure 11. Different mangrove root systems: ............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 12. Prop roots of Rhizophora species in an estuarine in Bolinao, Pangasinan. ...................................... 8
Figure 13. The variety of fruit shapes and sizes of different mangroves species. ............................................... 9
Figure 14. A Sonneratia alba fruit produced through ovipary. ............................................................................. 10
Figure 15. Ecological functions and services of mangrove ecosystem. ............................................................... 11
Figure 16. Mangroves are home to a variety of terrestrial and marine organisms. ......................................... 12
Figure 17. A comparison of below-, above-ground, and soil carbon stock across different carbon
sequestering ecosystems (Donato et al. 2011; Alongi 2014)................................................................. 14

vii
Figure 18. Distribution of mangrove areas in 2010 (left) and change in mangrove cover between 1990
and 2010 (right) in the Philippines mapped using Land Satellite imagery with a 30-m spatial
resolution (Long et al. 2014). ........................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 19. Historical decline of mangroves in the Philippines (Long et al. 2014)............................................. 15
Figure 20. Threats to mangrove ecosystems, with emphasis mainly on anthropogenic-induced losses
(Flint et al. 2018). .............................................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 21. Examples of improper utilization of Rhizophora sp. as single species used for rehabilitation in
the Philippines. .................................................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 22. Taxonomic keys used to identify mangrove species in Australia (left) (Duke 2006) and
dichotomous keys for the Philippine mangrove species (right) (Primavera and Dianala 2009). ... 23
Figure 23. Visual representation of mangrove leaves (simple vs. compound; opposite vs. alternate) (left)
and flower assemblages (spike, umbel, raceme, cyme, panicle, solitary, catkin; left to right, top to
bottom) observed in various mangrove species. ...................................................................................... 24
Figure 24. Sample image analysis of mangrove distribution................................................................................... 40
Figure 25. A satellite image of a sampling site on Google Earth Pro shows the four corners (yellow dots)
of three 10 m × 10 m plots and polygons (purple and redlines) outlining potential mangrove
areas in Brgy. Manaul, Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro ................................................................................. 41
Figure 26. Sample data sheet for mangrove mapping. ............................................................................................ 41
Figure 27. Sampling design for mangrove assessment using the stratified transect-plot method (English,
Wilkinson, and Baker 1997): .......................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 28. Analyzing samples from the transect plot. Note that boxes with same-colored outlines are
located on the same zonation type. ............................................................................................................. 43
Figure 29. Sampling design using the belt-transect method .................................................................................. 44
Figure 30. Some equipment and materials for mangrove field assessment. ...................................................... 47
Figure 31. Conduct of a field assessment: species identification using field guide (left) and measuring girth
at breast height (GBH) of a mangrove tree (right). ................................................................................. 48
Figure 32. Graphical and actual setting up a 10 m x 10 m plot along each 100-m transect line; Illustration
(left)...................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 33. Counting of seedlings using a nested subplot. ...................................................................................... 50
Figure 34. Estimating diameter at breast height (DBH) for mangrove trees (English, Wilkinson, and Baker
1997). ................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 35. Estimating mangrove tree perimeter variables. .................................................................................... 52
Figure 36. Example of an Excel data template for mangrove assessment (top) and generated pivot table
to summarize the raw data in terms of averages (means) and standard deviations (bottom). ..... 54
Figure 37. Example of relative density (%) of mangrove trees, saplings, and seedlings in three study sites.
............................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 38. Estimated tree density and basal area of different species in some mangrove areas in Inopacan,
Leyte. ................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 39. (A) Degraded area (~1,430 ha), (B) loss area (~1,8271 ha), and (C) total restorable area
(~15,647 ha) of mangrove systems in the Philippines. ............................................................................. 64
Figure 40. Analyzing the state of mangroves in the Philippines using the DPSIR framework. ...................... 67
Figure 41. Children playing in a mangrove in Leyte................................................................................................. 71

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FOREWORD

ix
x
PREFACE

xi
xii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

xiii
xiv
 ABOUT THE MODULE

OBJECTIVES

xv
LEARNING OUTCOMES

xvi
 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

BA Basal Area
BMB Biodiversity Management Bureau
BRING Biodiversity Resource Information Network Group
Coastal Assessment for Rehabilitation Enhancement:
CARE CaDRES
Capability Development and Resiliency Of Ecosystems
CC Sorenson’s Coefficient
CoRVA Coral Reef Visualization and Assessment
CR Critically Endangered
CSI Community Similarity Index
DA-BFAR Department Of Agriculture - Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
DAO Department Administrative Orders
DBH Diameter at Breast Height
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
DMg Species Richness Index
DPSIR Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response
EBM Ecosystem-Based Management
EN Endangered
EX Extinct
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FHG Fish Habitat Guideline
FLA Fishpond Lease Agreements
GBH Girth at Breast Height
GEE Google Earth Engine
ICM Integrated Coastal Management
IUCN International Union for Conservation Of Nature
IV Importance Value
LC Least Concern
LGU Local Government Unit
MVI Mangrove Vegetation Index
NE Not Evaluated
NGO Non-Government Organization
NIPAS National Integrated Protected Areas System
NT Near Threatened
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
SV Stand Volume
UP University Of the Philippines
VU Vulnerable
ZSL Zoological Society of London

xvii
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 DISTRIBUTION

Figure 1. Global distribution of mangrove species (Spalding et al. 2010).

