BPCG-172

YOUTH, GENDER AND

IDENTITY

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. D. Gopal Dr. Updesh Kumar Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar
Director, SOSS Scientist G, Head Mental Health Discipline of Psychology
IGNOU, New Delhi Division, Defence Institute of SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan Psychological Research, DRDO, Dr. Monika Misra
(Chairperson) Delhi Assistant Professor of Psychology
Former Emeritus Professor Dr. Shilpa Ashok Pandit SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Discipline of Psychology Associate Professor Dr. Smita Gupta
IGNOU, New Delhi School of Philosophy, Psychology Assistant Professor of Psychology
Prof. Purnima Singh and Scientific Heritage SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
School of Humanities & Social Chinmaya Vishwavidyapeeth
Prof. Swati Patra (Convener)
Sciences Ernakulam, Kerala
Discipline of Psychology
IIT, New Delhi Dr. Arvind Kumar Mishra SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Associate Professor, ZHCES,
SOSS, JNU, New Delhi

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block 1 Introduction
Unit 1 Youth: Concept and Identity Dr. Shivantika Sharad, Assistant Professor in Psychology,
Vivekananda College, New Delhi
Unit 2 Developmental Aspects of Youth Dr. Shivantika Sharad, Asst. Professor in Psychology,
Vivekananda College, New Delhi
Block 2 Youth and Identity

Unit 3 Social and Psychological Dr. Parul Bansal, Assistant Professor in Psychology,
Perspectives on Identity Lady Shriram College for Women, New Delhi
Unit 4 Education, Career and Peer Group Dr. Parul Bansal, Assistant Professor in Psychology,
Lady Shriram College for Women, New Delhi
Unit 5 Youth Culture: Influence of Media Dr. Parul Bansal, Assistant Professor in Psychology,
and Globalization Lady Shriram College for Women, New Delhi
Block 3 Gender and Identity

Unit 6 Gender, Youth Identity and Sexuality Dr. Shilpa A. Pandit, Associate Professor of Psychology,
Chinmaya University, Kerala
Unit 7 Youth, Identity and Globalization Dr. Shilpa A. Pandit, Associate Professor of Psychology,
Chinmaya University, Kerala
Block 4 Challenges related to Youth, Gender and Identity

Unit 8 Aggression, Violence and Prof. Swati Patra, Professor of Psychology, IGNOU, New Delhi
Mental Health among Youth
Unit 9 Challenges Related to Work-life Prof. Urmi Nanda Biswas, Professor of Psychology, M.S.
Balance, Equity and Equality University, Baroda
COURSE COORDINATOR
Prof. Swati Patra, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU
GENERAL EDITOR
Prof. Swati Patra, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU

COURSE EDITORS (Content, Format & Language) :

Block 1 and 2 (All Units)
Prof. Swati Patra, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi and
Dr. Arti Singh, Academic Associate, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU,
New Delhi
Block 3 (All Units ) & Block 4 (Unit 9)
Prof. Swati Patra, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Block 4 (Unit 8)
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Print Production
Mr. Manjit Singh
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

May, 2019
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 Course Contents
Page No.

BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION 9
Unit 1 Youth: Concept and Identity 11
Unit 2 Developmental Aspects of Youth 32

BLOCK 2 YOUTH AND IDENTITY 55

Unit 3 Social and Psychological Perspectives on Identity 57
Unit 4 Education, Career and Peer Group 86
Unit 5 Youth Culture: Influence of Media and Globalization 108

BLOCK 3 GENDER AND IDENTITY 119

Unit 6 Gender, Youth Identity and Sexuality 121
Unit 7 Youth, Identity and Globalization 133

BLOCK 4 CHALLENGES RELATED TO YOUTH, GENDER AND IDENTITY147

Unit 8 Aggression, Violence and Mental Health among Youth 149
Unit 9 Challenges Related to Work-Life Balance, Equity and Equality 166
HOW THIS COURSE WILL HELP YOU
BPCG-172: YOUTH, GENDER AND IDENTITY Course is in the Semester
II of BA Hons. Psychology. It is of 6 credits. One credit is equivalent to 30 study
hours. It means a learner needs to devote 180 hours of study including reading,
preparing assignment, making notes etc. to complete this course. It is a Generic
Elective course (GE), which learners from any Discipline can take. The course
will provide you understanding of the concept of youth. It will discuss the
development of identity in the youth, specifically in the context of gender and
sexuality. You will also learn about the youth culture and the influence of media
and globalization on it. Further, you will study the various challenges faced by
the youth and ways to deal with them.
The specific objectives of the course are as follows:
Objectives
1. To introduce the concept of youth, gender and identity and their interface;
2. To define youth in the Indian context – socio cultural, economic, and legal
perspective;
3. To introduce the social and psychological perspectives on identity;
4. To introduce theories of development: physiological, cognitive, emotional,
social and moral;
5. To present gender and identity issues: discrimination, sexuality and cultural
issues;
6. To discuss the impact of globalization and youth identity and culture; and
7. To introduce the challenges faced by the youth in general and specific to
Indian context.
The Course BPCG-172: Youth, Gender and Identity consists of four Blocks
and a total of nine Units which you need to study and complete during the six
months duration of your second semester. You will have continuous evaluation
through assignment and a Term-End examination (TEE) at the end of the
Semester. Assignments are available on the IGNOU website. You can download
the assignments on www.ignou.ac.in > student support > downloads >
assignments. Refer to the instructional guidelines on the assignment for your
assignment preparation and submission. You can also refer to the previous year
question papers available under downloads to prepare for your term-end exam.

You will need to go through the course material in this book presented in different
Blocks and Units to do your assignments and prepare successfully for the exam.
Each Unit is like a chapter written in a structured way. It contains Self Assessment
Questions (SAQs) in between the sections in the Unit so that you can check
your progress and go back to the content for more clarification. This will help
make your learning better. Further, there are Unit End questions also at the end
of the Unit that facilitates your overall understanding of the Unit. Key Words
section highlights the key words in the Unit that will help you recall the main
terms and concepts learned in the Unit. References section will help you refer
to specific studies and articles to gain more understanding of a particular point
discussed in the Unit. At the end of each Unit, you are also provided with
Suggested readings for your further understanding of the Unit. Thus, the teacher
is built into the course materials to help minimize the gap or distance between
the learner and the teacher.

IGNOU follows a multi-pronged approach to teaching and learning. Thus there

are printed course materials, audio and video materials also. The soft copies of
the course materials are also available on the IGNOU website through egyankosh.
Interaction between the teacher and learner is also facilitated through Gyanvani
(interactive radio counseling), Gyan darshan (tele conference) and Web
conference. Gyanvani is available on FM 105.6 Gyandarshan is a television
channel, a must carry channel for all the cable operators. Information about
Gyanvani and Gyan darshan monthly schedule is available on the IGNOU
website. Web conferences are held by the Faculty of Discipline of Psychology
and you will get the information about the same from your Regional centre. You
can make use of all these features of learning at IGNOU to take your learning to
a higher level and make it a truly enriching experience.

Brief Introduction to Blocks and Units

A brief outline of each of the four Blocks and the Units contained therein is
given below for your reference which you can go through before studying the
Units in detail.

BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION
Block 1 will introduce you to the concept of youth. Youth as a stage of life has
been variously defined and it is important to have a clear and comprehensive
knowledge and understanding of it to inform the policies and interventions for
youth. Block 1 consists of two Units.

Unit 1 Youth: Concept and Identity discusses the concept of youth and
elaborates its meaning in terms of socio cultural, economic and legal aspects.
Further, it explains the concept of identity in youth. The various indicators of
identity and theories pertaining to identity development in youth are also
described.

Unit 2 Developmental Aspects of Youth focuses on the developmental aspects

of youth such as physical, cognitive, social, emotional and moral. Developmental
tasks at this stage are described. Various issues pertaining to each of the facets
of development are discussed.

BLOCK 2 YOUTH AND IDENTITY

Block 2 Youth and Identity focuses on the central concept of identity. A
significant task of the stage of youth is the development of identity. In the absence
of a successful identity development, the youth faces identity crisis that can
negatively affect the various facets of development. Block 2 consists of three
Units.

Unit 3 Social and Psychological Perspectives on Identity discusses the youth

identity in terms of social psychological aspects. It highlights family as an
important context for identity formation and development. Further,
intergenerational relationships including parent-youth relationship, are discussed
in the context of youth autonomy and identity development.
Unit 4 Education, Career and Peer Group focuses on educational institutions
as contexts of identity development. It also discusses workplace identity and
relationships. The peer group dynamics as important for social development is
also highlighted.

Unit 5 Youth Culture: Influence of Media and Globalization explains the

meaning of youth culture and the influence of media and globalization on the
youth culture.

BLOCK 3 GENDER AND IDENTITY

Block 3 - Gender and Identity elaborates gender as an important indicator of
identity. Gender as a social construction affects the youth identity in many ways.
Block 3 consists of two Units.
Unit 6 Gender, Youth Identity and Sexuality talks about gender socialization
and changing gender roles in the society. It also discusses sexuality in the
adolescents and youth, and highlights healthy sexuality.
Unit 7 Youth, Identity and Globalization emphasizes the influence of
globalization on aspects like work and culture; and thereby impacting the identity
development in youth.
Block 4 – Challenges related to Youth, Gender and Identity highlights the
various concerns and challenges faced by the youth. These challenges are
important to address as they impact the health and the future of the youth. Block
4 consists of two Units.

BLOCK 4 CHALLENGES RELATED TO YOUTH, GENDER AND

IDENTITY

Unit 8 Aggression, Violence and Mental Health among Youth focuses on the
issue of aggression and violence among youth which has become a major concern
in the present day society. The theories of aggression are described and the risk
factors leading to aggression are explained. Finally, the ways to address this
crucial issue were highlighted.

Unit 9 Challenges Related to Work Life Balance, Equity and Equality points
out the issues related to work life imbalance, equity and equality. It explains the
various models of work life balance. Challenges of work life balance may have
various consequences such as physical, psychological, social and organizational.
Finally, the Unit discusses ways of addressing the work life challenges and
promotion of equity and equality.
 Block 1
Introduction
Introduction
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION
Block 1 will introduce you to the concept of youth. Youth as a stage of life has
been variously defined and it is important to have a clear and comprehensive
knowledge and understanding of it to inform the policies and interventions for
youth. Block 1 consists of two Units.

Unit 1 Youth: Concept and Identity discusses the concept of youth and
elaborates its meaning in terms of socio cultural, economic and legal aspects.
Further, it explains the concept of identity in youth. The various indicators of
identity and theories pertaining to identity development in youth are also
described.

Unit 2 Developmental Aspects of Youth focuses on the developmental aspects

of youth such as physical, cognitive, social, emotional and moral. Developmental
tasks at this stage are described. Various issues pertaining to each of the facets
of development are discussed.

10
 Youth: Concept and Identity
UNIT 1 YOUTH: CONCEPT AND IDENTITY*

Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Concept of Youth
1.3.1 Meaning of Youth in terms of Socio-cultural, Economic and Legal Aspects
1.3.1.1 Socio-cultural Perspective
1.3.1.2 Economic Perspective
1.3.1.3 Legal Perspective
1.4 Identity of Youth
1.4.1 Concept and Definition
1.4.2 Theories of Identity
1.4.2.1 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
1.4.2.2 James Marcia’s Theory of Identity Status
1.4.3 Indicators of Identity
1.4.4 Multiplicity of Identity
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.8 Unit End Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning and concept of youth;
Define youth in terms of socio-cultural, economic and legal aspects;
Understand the concept of identity in youth through Erikson’s theory and
Social Identity theory; and
Delineate the indicators of identity and understand multiplicity of identity.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
“Youth is happy because it has the capacity to see beauty. Anyone who keeps
the ability to see beauty never grows old.”
—Franz Kafka
Youth is a dynamic stage in the life span development that can become a vibrant
force in any society’s progress. Youth is generally considered to represent the
future of any nation. No society can develop and grow without attaching
significance to youth and harnessing their energy and potential. Substantial
learning and acquisition of skills and attitude happens during this time. It is a

* Dr. Shivantika Sharad, Assistant Professor in Psychology, Vivekananda College, New Delhi
11
Introduction stage marked by energy, enthusiasm, hope, openness to learn, motivation, and
creativity that makes “youth” a valuable human resource.