1
Figure 2. Distribution of coastal habitats relative to tidal level (top; modified from
Primavera et al. 2012) and the typical zonation pattern of the mangrove forest in
the Indo-West Pacific Region (bottom; Waycott et al. 2011)

2
1.2 THE MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM

1.2.1 Types of Mangrove Forests

Fringing Mangroves

Riverine Mangroves

3
 Figure 3. Mangrove forest types according to geomorphology.
Source: modified from Woodroffe 1992

Basin-type Mangroves

4
Modified Types of Mangrove Forest

Figure 4. Satellite image and photo of fringe-type mangrove forest

(dark-green areas indicated by red arrow) in Ulugan Bay, Palawan (left), and
along the coastline of Baybay, Leyte (right), respectively.
Sources: Google Earth; BRING Training (2018)

Figure 5. Satellite image (left) and actual photo of riverine-type mangroves (dark green areas as
indicated by red arrow) in Bongao, Tawi-Tawi and along Balingasay river in Bolinao, Pangasinan,
respectively.
Sources: Google Earth; MODEV Project (2018)

5
 Figure 6. Satellite image and photo of basin-type mangroves
(dark-green areas as indicated by the blue arrow) in Balabac Islands, Palawan
(left) and Tigbauan, Iloilo (right), respectively.
Sources: Google Earth; BRING Project (2018)

Figure 7. Overwashed forest forming mangrove islets in Aborlan, Palawan.

Sources: Google Earth; Napo Cayabyab

Figure 8. Scrub type mangrove forest in Bongabong, Oriental Mindoro.

Sources: Google Earth (left); NM Cayabyab (right)

6
 Figure 9. Hammock-type mangrove forest in the Cuatro Islas Protected
Landscape and Seascape in Inopacan, Leyte.
The red dot in the satellite image indicates the exact location of the Bruguiera-dominated mangrove forest. Sources: Google
Earth; BRING Project (2018)

1.2.2 Adaptation

Figure 10. Morphological and physiological adaptations of mangroves to the

estuarine environment.

7
 Figure 11. Different mangrove root systems:
buttresses of Xylocarpus and Heritiera; knee root of Ceriops tagal; pneumatophores
of Sonneratia and Avicennia; and prop roots of Rhizophora species.

Figure 12. Prop roots of Rhizophora species in an estuarine in Bolinao, Pangasinan.

Sources: Google Earth; MODEV Project (2018)

8
1.2.3 Reproduction

Figure 13. The variety of fruit shapes and sizes of different mangroves species.
Source: Adapted from Primavera et al. (2004)

9
 Figure 14. A Sonneratia alba fruit produced through ovipary.
Sources: MODEV Project (2018)

1.3 ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES

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 Figure 15. Ecological functions and services of mangrove ecosystem.

1.3.1 Habitat

11
 Figure 16. Mangroves are home to a variety of terrestrial and marine organisms.

1.3.2 Filter and sink for pollutants

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1.3.3 Coastal integrity and protection

TAKE NOTE!

Mangroves as greenbelts or bioshields

Recent events highlighted the ecological function of mangrove areas, which is coastal
protection. Mangroves are called “bioshields” or natural greenbelts because they
minimize coastal hazards to local communities, especially in times of extreme events.
These include tsunami generated by strong earthquake and storm surges that causes
massive destruction and fatalities in coastal communities.
The magnitude 9.1 earthquake in Sumatra, Indonesia (3.316 N, 95.854 E, depth 30
km) on December 26, 2004 (Boxing Day) generated a tsunami as high as 51 m runup
widely watched worldwide but mainly experienced throughout the Indian Ocean
region. Runup is the difference between the elevation of maximum tsunami
penetration (inundation line) and the sea level at its occurrence. Those areas with
bioshields experienced less devastation than other areas without natural greenbelts
(Danielsen et al. 2005; Kathiresan and Rajendran 2005; Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005;
Dahdouh-Guebas and Koedam 2006). The mechanism behind this coastal protection
is the damping effect or significant attenuation of tsunami wave flow pressure to the
forest (Husrin et al. 2012; Strusinska-Correia et al. 2013; Hoque et al. 2018). The
effectiveness of mangrove greenbelts is strongly dependent on several ecological and
biological factors, e.g., tree density, stem and root diameter, shore slope, bathymetry,
spectral characteristics of incident waves, and the tidal stage upon entering the forest
(Alongi 2008). Moreover, the age, structure, and extent of the forest play a significant
role (Alongi 2008; Tanaka 2011). Extensive mangrove forests at least 100 m in width,
old-growth, and dense may provide maximum coastal protection potentially together
with the coral reefs and seagrass beds.
In November 2013, super typhoon Haiyan (locally named Yolanda) swept across the
provinces of Leyte and Samar, leaving wreckage behind (Lagmay et al. 2015; van
Zetten and van der Meulen 2015). Coastal communities near natural and reforested
mangrove stands saw relatively less destruction than other areas (Primavera et al.
2016; Villamayor et al. 2016). The Boxing Day tsunami in 2004 highlights the
protection that mangroves provide to human lives and property. These rare yet
extreme events remind humanity of the ecological significance of mangroves and let
them further appreciate the coastal habitats, particularly the mangrove forests.
Although catastrophic, these serve as a wake-up call to act hastily and accordingly to
conserve and manage the existing mangrove forests, rehabilitate those degraded,
replant those denuded, and revert those converted ones.

13
1.3.4 Climate regulation through carbon sequestration

Figure 17. A comparison of below-, above-ground, and soil carbon stock across
different carbon sequestering ecosystems (Donato et al. 2011; Alongi 2014).

14
 2. THREATS TO PHILIPPINE MANGROVE FORESTS

Figure 18. Distribution of mangrove areas in 2010 (left) and change in mangrove
cover between 1990 and 2010 (right) in the Philippines mapped using Land Satellite
imagery with a 30-m spatial resolution (Long et al. 2014).

Figure 19. Historical decline of mangroves in the Philippines (Long et al. 2014).

15
Figure 20. Threats to mangrove ecosystems, with emphasis mainly on
anthropogenic-induced losses (Flint et al. 2018).

16
2.1 CONVERSION OF MANGROVE AREAS

2.2 INAPPROPRIATE REFORESTATION/REHABILITATION

PRACTICES

17
Figure 21. Examples of improper utilization of Rhizophora sp. as single species used
for rehabilitation in the Philippines.
Planting in a rocky area exposed to strong waves (top left); in a ‘deep’ coastal area where seedlings are likely to drown at high
tide (top right); in a seagrass bed (bottom left); disregarding proper distancing between growing individuals (bottom right).
Photo courtesy of Napo Cayabyab.