According to ‘World Population Prospects: The 2015 revision’ Population

Database of United Nations Population Division, India has the world’s highest
number of 10 to 24 year olds amounting to over 242 million young people (Youth
in India, 2017). As per India’s Census 2011, youth (15-24 years) in India
constitutes one-fifth (19.1%) of India’s total population and this is a considerable
number that calls for reaping “demographic dividend” by harnessing the potential
of the youth.

Therefore the study of youth, their psychosocial development and related issues
is an important endeavor. Family, school, neighborhood, social norms, peers,
work settings etc. influence youth development and their formation of identity.
Youth also face a lot of issues and challenges like that of identity formation,
building effective relationships, combating peer pressure, taking on mature roles
and responsibilities, issues of body image and so on.
The youth of today’s India inhabits a hybrid culture that is at the crossroads of
tradition and modernity. Due to increased urbanization, globalization,
communication, technology revolution, they experience generation gaps and
tensions. They also experience competing ways of life that presents them with
conflicting choices. They are also at the risk of delinquency, substance abuse,
high risk sexual behavior, as well as the risk of being radicalized. It wouldn’t be
wrong to say that today’s youth faces a more complex transition to adulthood.
A lot of efforts are being made for positive youth development across the globe.
Our country too is encouraging youth to be actively involved in civil society by
providing them with education, skills, health awareness and other enablers to
productively contribute to the economy.

1.3 CONCEPT OF YOUTH

The word youth is etymologically derived from the old English word geong
(meaning youthful, young, recent, new, fresh) and Sanskrit word Yuvan meaning
youth or young man. Oxford English Dictionary defines youth as “being young,
early part of life especially adolescence”.
Youth is commonly conceptualized as a period of transition in which young
people strive to meet the social markers of adulthood, such as getting work,
starting families and being recognized as full and productive citizens (Banks,
2015, p. 2). United Nation defines youth as those people belonging to the age
group of 15 to 24 years. According to World Health Organization (CAH, WHO),
‘adolescence’ comprises of those in the age span of 10 to 19 years, “youth” as
those in 15-24 years age group and the two age groups is labeled “young people”
covering the age group of 10-24 years. National Youth Policy of India (2014)
defines the youth population as those in the age group of 15-29 years. It recognizes
the fluid nature of youth as an age group. It is mostly characterized by the age
group when a person completes/ leaves formal education and enters the job
market and gets employed.
Thus there are variations in the age range of youth, yet we can say that it is that
period of life when one is transitioning from the dependence that childhood
12
entails towards independence of adulthood. Thus the period of youth may vary Youth: Concept and Identity
from culture to culture.
The term youth is often used interchangeably with adolescence and young
adulthood. However, you can see some differences between a youth and adult
as given in the Table below:

Table 1aT: Some Differences between a Youth and an Adult

Youth Adult
Youth is considered as someone who is Someone who is considered grown
not yet an adult. A significant part of up and mature.
youth corresponds to the stage of
adolescence.
Youth is seen as a being in the process Adult is seen as a being who has
of becoming. The stage is marked by a become someone or has arrived or
search for one’s identity. has a distinct identity.
Youth are also perceived as powerless Adult on the other hand is perceived
and vulnerable. They face a lot of as powerful and strong, having
pressures from their family and society independent decision making
at large. In many societies youth are not ability.
given enough say in decision making,
even if it is pertaining to their own lives.
Youth are considered less responsible. Adults are perceived as responsible
Popular notion of the youth connects and hence are give more
them with risk taking and hence responsible positions and roles.
engaging in more risky behaviours. They Popular notion of an adult is
also represent youth as rebellious. someone who engages in measured
and careful behaviour.
Youth are open to new experiences and Adults are largely represented as
have creative ideas. being conformist, having less
flexible and more fixed thought
patterns as compared to the youth.
Youth are also perceived as dependent, Adults are considered independent
having less knowledge. and more knowledgeable.

Youth is perceived and understood from a variety of perspectives. Some view

youth positively and as a human resource that can contribute positively to the
development of society (at present as well as in future). Thus a lot of investment
is done in youth in order to create productive workforce that can make a
sustainable contribution to India’s economic development. For instance, a number
of organizations and programs in India are focused towards youth development
such as National Service Scheme (NSS), Scouts and Guides, Nehru Yuva Kendra
Sangathan, National Youth Corps, National programme for Youth and Adolescent
Development, Youth Hostel, Rajiv Gandhi National Institute for Youth
Development and so on.
On the other hand, youth is also viewed as a problematic stage of transition. If
we consider the entire human life span, no other developmental stage is as varied
as the stage of youth with regard to the age group, their needs and expectations, 13
Introduction their own as well as of the society. It is thus simultaneously perceived as a
challenge and as a resource to the nation. This makes it all the more important to
focus on this valuable resource.
As you can see in the box below, youth can be seen from different aspects:

Youth as a demographic dividend

Youth as a potential to be nurtured and developed
Youth as a transition phase that requires instilling social values and morals
Youth as a change agent
Youth as a challenge to be dealt with
Youth as non-adults
Youth as risky behaviours
Youth as a problem.

Self Assessment Questions I

Answer the following as TRUE or FALSE.
1) Youth all over the world share universal social and cultural aspects.
2) Youth as a demographic dividend means youth has a lot of money.
3) Youth is seen as a process of becoming, while adults have already become
somebody.
4) Adulthood is a period of major transition.

1.3.1 Meaning of Youth in Terms of Socio-cultural, Economic

and Legal Aspects
It is important to understand that youth is not just an age related process or
stage. Youth is also an ongoing construction by the social and cultural forces.
Schooling, family, job market conditions, globalization, technological
advancements – all these have significant impact in shaping the youth experience.
Youth, all over the world, though similar in their biological age, yet they differ
in their economic, social, cultural and legal aspects. In this Section, we will
define youth from economic, socio-cultural and legal perspective, particularly
with reference to India.