2.3 THE CHANGING CLIMATE AND EXTREME WEATHER

EVENTS

18
19
 3. IDENTIFICATION OF MANGROVE SPECIES IN THE
PHILIPPINES

Table 1. List of mangrove species and some of their associates globally and in the
Philippines.

NO. OF MANGROVE SPECIES

PHILIPPINE
WORLDWIDE
MANGROVE SPECIES
FAMILY GENERA Spalding Polidoro Duke
AND THEIR
(2004) et al. (2017)
ASSOCIATES
(2011)

Acanthaceae Acanthus 2 4 2
Acanthus ebracteatus Vahl.1 (1)
Acanthus ilicifolius L.1 (2)
Acanthus volubilis Wall.1 (3)
Avicennia 8 8 8
Avicennia alba Blume1 (4)
Avicennia eucalyptifolia (Velton) Zipp. Ex Moldenke (5)
Avicennia lanata Ridley (6)
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.1 (7)
Avicennia officinalis L.1 (8)
Avicennia rumphiana Hallier f. (9)

Arecaceae Nypa 1 1 1
Nypa fruticans (Thunb.) Wurmb1 (10)
Phoenix 1

Bignoniaceae Dolichandrone 1 1 1
Dolichandrone spathacea (L.f.) Baill. ex K.Schum.3
Tabebuia 1 1 1
Combretaceae Lumnitzera 3 2 3
Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt1 (11)
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.1 (12)
Lumnitzera × rosea (Gaud.) Presl.2 (13)

20
 Laguncularia 1 1 1
Conocarpus 1 1 1
Ebenaceae Diospyros 1 1 1
Diospyros littorea (R.Br.) Kosterm. 3

Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria 2 2 1
Excoecaria agallocha L.1 (14)
Fabaceae Mora 1 1 1
Muellera 1
Cynometra 1 1
Cynometra iripa Kostel. 3
Lecythidaceae Barringtonia 1
Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz3
Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. 3
Lythraceae Crenea 1
Pemphis 1 1 1
Pemphis acidula Forst.1 (15)
Sonneratia 9 6 9
Sonneratia alba J. Smith1 (16)
Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engler1 (17)
Sonneratia ovata Backer1 (18)
Malvaceae Brownlowia 2 1
Brownlowia argentata Kurz (19)
Brownlowia tersa (L.) (20)
Camptostemon 2 2 2
Camptostemon philippinensis (Vidal) Becc.1 (21)
Heritiera 3 3 2
Heritiera littoralis Dryand.1 (22)
Pavonia 2
Meliaceae Aglaia 1 1
Xylocarpus 2 2 2
Xylocarpus granatum J. Koenig1 (23)
Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lamk.) Roem.1 (24)
Xylocarpus rumphii (Kostel.) Mabb. (25)
Myrsinaceae Aegiceras 2 2 2
Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco1 (26)
Aegiceras floridum Roemer & Schultes1 (27)
Myrtaceae Osbornia 1 1 1
Osbornia octodonta F. Muell. 1 (28)
Plumbaginaceae Aegialitis 2 1 2
Aegialitis annulata R. Brown (29)
Pteridaceae Acrostichum 3 3 3
Acrostichum aureum L.1 (30)
Acrostichum speciosum Wildenow1 (31)
Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera 6 6 7
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume1 (32)
Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lamk.1 (33)
Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) Wight & Arnold ex Griffith1 (34)
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. 1 (35)
Ceriops 3 4 5
Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou1 (36)

21
 Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robinson1 (37)
Ceriops zippeliana Blume** (38)
Kandelia 1 2 2
Kandelia candel (L.) Druce1 (39)
Rhizophora 9 6 12
Rhizophora apiculata Blume1 (40)
Rhizophora × lamarckii Montr.2 (41)
Rhizophora mucronata Lamk.1 (42)
Rhizophora stylosa Griffith1 (43)
Rubiaceae Scyphiphora 1 1 1
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. f.1 (44)
Tetrameristaceae Pelliciera 0 1 1

Total no. of species 70 70 80 44

Notes: All scientific names have been verified from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (https://www.gbif.org/), International Plant
Names Index (https://www.ipni.org/), and The IUCN Red List (https://www.iucnredlist.org/)
Note that the species with a number in parenthesis (n) are considered “true” mangrove species; 1 indicates most common species; 2
indicates hybrid species; 3 indicates mangrove associates
** Shue et al. (2009, 2010) and Tsai et al. (2012)
Sources of Philippine mangrove species: Primavera et al. 2000; Primavera et al. 2004; Giesen et al. 2006; FAO 2007; Barangan 2008

3.1 HOW TO USE TAXONOMIC KEYS TO IDENTIFY MANGROVE

SPECIES

22
Figure 22. Taxonomic keys used to identify mangrove species in Australia (left)
(Duke 2006) and dichotomous keys for the Philippine mangrove species (right)
(Primavera and Dianala 2009).

23
 Figure 23. Visual representation of mangrove leaves (simple vs. compound;
opposite vs. alternate) (left) and flower assemblages (spike, umbel, raceme, cyme,
panicle, solitary, catkin; left to right, top to bottom) observed in various mangrove
species.
Source: Primavera et al. 2004

24
3.2 COMMON MANGROVE SPECIES IN THE PHILIPPINES

25
 Family Acanthaceae
Genus Acanthus (1)

Acanthus ebracteatus Acanthus ilicifolius Acanthus volubilis

Local names tigbau/lagiwliw tingloy/ragoyroy diluario
Form/Habit ‐ erect shrubs ‐ low shrubs, sprawling ‐ semi-erect to sprawling and
climbing shrubs

Stem ‐ thick, stiff ‐ thick, stiff ‐ slender

‐ nodes with sharp spines ‐ spiny nodes ‐ nodes unarmed or with 2
small spikes

Leaves ‐ dark-green ‐ pale to yellow-green ‐ dark-green

‐ serrate leaves; deeply lobed ‐ serrate margins; slightly ‐ younger leaves with smooth
with sharp spines lobed with sharp spines margins while older ones
‐ shiny ‐ glossy may have small spines
‐ mangrove thistle or sea holly ‐ mangrove thistle or sea holly
Flowers ‐ shorter inflorescence ‐ longer inflorescence ‐ shorter inflorescence
‐ white petals ‐ light blue petals with a ‐ petals white
purple hue
Red List LC LC LC
category

26
 Family Acanthaceae
Genus Avicennia (2)

Avicennia alba Avicennia Avicennia Avicennia

marina officinalis rhumpiana
Local names bungalon puti bungalon/bayabasin api-api piapi/miapi
Zones/Habitats ‐ low intertidal, ‐ low to mid- ‐ mid-intertidal to ‐ mid-intertidal to
marine intertidal back mangrove back mangrove
‐ marine to ‐ near upstream ‐ near upstream
intermediate estuarine creeks estuarine creeks
estuarine
Bark ‐ sooty black ‐ light green to light ‐ dark ‐ light to dark
brown
‐ rough ‐ shiny, flaky ‐ rough, cracked ‐ rough

Pencil-like Height: 10-20 cm Height: up to 20 cm Height: 15–30 cm Height: 10–15 cm

Pneumatophores Diameter: 0.5–0.8 Diameter: ~1 cm Diameter: 1 cm Diameter: 1.6 cm
cm ‐ often with stilt
roots on trunk
Leaves ‐ pointed, slender ‐ smaller, dark-green ‐ dark-green ‐ rounded
to yellow ‐ large, rounded
‐ blades flat to curly ‐ shiny
‐ underside whitish ‐ undersurface
to silver brownish, hairy
‐ terminal leaves
point upwards
Flowers ‐ light orange ‐ yellow ‐ darkest yellow- ‐ darker yellow
orange ‐ small
‐ small ‐ small ‐ bigger ‐ distinct scent
‐ subtle scent ‐ slight scent ‐ strongest scent
Fruits ‐ pale green ‐ light green to ‐ yellowish ‐ yellowish-brown
‐ distinctly yellow ‐ biggest ‐ small, heart-shaped
elongated, pointed, ‐ heart-shaped with ‐ heart-shaped, ‐ hairy
chili-like beak, slightly hairy pointed, surface
wrinkled
Red List category LC LC LC Vulnerable (VU)

27
 Family Combretaceae and Myrsinaceae
Genera Lumnitzera and Aegiceras (3)

Lumnitzera Lumnitzera Aegiceras Aegiceras

littorea racemosa corniculatum floridum
Local names tabau kulasi/sagasa saging-saging tinduk-tindukan
Zones/Habitats ‐ back and sides of ‐ mid- to high-tidal ‐ mid-tidal level ‐ mid- to high-tidal
mangrove stands level; along sandy level
beaches
Form/Habit ‐ tree ‐ tree, shrub ‐ shrub to small tree ‐ small trees
Bark ‐ dark-brown; fibrous, ‐ brown; rough, ‐ dark-brown to black, ‐ dark-brown,
rough, deeply fibrous, deeply lenticellate mottled;
fissured; fissured lenticellate
Aerial roots ‐ extensive surface ‐ surface, looping in ‐ surface, small ‐ surface
older trees adventitious
Leaves ‐ smooth green; ‐ smooth light ‐ upper surface: ‐ smooth, light
succulent, brittle green; succulent smooth, dark-green green upper
obovate leaves obovate leaves surface
‐ undersurface:
brownish-green with ‐ smooth, whitish-
prominent mid-rib green
‐ salt crystals present undersurface
‐ salt crystals
present, insect
bites too
Flowers ‐ bright red; green ‐ white; green ‐ Inflorescence: umbel, ‐ raceme, terminal
fused; red filaments, fused, pale yellow terminal
yellow pollen; ‐ 5 petals, white to
‐ Petals: 5, white brown
folded outward
Fruits ‐ dark-green, reddish ‐ green, smooth ‐ light green to purple ‐ pink to bright
base; vase-shaped; waxy; pitcher-like; ‐ cylindrical shape, red
smooth; succulent one side slightly strongly curved, ‐ cylindrical,
bulging, the other pointed tip straight, like small
side flat bananas
Red List category LC LC LC NT

28
 Family Rhizophoraceae
Genus Bruguiera (4)

Bruguiera Bruguiera Bruguiera Bruguiera

cylindrica gymnorrhiza parviflora sexangula
Local Names pototan lalaki busain langarai pototan babae

Zones/Habitats ‐ low- to mid-intertidal, ‐ mid- to upper- ‐ mid-intertidal ‐ upper-intertidal to

intermediate to intertidal, end of mangrove
upstream upstream to end forest
of mangrove
forest
Bark ‐ pale and smooth when ‐ dark-brown ‐ brown to dark- ‐ light brown
young, dark-brown and brown, rough
rough when mature
‐ some have lenticels ‐ prominent light- ‐ lenticels not ‐ prominent light-
colored lenticels prominent colored lenticels

Leaves ‐ pale green interpetiolary ‐ reddish ‐ whitish ‐ pale green

stipules; medium size interpetiolary interpetiolary interpetiolary
stipules; biggest stipules; smallest stipules; medium
size size size

Flowers ‐ small, white petals with ‐ big, orange-brown ‐ delicate, yellowish- ‐ delicate, yellowish-
brown hairs hairy petals green green
‐ green sepals ‐ reddish sepals ‐ sepals not ‐ sepals not
reflexed reflexed

Propagules ‐ green to purple, short ‐ green to purple, ‐ light green, long ‐ green to purple,
and thin long and stout and thin thin and short
‐ calyx lobes reflexed ‐ calyx lobes spread ‐ calyx lobes ‐ calyx lobes spread
- 7-15 cm long, 0.5-0.8 cm ‐ 19-25 cm long, 1- appressed ‐ 4-9 cm long,1-2
diameter 1.7 cm diameter ‐ 11-19 cm long, 4- cm diameter
6 cm diameter