1.3.1.1 Socio-cultural Perspective of Youth

Youth is not just related to age. Age refers to a biological reality. However, the
meaning and experience of age and ageing or growing up is influenced greatly
by the society, culture and historical era we inhabit. Thus youth is socially and
culturally constructed. It is necessary to make note of the fact that the inherited
assumptions in youth psychology are largely borrowed from developmental
psychology about universal stages of development (that are the same across
cultures). However, like any phase of development, youth too is not devoid of
influence of culture. Youth is a dynamic notion and it keeps evolving with time
and space. Cultural context and historical moment determine how youth is
14 defined, understood and developed. In this regard it is important to understand
the ecological perspective offered by Bronfenbrenner (1986, 2004), according Youth: Concept and Identity
to which development is affected by multitude of factors. This theory posits that
development reflects the influence of several environmental systems –
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. The
microsystem is the setting in which the individual lives and includes the person’s
family, peers, school, and neighborhood. The interaction of the youth with parents,
peers, and teachers helps him construct the experience of youth. The mesosystem
involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts.
Examples are the relation of family experiences to school experiences, school
experiences to religious experiences, and family experiences to peer experiences.
The exosystem consists of links between a social setting in which the individual
does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context. For example,
a youth’s experience at home may be influenced by his/her mother’s experiences
at work. The macrosystem involves the larger culture in which individuals live.
This refers to how a youth is shaped by cultural norms, practices and values.
The chronosystem consists of the patterning of environmental events over time
and transitions over the life course, as well as socio-historical circumstances.
Thus from this perspective, youth is seen as a social process and not just an age
group of people. This perspective regards internalization of cultural values an
important developmental task of youth in all cultures. In a globalizing world
with multiplicity of values and religions, with diverse economic conditions,
parenting practices and social norms, youth develop differently. For instance, in
developing countries like India, children from lower socio economic families
are expected to start working at an early age. Youth growing up in a country
under military regime or facing terrorism will be very different from a youth
growing up in a country where the government ensures safe transition from
childhood to adulthood. Youth who lives on the street for whom survival is the
solitary concern will be very different from a youth living in an affluent family
for whom growth and education is the only concern. Further, there are many
ways in which growing up in the 2000s in the industrialised world is
fundamentally different from what growing up in the 1970s entailed. Male and
female youth are also very different. Thus gender also plays a very important
role in defining youth.
The socio-cultural perspective helps us to appreciate the heterogeneity that exists
within the youth population. Thus, youth is not merely a category. It is also a
dynamic process of experiencing life by virtue of being at a certain stage of
development. It does have some universal or common patterns, because of the
correspondence with adolescence that is characterized by universal biological
process. Nonetheless, we need to recognize the significant role of social
institutions (e.g., family, school), culture (values, beliefs and practices) and of
changing economic and political circumstances and their impact on youth.
The period of youth is crucial because it is the threshold to adulthood. National
Youth Policy apart from promoting youth as a productive work force, also aims
at creating a strong and healthy generation with social values and community
ties that participates in civic engagement activities. It supports youth at risk and
creates equitable opportunity for all disadvantaged & marginalized youth.

1.3.1.2 Economic Perspective

The economic perspective looks at the youth as a demographic dividend.
Demographic dividend refers to the economic growth that occurs because of the 15
Introduction shifts in the age structure of a working population of a country. It occurs when
the proportion of working population out of the total population (or the population
that is dependent on the working population) is high. Since youth make a
significant portion of India’s total population, if they are trained to be productive
and nurtured appropriately to develop their potential, it would translate into the
economic growth of the nation. Thus youth becomes a demographic dividend.

The National Youth Policy (NYP-2014) of India proposed a holistic ‘vision’ for
the youth of India. Their vision was to empower the youth of the nation and
facilitate the growth, development and achievement of our youth. The
Government of India has also formulated the National Policy for Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship in 2015 that provides an umbrella framework
to all skilling activities being carried out within the country, and to align these
to common standards and link skilling with demand centres. Under the skill
development mission of the GOI, a flagship scheme titled “Pradhan Mantri
Kaushal Vikas Yojana” (PMKVY) has been launched by the Ministry of Skill
Development & Entrepreneurship which aims to benefit 10 million Indian youth.
It is a skill Certification Scheme that is expected to enable a large number of
Indian youth to take up industry-relevant skill training, which in turn will help
them secure a better livelihood. PMKVY envisions to link the aptitude, aspiration,
and knowledge of the skilled workforce it creates with employment opportunities
and market demands. Thus providing placement opportunities to the trained and
certified candidates is the major thrust of the Scheme.

1.3.1.3 Legal Perspective

In legal parlance the word that is used for youth is juvenile. Juvenile is derived
from the Latin word juvenis meaning young or a young person. Interestingly, it
is seen globally that legal system formulates separate approaches for individuals
considered juveniles and those considered adults. For legal purposes generally
children and adolescents (usually aged 18 or below) are treated differently from
older youth (aged 18/21 above). There is a separate legal system for crimes
committed by juveniles. Juveniles are tried in courts differently from adults.
The minimum age at which a person can be labeled juvenile varies from nation
to nation. Legally it is termed as the minimum age of criminal responsibility. It
is the age below which a person is completely immune from any criminal liability
because the person lacks psychological maturity and judgement to understand
the consequences of his/her actions. Next comes the age below which a person
is considered vulnerable and immature and hence cannot be made fully
responsible for one’s actions. This is the period of childhood and adolescence
and crime committed during this stage is dealt with by most nations under special
laws known as juvenile justice laws (Bhatia, 2014). Juvenile delinquency or
crime committed by juveniles is on the rise and one of the major issues faced by
our country.
In India those aged 18 and under are called juveniles, while in Singapore it is 16
and under. In the United States, there is no uniform national age from which a
child is accountable in the juvenile court system. It varies between States, ranging
from age 15 to age 17. The age of criminal responsibility in India is 18. However,
according to Juvenile Justice Act 2015 (enforced in January 2016), juveniles of
age group of 16 to 18 years are to be tried like an adult for heinous or barbaric
offences committed by them. Recently, extensive attention has been accorded
16 to rules governing the minimum age of criminal responsibility, and the imposition
of criminal responsibility above that age depending on a youth offender’s ability Youth: Concept and Identity
to assess the implications and wrongfulness of his/her act. The Youth Criminal
Justice Act 2003 of Canada hails the age of 12 as the lower limit for the age of
criminal responsibility. In England and Wales, it is 10; Italy it is 14, Belgium 18,
Sri Lanka it is 8 years. In Sri Lanka children between 16 and 18 are treated as
adults. Pakistan sets the limit as 7 for most offences, and those between 7-12 in
some cases. China too has much stricter laws for juveniles.