29
 Family Rhizophoraceae
Genus Rhizophora (5)

Rhizophora Rhizophora Rhizophora stylosa

apiculata mucronata
Local names bakhaw lalaki bakhaw babae bakhaw bato/bangkau
Zones/Habitats low to mid-intertidal, marine low to mid-intertidal, marine low to mid-intertidal, marine
to estuarine to estuarine
Leaves - narrow, dark red - broadest, light green - light green interpetiolary
interpetiolary stipules; interpetiolary stipules; stipules;
- leaf apex apiculate - leaf apex mucronate - leaf apex apiculate;
- smallest, leaves point
upward, waxy, sides curling
Flower - yellow to red outside - light yellow sepals, hairy; - light yellow sepals, brown
sepals; brown stamen; stamen, hairy;
- 2 flowers per cluster; - 2-6 flowers per cluster; - 7 flowers per cluster; long
short peduncle; no style long peduncle (pendulous), peduncle (pendulous), long (6
short (1 mm) style mm) style
Propagules - yellowish cotyledonary - yellow cotyledonary collar, - greenish collar, cylindrical,
collar, cylindrical straight; cylindrical; straight;
- short peduncle, so the
upper part tends to be
curved; - 34-70 cm long, 1-2 cm - 26-42 cm long, 1-2 cm
- 22-26 cm long, 0.9-1 cm diameter; green to dark- diameter; light green to green,
diameter; dark-green, green, warty warty
smooth

30
 Family Rhizophoraceae
Genus Ceriops and Kandelia (6)

Ceriops decandra Ceriops tagal Kandelia candel

Local names baras-baras/malatangal tangal/tungog
Form/Habit shrub tree, shrub tree
Bark gray to brown, rough, few light brown to gray, rough, brown, smooth, with
lenticels flaky lenticels
Roots small, buttress-like knee roots, low buttresses low buttresses
Leaves - light green to green, - yellow-green to green, - yellow-green to green,
mostly obovate, smooth obovate, smooth; oblong to elliptical,
smooth;
- leaves directed upward, -stipule reddish to yellow,
brittle prominent mid-rib
Flowers - white with hairs; light - white with brown hairs; - white, thin; reflexed;
green, fused; light green fused; numerous white;
- flower clustered on a - brown stamen tip - 2 flowers per cluster
short thick stalk
Propagules - green to brown when - dark-green to brown - yellow-green to green,
mature, cylindrical, pencil- when mature, cylindrical, cylindrical, slender, tapering
shaped; smooth slender, pencil-shaped; ridged with with pointed tip; smooth;
slightly ribbed; a few warts; long peduncle;
- pendulous, calyx spread; - sepals persistent on calyx
cap
- reddish-brown - yellow cotyledonary
cotyledonary collar collar
Red List category NT LC LC

31
 Family Lythraceae
Genus Sonneratia and Pemphis (7)

Sonneratia Sonneratia Sonneratia Pemphis

alba caseolaris ovata acidula
Local names pagatpat pedada pagatpat babae bantigi
Zones/Habitats low to mid-intertidal, low to mid-intertidal, high intertidal, back High intertidal, back
tolerate high salinity, along upstream mangrove; found mangrove, usually
associated with A. rivers, tolerate low with N. fruticans found in rocky,
marina salinity, found with calcareous areas
N. fruticans
Form/Habit tree tree tree shrub, tree
Bark - brown, rough; - light to dark- - brown, rough, - grayish-brown
brown, rough; rough;
- fissured and flaky - cracked (old), - with large lenticels
lenticellate (young)
Roots - conical - long, slender, and - conical - not prominent
pneumatophores; pointed like spear pneumatophores; aerial root system
pneumatophores;
- corky, 15-30 cm - woody in older - corky, 15-30 cm
high ones, tapering and long
pointed, up to 1 m
long

32
Leaves - light to dark-green, - light green, smaller, - green to dark- - whitish to pale
big rounded shape, elliptical, smooth; green, big, rounded, green, decussate,
smooth; smooth; elliptical; velvety;
- leathery, succulent, - thin, reddish - thin, light reddish - covered with
brittle; thick, light petiole, end branches petiole minute hair
green petiole drooping
Flowers - white, thin - red thin filaments - white, thin hairy - white, single,
filaments and petals; with a red base and filaments and petals; axillary;
white tips, red petals;
- light green, fused, - green, lobed, -lobed thick rough - fused
5-6 cm style,
Fruits - dark-green, - light green, - dark-green, more - brown, capsule,
rounded, smooth; rounded, smooth round, large, smooth; smooth;
- calyx lobes reflexed and shiny;
or spread out; short - top-shaped with - fleshy, calyx lobes - fruit encased in a
peduncle with long style; calyx appressed on fruit bell-like structure
yellowish reflexed; - soft and edible
cotyledonary collar - fruit edible and sour-sweet smell
smells sour-sweet when ripe
when ripe
Seeds large, U-to V-shaped, shape similar to but smaller, shaped like
pointed 1/4 the size of S. alba irregular granules
and contains many larger than S.
seeds caseolaris
Red List category LC LC NT LC

33
 Family Euphorbiaceae and Malvaceae
Genus Excoecaria, Camptostemon and Heritiera (8)

Excoecaria Camptostemon Heritiera littoralis

agallocha philippinensis
Local names buta-buta/alipata/lipata gapas-gapas dungon late
Bark - grayish-brown, slightly - brown-gray, rough, dark-brown, rough;
rough; irregular flakes;
- often mottled due to - lenticellate - flaky
lichens
Root - surface aerial roots - surface aerial root; - prominent buttresses, plank or
ribbon roots
- gnarled, curling with
lenticels
Leaves - light green to green, - light to dark-green, - dark-green, elliptical to oblong,
elliptical, smooth; obovate, smooth; undulate margin;
- white milky sap, deciduous - leathery, with fine salt - leathery, tiny scales, silvery
crystals on leaves underside or when young;
Flowers - yellow, catkin, axillary; - white to reddish-brown, - pink-red inside, panicle, axillary;
yellow stamens; cyme, terminal; green no petals;
sepals;
- the male flower is longer - clustered flower - hairy, yellow-green outside
than female sepals; unisexual
Fruits - brown when mature, - green to brown, - green to brown, boat-shaped,
rounded with 3 lobes, rounded, dehiscent; shiny;
smooth;
- short style splits into 3 - cottony inside; attractive - hard central ridge or keel
curling strands to big red ants
Red List category LC Endangered (EN) LC

34
 Family Meliaceae, Myrtaceae, and Rubiaceae
Genus Xylocarpus, Osbornia, and Scyphiphora (9)

Xylocarpus Xylocarpus Osbornia Scyphiphora

granatum moluccensis octodonta hydrophyllacea
Local names tabigi piag-ao/piagau bunot-bunot/tawalis Nilad
Form/Habit tree tree tree, shrub shrub, tree
Bark light brown, smooth, dark-brown, rough, brown to gray, light brown, smooth
thin flakes fissured rough; thick, spongy,
with long fissures;
Roots low buttresses, plank or cone or peg roots surface aerial roots surface aerial roots
ribbon arising from cable roots
Leaves - light to dark-green, - light green to green, - pale green, simple, - light to dark-green,
paripinnate compound, paripinnate compound, obovate, smooth; simple, obovate;
obovate; smooth; elliptical, smooth;
- 2-3 pairs of leaflets; - usually with 3-4 pairs - thin brittle - waxy; succulent,
sometimes deciduous of leaflets, deciduous pointing upward,
reddish petiole and
stems
Flower - yellowish-green, - pale-yellow-green, - yellow-green, - whitish-pink, fused,
tubular, unisexual fused white, unisexual apetalous, fused; with brown stamen;
- numerous, white; - 15-20 flowers per
yellow pollen; usually cluster
3 flowers per cluster
Fruits - green to brown, like - light green, like a small - pale green, capsule; - light green to
cannon or bowling ball, cannonball, smooth to brown when mature,
smooth to slightly slightly rough smooth
rough;
- 10-12 irregularly - hairy; calyx - barrel-like with
shaped seeds completely encase longitudinal ridges
fruit

35
 Family Arecaceae and Pteridaceae
Genus Nypa and Acrostichum (10)

Nypa fruticans Acrostichum aureum Acrostichum

speciosum
Local names nipa/sasa lagolo palaypay
Zones/Habitat upstream estuarine zone intermediate estuarine zone landward margin in
in low, mid, and high in the high intertidal region high intertidal zones
intertidal regions
Form/Habit palm fern fern
Trunk/Stem modified trunk stem base of spreading stem base of
cluster of leaf petioles spreading cluster of
leaf petioles
Leaves - green, smooth; light - dark-green, leathery, - dark-green, leathery,
green, powdery; alternate, and widely spaced; clumped foliage, to
- compound, odd pinnate, - glossy, broad, and pinnate 1.5 m; -
lanceolate leaflet - large fronds growing to a - pinnate, lanceolate in
length of up to 2 meters; shape, with a terminal
- sterile pinnae rounded and leaflet;
shortly mucronate at apex;
- sterile pinnae
narrowly acuminate at

36
 apex; 10-20 cm long,
and 2-3 cm wide with
a pointed tip
Reproduction - yellow to orange flower, some larger fronds the undersurface of
catkin, axillary; dimorphic bear sporangia (reproductive fertile fronds is
organs) on the upper 5 to 8 covered with brown,
pairs of pinnae rust-colored
sporangia
Fruits/Spores - light to dark-brown, a - fertile pinnae distal on the - spores large,
ball-shaped cluster of frond, like sterile pinnae but tetrahedral, clear to
fruits; slightly smaller translucent, 1-1.5 mm
- individual fruit smooth, width, buoyant
shiny
meat is edible

37
 4. MANGROVE ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING

4.1 RECONNAISSANCE

4.1.1 Mapping

38
 •

Google Earth Pro

39
 Figure 24. Sample image analysis of mangrove distribution
(from Jan. 2019 to Dec. 2020) in Busuanga, Palawan using mangrove vegetation index (MVI) in Google Earth Engine platform.
The composite map depicts the Landsat 8 False color (top) and masked MVI images (white areas; below).

4.1.2 Ground-truthing

40
 Figure 25. A satellite image of a sampling site on Google Earth Pro shows the four
corners (yellow dots) of three 10 m × 10 m plots and polygons (purple and redlines)
outlining potential mangrove areas in Brgy. Manaul, Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro

Figure 26. Sample data sheet for mangrove mapping.

41
4.2 SAMPLING DESIGN

4.2.1 Stratified transect-plot method

Figure 27. Sampling design for mangrove assessment using the stratified transect-
plot method (English, Wilkinson, and Baker 1997):
mapping of mangrove extent from communities to shoreward (top), location of transects and 10 m × 10 m plots across
different zones (bottom left); and nested subplot if seedlings and saplings are high (bottom right).

42
How to analyze samples collected using the transect-plot method

Figure 28. Analyzing samples from the transect plot. Note that boxes with same-
colored outlines are located on the same zonation type.

43
4.2.2 Belt-transect method

Figure 29. Sampling design using the belt-transect method

(English, Wilkinson, and Baker 1997):
location of transects and plots (left) and distribution of transects across different ecozones (right)

44
How to analyze samples collected using the belt-transect method

4.2.3 Random sampling

4.3 TESTING ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONALITY SIMILARITIES OF

SAMPLING SITES

4.3.1 Community similarity index (CSI)

45
4.3.2 Sorenson’s coefficient (CC)

2𝐶
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑠1 + 𝑠2

4.4 SAMPLING PARAMETERS

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

•
•
•

4.5 LOGISTICS

4.5.1 Materials and equipment

46
•

LEGEND

3
1 2

4 5 6

7 8

9
•

Figure 30. Some equipment and materials for mangrove field assessment.