Apart from legal liability, the Indian Constitution has granted the right to vote to
all Indian citizens of sound mind above the age of 18.

Self Assessment Questions II

1) What are the environmental systems that affect development according
to Bronfenbrenner?
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2) Define demographic dividend.
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3) What does the “age of criminal responsibility” mean?
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4) Why is it necessary to build the skills of the youth?
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1.4 IDENTITY OF YOUTH

Let us first read the following two vignettes.
Case 1
Mehreen is a young girl of 15. She is born in a Muslim family that holds orthodox
values. She stays in a joint family. Mehreen is the first girl in her family who is
17
Introduction studying in a co-educational school, thanks to the support of her parents. She
wants to become a dancer, but has never shared this with anyone. As she
completes her higher secondary schooling and is ready to go to college, she
faces a lot of hurdles. Her uncle and elder brother oppose strongly her joining a
college, and instead press for her marriage. She is however determined to pursue
higher education and set an example for other girls in the family. With the support
of her parents, she gets admission in a good course in a decent college. As she
starts her college, she is pressurized by her peers to wear certain type of clothes,
behave in a certain manner while her family restrains her. In times of conflicts
she reaches out to one of her teachers, whom she considers as a role model. Her
passion for dance flourishes as she joins the dance society of her college and
participates in many competitions and shows. Her eyes twinkle with joy as she
performs on stage. She wins many accolades and awards. Her passion for dance
deepens. The three years of college pass swiftly for Mehreen. She doesn’t
experience significant conflicts while being in college, except the minor tussle
of choosing between what her family says and what her friends do.
Mehreen now wants to join a dance academy and that isn’t easy for her. Her
family now expects her to get married to a person of their choice. Mehreen feels
shackled as she knows what she wants in life. Her dream of becoming a dancer
cannot remain unfulfilled.
– In your opinion, what is Mehreen’s real identity?
– To what extent do you think family and parents shape one’s identity?
What should Mehreen do – get married or fight to become a dancer?

Case 2
Ramesh is a very friendly and cheerful boy of 19. He has many friends who keep
him company. All his friends perceive Ramesh to be a carefree and fun loving.
While his friends are contemplating about their future goals, Ramesh watches
on with amusement as this isn’t his cup of tea. As Ramesh stands on the threshold
of his adult life he is confronted by the quest to find himself. All his friends
already know what they want to do. Ramesh finds himself isolated in his
confusion. Ramesh finds this very amusing. He doesn’t know what he would be
doing in future. He realizes that he was never confronted by this question. All
these years in school and in college he was happy and was just flowing with life.
But now as he is graduating, he needs to decide. He thinks he can be a researcher,
an army officer, a singer, a teacher and even a chef.
The above two case vignettes show how identity is deeply connected with the
answers to the questions “Who am I? What am I all about? What is different
about me?”. Such concerns become extremely significant when one enters
adolescence. Adolescence is usually about biological changes and one’s struggle
for identity. Adolescence is a phase where they are defining themselves by trying
and exploring a variety of roles and tasks.

1.4.1 Concept and Definition

Identity can be generally defined as a sense of who an individual is. This sense
of who I am and how I am different from others is often referred to as self-
identity. In psychological terms, identity can be defined as the perception of the
18 self-sameness and continuity of one’s existence in time and space (Erikson,
1968). Apart from one’s own perception, it is also the perception of the fact that Youth: Concept and Identity
others recognize one’s sameness and continuity. Identity is like one’s personal
style, one’s individuality and at the same time one’s ‘meaning for significant
others’. Identity is a kind of self-structure which gives individuals a sense of
who they are and who they imagine themselves to be in the future.

According to James Marcia (1966) identity is an internal self-constructed,

dynamic structure of one’s needs, drives, abilities, beliefs, and self-perceptions
as well as an inner organization of one’s individual history and socio-political
stance. Identity is dynamic, as it keeps changing and evolving with time, with
new elements being added and old element being discarded.

1.4.2 Theories of Identity

The concept of identity cannot be understood in its entirety without referring to
the work of German born American Psychologist, also a follower of Freud, Erik
Erikson and, James Marcia who refined and extended Erikson’s work on identity.
Let us now learn both these theories.

1.4.2.1 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Perhaps no single theoretician has had a greater impact on our perceptions of
adolescent personality development than Erik Erikson. Erikson (1968) set forth
a theory of ego development to account for the interactions between
psychological, social, historical and developmental factors in the formation of
personality. He gave a psychosocial theory of lifespan development in which he
emphasised on eight stages of development that unfold as we go through life. At
each stage, a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that
must be resolved. The crisis is seen as a turning point in the individual’s life
marked by vulnerability as well as growth potential. Seeing it in the context of
youth development, there are two stages that an individual has to deal with:
Identity versus Identity Confusion: Faced during the adolescent years this
is the fifth stage in Erikson’s theory and marks an individual’s struggle for
finding and defining one’ identity. Healthy exploration of roles and forms
of identity leads to a positive identity development and acquisition of the
virtue of fidelity, i.e., faith in one’s self.
Intimacy versus Isolation: Erikson’s sixth developmental stage is
experienced during the early adulthood years (20s and 30s), with the key
developmental task of forming intimate relationships. The virtue of love is
acquired during this stage as one forms healthy friendships and mature
relationships.
Erikson’s (1968) famous work “Identity: Youth and Crisis” has provided a
comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding identity formation. He
also described major factors that contribute to identity formation during
adolescence, particularly the social and cultural factors. Parenting and
socialization plays a major role in helping individual’s form their identity.

1.4.2.2 James Marcia’s Theory of Identity Status

James Marcia (1966; 1980) has extended Erikson’s theory to develop a basic
groundwork for a specific identity formation model. Marcia proclaims that
19
Introduction attaining an identity status incorporates two main dimensions: (i) going through
the phases of crisis (presence or absence of a crisis period), and (ii) the presence
or absence of well-defined and stable commitment to values, beliefs, and
standards belonging to the domains of religion, political stance and choices in
occupation. Crisis would mean the struggles adolescents face while trying to
choose among various meaningful options or alternatives, whereas commitment
refers to how much an adolescent is willing to invest in the task in order to attain
it. Marcia has conceptualized four types of identity formation (Fig. 1.a) which
have been elaborated below.