47
4.5.2 Basic Team Composition and Competency

Figure 31. Conduct of a field assessment: species identification using field guide
(left) and measuring girth at breast height (GBH) of a mangrove tree (right).
Source: BRING Training (2018)

4.6 FIELD SAMPLING PROTOCOL

48
Table 2. Sample data sheet used to record variables to be measured in each plot (modified
from English, Wilkinson, and Baker 1997).

Figure 32. Graphical and actual setting up a 10 m x 10 m plot along each 100-m
transect line; Illustration (left)
Source: BRING Training (2018)

49
 BOX 1

Nested subplots are only necessary when the mangrove density for regeneration is high. The smaller quadrats
are meant to easily count saplings and seedlings when they occur at high densities to provide similarly robust
data (Figure 33).

Table 3. How to distinguish among seedlings, saplings, and mature trees.

LIFE STAGES OF GIRTH/CIRCUMFERENCE AT HEIGHT (M)

MANGROVES BREAST HEIGHT (CM)*

Tree >5 >1

Sapling <5 >1

Seedling ≤2.5 <1

*1.3 m from the ground =

Figure 33. Counting of seedlings using a nested subplot.

Photo credit: BRING Training (2018)

50
Table 4. General characteristics of sediment substrate (Wentworth 1922).

SEDIMENT TYPE DESCRIPTION

Mud Smooth and sticky texture; grain size < 63 μm
Fairly smooth texture with some detectable roughness; not sticky;
Fine sand
grain size 63 μm–0.25 mm
Sand Rough, grainy texture; particles clearly distinguishable; grain size 0.25–0.50 mm
Coarse sand Coarse texture; particles are loose; grain size 0.5–1.0 mm
Gravel Very coarse texture with some small stones; grain size > 1.0 mm

6.

DBH =
(𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ)
𝜋
; π = 3.1416

Figure 34. Estimating diameter at breast height (DBH) for mangrove trees
(English, Wilkinson, and Baker 1997).

51
Elliptical crown area = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Figure 35. Estimating mangrove tree perimeter variables.

52
Table 5. Assessing the human impact on mangrove ecosystems (English, Wilkinson, and
Baker 1997)

CODE IMPACT CANOPY EXAMPLE

COVER (%)
0 No impact 96–100 Even tree canopy distribution. No gaps. No evidence
of human interference.
1 Slight impact 76–95 Tree canopy is fairly continuous, but some gaps are
present. Some regrowth. Isolated cutting/stripping of
trees or some evidence of animals (e.g., pigs or goats)
grazing on or digging up saplings/seedlings.
2 Moderate impact 51–75 Broken tree canopy with lower regrowth and
recruitment areas. Some cut and stripped trees.
3 Rather high impact 31–50 Uneven tree canopy; a majority of the area is showing
no regrowth and visible bare mud.
4 High impact 11–30 Only a few trees remain at canopy height. There is
extensive clearance; maybe some recruitment; and
large, bare mud areas.
5 Severe impact 0–10 Extensive clearance, bare mud, little recruitment, and
few trees remain.

4.7 STANDARDIZATION OF COLLECTED MANGROVE DATA

53
4.8 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF MANGROVE DATA

Figure 36. Example of an Excel data template for mangrove assessment (top) and
generated pivot table to summarize the raw data in terms of averages (means) and
standard deviations (bottom).

54
4.8.1 Data recording

4.8.2 Data processing

4.8.3 Data analysis and statistical indices to evaluate mangrove

community structure

55
Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H′)

𝐻′ = − ∑ 𝑃𝑖 𝑙𝑛𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1

Evenness Index (J)

𝐻′
𝐽=
𝐻max

Simpson’s Diversity Index (D)

1
𝐷=
∑𝑠𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖2

56
Margalef’s Species Richness Index

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑆) = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

𝑆−1
𝐷𝑀𝑔 =
𝑙𝑛 𝑁

57
Table 6. Example of site characteristics and estimated diversity indices of three mangrove
areas in Balabac, Palawan .

Source: NMCayabyab

Density of mangrove trees, saplings, and seedlings

𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

58
 Figure 37. Example of relative density (%) of mangrove trees, saplings, and
seedlings in three study sites.
The numbers are the range of estimated values (%) while the species at the bottom indicates dominance. Source: NMCayabyab

Basal area and stand volume

𝐵𝐴 = (𝑝𝑖 × (𝐷𝐵𝐻)2 )/40000

Ʃ 𝐵𝐴
𝐺=
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Ʃ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

59
4.8.4 Steps in Analyzing and Interpreting Mangrove Assessment Data

Figure 38. Estimated tree density and basal area of different species in some
mangrove areas in Inopacan, Leyte.
Source: BRING Training (2018)

60
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

61
Analysis questions

62
 5. MANGROVE RESTORATION

5.1 RESTORATION AND REHABILITATION

5.2 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE RESTORATION

63
Figure 39. (A) Degraded area (~1,430 ha), (B) loss area (~1,8271 ha), and (C) total
restorable area (~15,647 ha) of mangrove systems in the Philippines.
Source: Data are derived from https://maps.oceanwealth.org/mangrove-restoration/.

5.3 KEY CONSIDERATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTING

REFORESTATION

64
5.4 SOME RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MANGROVE RESTORATION

65
 6. TOWARDS ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

6.1 APPLYING DPSIR FRAMEWORK TO MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

66
 DRIVER FORCES
RESPONSES
• Population growth in coastal
• Environmental laws and policies
communities
pertaining to protection and
• Food security through
conservation of mangrove forests
aquaculture
• Crafting of policy paper on
• Land-use change
mangrove management by DENR
• Ecotourism
(2013)
• Climate change-related events
• Creating and adopting a
Philippine Mangrove Action Plan
(2004)
PRESSURES
• Nationwide assessment of the
• Conversion of mangroves to
mangrove areas and remaining
ponds (fish and shrimp),
Unclassified Public Lands (UPL) by
• Human
NAMRIA and DENR (2009)
encroachment/settlement
• Implementation of National
• Deforestation
Greening Program (NGP)
• Unsustainable harvest of
mangrove trees and other
products
• Waste and garbage disposal IMPACTS
• Sea level rise (SLR) • Massive loss of mangrove areas
• Occurrence of extreme weather or critical habitats
events • Declining biodiversity (marine
and terrestrial species) within the
forests
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT • Some mangrove species are
• Change in mangrove cover included in IUCN Red list
• Increased siltation and sediment • Declining fish catch and harvest
accretion from deforested areas of invertebrates
• Degraded coastal ecosystems • Reducing coastal integrity and
• Interruptions of coastal habitat other benefits from its ecological
interconnectivity and trophic functions and services
energy flow • Loss of human lives and
• Changes in river dynamics properties in areas with denuded
• Unstable substrate leading to mangrove forests after passing of
resuspension extreme weather event

Figure 40. Analyzing the state of mangroves in the Philippines using the DPSIR
framework.

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6.2 MANGROVE CONSERVATION EFFORTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Table 7. Mangrove species in the IUCN Red List (Polidoro et al. 2010).

FAMILY SPECIES RED LIST

CATEGORY
Lythraceae Sonneratia griffithii Kurz 1CR

Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera hainesii C.G. Rogers 1CR

Malvaceae Camptostemon philippinensis (Vidal) Becc. 2EN

Heritiera fomes Buch.-Ham 2EN

Heritiera globosa Kostermans 2EN

Acanthaceae Avicennia bicolor Standley 3VU

Avicennia integra Duke 3VU

Avicennia rumphiana Hallier fil. 3VU

Bignoniaceae Tabebuia palustris Hemsley 3VU

Fabaceae Mora oleifera (Hemsl.) Duke 3VU

Pellicieraceae Pelliciera rhizophorae Triana & Planchon 3VU

Notes: CR – Critically endangered, EN – Endangered, and VU – Vulnerable; Bold fonts are species that can be found in the
Philippines

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Table 8. Relevant national laws and policies on mangrove conservation in the Philippines

ENVIRONMENTAL TITLE PROVISIONS ON MANGROVE

LAW AND POLICY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
Presidential Decree 705 Forestry Reform Code Prohibition of cutting, gathering, and/or collecting
of the Philippines of timber and other forest products without a
license, including unauthorized possession (Sec. 77)
Unlawful destruction of and occupation in
forestlands

Republic Act 7161 Revised Forestry Code Ban on the cutting of mangroves
of the Philippines

DENR Administrative Regulations governing the Prohibition of cutting mangroves or using mangrove
Order No. 15, s. 1990 utilization of mangrove resources not covered by existing foreshore lease
resources agreements (FLAs)

Presidential Decree Water Code of the Philippines Establishment of easement in banks (i.e., rivers and
1067 streams) and shores (i.e., seas and lakes) (Sec. 51)
Prohibition of unauthorized obstruction of
waterways and occupancy in riverbanks (Sec. 9)

Presidential Declaring certain islands (i.e., Designated 80,000 hectares of mangroves as

Proclamation 2151 & Palawan province) and parcels wilderness areas and reserves, where any form of
2152 of the public domain as exploitation and destruction is prohibited
wilderness areas (i.e., mangrove
swamp forest reserves)

Republic Act 7586 National Integrated Protected Designates some mangrove wilderness areas as
Areas System Act of 1992 protected areas or wildlife sanctuaries

DENR Administrative Rules and regulations governing Excludes mangrove areas from foreshore lease
Order No. 34, s. 1999 management and development agreements (FLAs)
of foreshore areas and
marshlands

DENR Administrative Establish buffer zones or Establishment and protection of mangrove buffer
Order No. 76, s. 1987 greenbelts in coastal and zones, 50 meters (width) of the shore and 20
estuarine areas meters on both sides of the river

DENR Memorandum Prioritize the implementation of Provides guidelines for the immediate rehabilitation
Circular No. 15, s. 1989 mangrove reforestation of mangrove forests

Republic Act 8550 The Philippine Fisheries Reversion of abandoned, underdeveloped, or

Code of 1998 unutilized fishponds into their historical/ original
mangrove state

Republic Act 7160 Local Government Gives LGUs jurisdiction over aspects of mangrove
Code of 1991 forest management and implementation of
community-based projects, subject to the
supervision of DENR

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ENVIRONMENTAL TITLE PROVISIONS ON MANGROVE
LAW AND POLICY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
DENR Administrative Implementing guidelines for Lists guidelines for NGO-assisted community-based
Order No. 30, s. 1994 NGO-assisted community- management of mangrove forests
based mangrove forest
management

DENR Administrative Guidelines on the establishment Community-based management that allows the
Order No. 10, s. 1998 and management of harvesting of mangroves by the community, as long
community-based forest as this is included in the management plan, with
management projects in reforestation activities to be done within six
mangrove areas months of harvesting operations

Republic Act 8371 The Indigenous People’s Rights Gives indigenous people the right to utilize and
Act manage all resources within their ancestral domain,
pursuant to national and customary laws

Republic Act 11038 Expanded National Integrated Gives protection to mangroves in all declared
Protected Areas System Act protected areas within the NIPAS in the Philippines

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6.3 SYNTHESIS

Figure 41. Children playing in a mangrove in Leyte.

Source: BRING Training (2018).

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72
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

E-BOOKS

OTHER ONLINE SOURCES

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OTHER RECOMMENDED ONLINE RESOURCES
ON MANGROVE RESTORATION/REHABILITATION:

General background

Community-based mangrove rehabilitation

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Mangrove nurseries

Aquaculture reversion through rehabilitation

75
LITERATURES CITED

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