Commitment

I have thought about I made a choice

it and I know what without thinking.
I should do in
my life, with
my life.
Identity Identity
Achieved Foreclosed
Crisis and No crisis & no
exploration exploration
Moratorium Identity
Diffused

I am still I don’t know & I don’t

thinking really care what I am
about what I supposed to do with
should do my life.

No
commitment

Figure 1aF : Marcia’s Theory of Identity Status

Now let us describe each of these identity status below.

Status 1 - Identity Diffusion

This means low commitment to a particular identity. Youth who are usually 12-
18 years of age or even beyond, can be diffused – wherein they are unable to
commit to a particular identity. There is low exploration motive as well where
the individual is neither compelled to explore nor commit to any definite direction
in life. There is no responsibility taken for choices or decisions made, often
found endorsing contradictory statements about themselves. The individual does
not show much concern for anything; they are mostly uninterested in ideological
matters. They remain emotionally remote, solitary and almost schizoid. Out of
the four identity statuses, diffused individuals are often found to be lowest in
domains of moral thought and cognitive complexity. They often engage in shallow
relationships; remaining uninvolved.

20
Status 2 - Identity Foreclosure Youth: Concept and Identity

This involves obligation to an identity without passing through any crisis stage.
In other words, there is little exploration of choices. This is usually the case
when parents hand down their tradition of choices and there is no conscious
decision making on part of the individual. The individual is highly committed to
an identity but may feel negative consequences later in life for not being allowed
to choose a path on one’s own. Thus, they seem to be cognitively rigid, especially
when it comes to personal or ideological issues. Their social network helps them
choose their goals and values while the individual gets influenced by the
environment he/she is a part of. Parental goals and their own goals are often
ambiguous and diffuse to them. They become what others intend them to be.
Even though they have positive relations with parents, in case they are in a
situation which is against their parental values, it is quite possible for them to
feel very vulnerable and helpless. These individuals seem rejecting or
disinterested in those who are dissimilar to themselves.

Status 3 - Identity Moratorium

This is a stage of vigorous exploration, but low commitment to any specific
identity. They seek out different opportunities and choices in life to discover the
path best suited for them. They are known to have more intense yet briefer
relationships, often found to be vacillating between extreme concern for others
or total self-absorption. Adolescents and young adults come to conflicting terms
with authority figures as they explore their identity. While they are struggling,
they need to strike a balance between their parental wishes, the societal demands
or their own capabilities/skills and talents. They tend to have engaging, intense
relationships with people of authority, whenever questioned in terms of their
identity. They do best when given freedom to explore and receive guidance and
support from family members.

Status 4 - Identity Achievement

The individual has undergone crisis and genuinely explored before making a
commitment to a particular identity. Thus, moratorium stage leads one to the
achieved status where the individual has high commitment with regard to chosen
identity. People with identity achievement status have carefully analyzed several
occupational choices and reevaluated past notions – they have gone through a
crisis phase and they have chosen an occupation and ideology best suited for
them after exploring. They do not care whether their decisions meet conflicting
ideas of parents. They seem to function at high levels of moral reasoning, are
tolerant of ambiguity and also are more capable of intimacy. They appear solid,
are directed yet flexible whenever stimulated by any compelling thought of action.

The above two theories elaborate on the personal aspects of identity. Personal
identity defines the individual’s uniqueness. It helps us understand how one’s
self is different from the other. Social aspects of identity are those defining
features which help us distinguish between the groups we belong to (called in-
groups) from that of others (called out-groups).

You will learn more about the concept of identity in youth in the subsequent
Unit 3.

21
Introduction
Self Assessment Questions III
Match the following:
1) identity achievement a) no exploration, no commitment
2) identity diffusion b) ongoing exploration, no commitment
3) identity moratorium c) explored and then committed
4) foreclosure d) not explored, but committed
Fill in the blanks:
1) ................................. is the fifth stage of Erickson’s psychosocial theory
of development.
2) Youth with ........................................... identity status usually identify with
their parental goals.
3) .............................. identity defines individual’s uniqueness, while
........................ identity is defined by individual’s group memberships.
4) Identity is defined as perception of .................... and continuity of one’s
existence in time and space by Erikson.
5) .....................................stage of identity gradually leads to identity
achievement.

1.4.3 Indicators of Identity

Forming an identity is an important task when the individual chooses their values
and beliefs, their gender orientation, their occupation, and social standing in the
world. They constantly face vast variety of choices as well as negotiate the
given aspects of identity like ethnicity, religion or caste.

Thus my identity could be marked by my unique psychological features like my

values, preferences and my ideology, as well as by my social category of
belongingness like religion, gender, race etc. we can have multiple indicators of
identity.

Here it may be noted that Social identity is usually defined as that part of an
individual’s self-concept that derives from knowledge of his or her membership
in a social group and results from social categorization. Social categorization
typically results in the classification of the self into a particular group. For
example, a man may think of himself primarily as being male in some situations,
whereas in other situations, he may think of himself primarily as being an Indian.
Thus an individual has multiple “social identities” due to their group memberships
along different dimensions of human diversity. Social identity refers to the aspects
of the self-image that derive from these group memberships. In other words, it
is an individual’s perception of what defines the “us” associated with any group
membership that has been internalized (like defining one’s self as, “I am an
atheist” if one identifies with a group of people who do not believe in God).
This is different from the notion of personal identity which refers to self-
knowledge that derives from the individual’s unique attributes (like defining
oneself as a seeker if one thinks one is defined by this quality).
22
Below are given some of the indicators of identity that influence the identity Youth: Concept and Identity
development of the youth.

a) Caste
Most of our conceptualization of caste comes from the Vedic “varna” and
thousands of “jatis”. The varnas in the Vedic period were occupational
divisions in the society. The priestly class was classified as Brahmans, the
warriors and nobles as Kshatriyas, the tradesmen and artisans as Vaishyas
and the labourers as Shudras. This categorization by virtue of exclusion
also created a fifth class, the untouchables and tribal people. The
conceptualization of jatis is far more complicated. These are fluid categories
which can depend upon occupational roles (like jewelers, business, artisans,
farmers, landlords etc), area of living (regional or geographical), the varna
and religion. Caste names often describe castes’ traditional occupation.

While the varna-jati categorization is specific to the Hindu religion, it also

applies across other religions. For Christians and Sikhs, their varna-jati
categorization is based on the last family member before the conversion.
The Muslim community too has their own caste.

These caste categories are important markers of identity in Indian context.

Due to the longstanding casteism in India that has been extremely oppressive,
a number of affirmative actions have been started for people who had been
marginalized owing to their low caste identity. One such action is reservation
of seats in educational institutions and jobs.

b) Class
Another marker for identity is social class, which is an embodiment of
social and economic status. It is also referred to as socio-economic status.

Figure 1bF : Different Identity Indicators in India 23

Introduction Class incorporates one’s income, education, and occupational prestige. One
can identify as middle-class, upper-class, lower-middle-class, lower-class,
or poor as an identity label. Social class is also reflected in one’s life style
as well as occupational categories, like labourer, white collar job, class IV
employee, bureaucrat etc. It has an inbuilt hierarchy in itself, and is also
associated with caste in Indian context.

c) Gender
One of the significant markers of one’s identity is gender. It is different
from sex as the latter indicates one’s biological sex, whereas gender includes
the attitudes, feelings, and behaviours assigned to a person’s biological sex
by the particular society and culture. Thus socialization plays an important
role in influencing one’s gender roles. Gender roles refer to the behaviour
and personality patterns associated with the particular sex, male or female,
in a given culture. It may be noted here that the person may exhibit gender
roles that may not be commensurate with the assigned biological sex, e.g.,
a girl may show boy-like behaviour, dress up like boys and engage in
activities deemed more appropriate for boys by the society. If the behavior
is according to the cultural expectations and meets the norms of the culture,
it is known as gender-normative; and if the behaviors do not follow the
cultural norms and expectations, they are called as gender non-conformity.

Since youth is the stage when one’s gender identity is taking its final shape,
it is necessary to consider it as to how does it shape the youth’s identity.
Gender identity may or may not correspond to a person’s sex assigned at
birth or to a person’s primary or secondary sex characteristics. Rather, it
refers to the personal orientation of the individual and is not influenced by
societal norms. Thus, a person can have an inherent sense of being a male
or female or the third gender. Since it is internal, it is not visible to others.
An individual’s gender expression or presentation, including physical
appearance and behavior that communicates aspects of gender or gender
role may or may not conform to a person’s gender identity.

Gender identity is different from sexual orientation. Gender identity refers

to who you feel like, e.g., a boy or a girl; whereas sexual orientation refers
to who you are attracted to sexually. You may feel like a male and you feel
sexually attracted towards males. There may be other variations also in the
transgender spectrum that you may identify with. In majority of the cases,
there is congruence between the biological assigned sex and the gender
identity of the person, e.g., you are born as a female and you identify yourself
with being a female. However, there are also cases where one’s gender
identity and biological sex are not congruent. Transgender is someone whose
gender identity or gender expression does not match with the gender assigned
at birth according to what society deems normative based on external
biological sex characteristics. The population statistics of India indicate
that out of the total population of 124.72 crores (2011 census), 4.88 lakhs
are transgenders. This was the first time that the data on transgender was
collected in the census, which also indicates their growing visibility. The
term gender queer is also used here which refers to a person whose gender
24
 identity falls outside of the gender binary (i.e. identifies with neither woman Youth: Concept and Identity
nor man or identifies with both genders). Queer is one whose gender identity,
sexual orientation or gender expression does not conform to the dominant
societal norms.

As mentioned earlier, gender non-conformity refers to when there is a

discrepancy between gender expression/gender identity and the gender
norms associated with the assigned sex at birth with the associated gender
role and/or primary and secondary sex characteristics. This leads to
discomfort and distress in the individual which is called gender dysphoria.

Thus we can see that gender is an important indicator of identity of youth

and we need to understand it in terms of the particular societal and cultural
expectations. You will learn more about gender and identity in Unit 6.

d) Religion
India is a land of multiple religions. Religious identity is one of the foremost
social identities as it comprises of one’s belief systems and practices. Many
aspects of our lives are governed by one’s religion. The 2011 census reports
that 79.8% of the Indian population follow Hinduism, followed by Islam
which is practiced by 14.2% of Indian population. Christianity (2.3%),
Sikhism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%) and Jainism (0.4 %) are the other major
religions followed by the people of India. For some people religious identity
is not salient as they either do not believe in any one particular religion, or
are atheist. Think about your own self and discover for yourself how much
your religion contributes to your identity. You need to keep in mind that
religious identity is different from religiosity. One can give salience to one’s
religious identity for instance as a Christian, yet not participate in rituals
like Sunday mass. However, the same person would ascribe to strongly
held notions of the said religion and believe in sharing and helping others
and celebrate festivals associated with Christianity.

e) Ethnicity
Ethnicity refers to a group of people that share common characteristics like
language, culture, region, traditions, religion, and tribal or national origin.
India is a country of multiple ethnicities. Ethnicity involves a feeling of
consciousness among the ethnic group members that such shared
characteristics exist. Some examples of ethnicity include tribal groups like
Bhil (of Madhya Pradesh), Khasi (of Assam and Meghalaya), Gonds (of
Madhya Pradesh and Bihar), Lepchas (of Sikkim); regional identities like
purabiya, Bihari, Keralite, Delhite; linguistic identities like Malyali,
Tamilian, Bengali, Oriya.

There could be other salient markers of one’s identity like one’s nationality,
the sports team one belongs to, one’s educational institution etc. In the
above section we have outlined only a few markers that have been
traditionally established to be important in defining ones identity.

25
Introduction
Activity 1: Create your Social Identity Wheel

Description:

Reflect on the group memberships that you have. Make a list of them. Which
amongst these are really important to you? Think about the different roles
that you play, who you are as a person, what you mean to others. Write these
too. Now answer the following questions:
What four identities are most salient (important) to you? Why are they
salient?
How each of your social identities have influenced your experiences of
who you are, and how you see yourself?
What four identities do you think others see first when they see you?
How each of your social identities have influenced how others see and
treat you?
Do you think you have accrued some benefits as a result of each of your
social identities? What are the benefits experienced?
What are the disadvantages or costs that you have experienced as a result
of each of your social identities?
What areas of your identity wheel were difficult for you to arrive at?
Why?Based on your answers you can complete your identity wheel. The
identity wheel worksheet can be found here:
https://counseling.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/bam-1-wheel.pdf

Figure 1cF : Identity Wheel

1.4.4 Multiplicity of Identity

It won’t be wrong to say that we are as many selves as
we have relationships.
26
Our self-concept is determined by social Youth: Concept and Identity
relationships and situational factors. “There are as many selves
as the number of groups we
belong to”

-William James

However, these multiple selves need to be

combined into an integrated whole to have an intact development.

“But the concept of the self loses its meaning if a person has multiple
selves…the essence of self involves integration of diverse experiences
into a unity…In short, unity is one of the defining features of selfhood
and identity.”

- Roy Baumeister

Since we are a part of multiple social groups, we have multiple social identities.
Our identity is fluid and takes the form of the predominant role that one is playing.
For example, a woman who is a mother as well as a police officer adopts the
identity of a parent/mother when she visits her child’s school for parent teacher’s
meeting. The moment she enters her place of work, her identity as a police
officer becomes salient. The salience of one social identity over another becomes
a deciding factor that influences the development of an individual. These identities
thus shape the experiences, expectations and the reality of youth as they grow
up. For instance, a dalit student growing up in Delhi who is a female is
simultaneously affiliating to three social identities: that of a dalit, a female and
a Delhi-ite. If this individual grows up in high-end neighbourhood, goes to an
elite school and is always provided with all the basic necessities, her identity of
a Delhi-ite (or a person growing in a metropolitan city) would be a salient force
in shaping her. If she grows up in an environment of bullying where her caste
identity is made fun of, then her caste identity would become the social identity
that shapes her significantly.
How these multiple identities interact with each other impacts the adjustment of
the individual. If an individual is conflicted about two aspects of his/her identity
like being a homosexual and belonging to an orthodox religious group, his life
experiences would bear its brunt. Observation of the dynamics of such
interactions show:
a) a positive feelings towards one’s social identity contributes to one’s
wellbeing (like one is happy being an IGNOU student);
b) strong group identity can shield against perceived threats of affiliating with
that identity, for example, discrimination (like if I identify strongly with
being a woman, I would be able to stand against discrimination against
women, and would not be bothered by menacing remarks);
c) national and ethnic identity are orthogonal in nature i.e. ethnic identity is
unrelated to national identity (for example my being a Malyali has no
relationship with my identity as an Indian), 27
Introduction d) an individual with diverse ethnic and national identity, say a Kashmiri Indian,
will have better psychological wellbeing if the individual adopt bicultural
identity.

Self Assessment Questions IV

1) List four religious identity groups in India.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
2) What were the four major caste divisions?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
3) How is gender different from sex?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
4) What is gender dysphoria?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

1.5 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we discussed the concept of identity in youth. Before that we learned
what is youth and how it is defined in different contexts. Socio-cultural, economic
and legal perspectives of youth were described. Two main theories by Erikson
and Marcia were discussed highlighting the youth identity. Various indicators
of identity in youth were pointed out and their role in the development of the
28 youth was explained.
 Youth: Concept and Identity
1.6 KEY WORDS
Youth : Youth is defined by the United Nations as those people
belonging to the age group of 15 to 24 years.

Identity : Identity can be defined in psychological terms, as the

perception of the self-sameness and continuity of one’s
existence in time and space (Erikson, 1968).

Social identity : Social identity is usually defined as that part of an

individual’s self-concept that derives from knowledge
of his or her membership in a social group and results
from social categorization.

Gender roles : Gender roles refer to the behaviour and personality

patterns associated with the particular sex, male or
female, in a given culture.

Gender identity : Gender identity refers to the personal orientation of the

individual and is not influenced by societal norms. It
may or may not correspond to a person’s sex assigned
at birth or to a person’s primary or secondary sex
characteristics.

1.7 ANSWERS TO SELF – ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions I

1) F 2) F 3) T 4) F

Self Assessment Questions II

1) The environmental systems that affect development according to
Bronfenbrenner include microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem and chronosystem.
2) Demographic dividend is the economic growth that occurs because of the
shifts in the age structure of a working population of a country.
3) “Age of criminal responsibility” in the juvenile justice system is the age
below which a person is completely immune from any criminal liability
because the person lacks psychological maturity and judgement to
understand the consequences of his/her actions.
4) Skill building in youth is necessary in order to make them more productive
and thus reap the demographic dividend.

Self Assessment Questions III

Match the following:
1) c; 2) a; 3) b; 4) d

29
Introduction Fill in the blanks
1) Identity versus identity confusion
2) Foreclosure
3) Personal, social
4) Self-sameness
5) Moratorium

Self Assessment Questions IV

1) Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism
2) Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra
3) Sex is a biological category and is given to an individual by birth, while
gender is socially constructed and it develops as an individual grows.
4) Gender dysphoria is the misalignment of an individual’s physical or assigned
gender and the gender with which he/she/they identifies, and the resulting
psychological conflict and distress.

1.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the concept of youth.
2) Discuss Bronfennbrenner’s perspective on youth.
3) Explain the concept of multiplicity of identity.
4) Discuss the identity development in youth according to Erikson’s
psychosocial theory.

1.9 REFERENCES
Banks, N. (2015). Understanding youth: towards a psychology of youth poverty
and development in sub-saharan African cities. University of Manchester Brooks
World Poverty Institute Working Paper 216. ISBN: 978-1-909336-34-6. http://
hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/institutes/gdi/publications/workingpapers/bwpi/
bwpi-wp-21615.pdf
Bhatia, S. (2014). The minimum age of criminal responsibility in India: is it to
be blamed for the increasing youth crime? Rostrum’s Law Review, 2 (1) retrieved
from https://rostrumlegal.com/journal/the-minimum-age-of-criminal-
responsibility-in-india-is-it-to-be-blamed-for-the-increasing-youth-crime-by-
stuti-bhatia/ on 09-03-18
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human
development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology,22 (6), 723-
742. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.22.6.72
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2004). Making Human Beings Human: Bioecological
Perspectives on Human Development; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.
CAH, WHO. Orientation Programme on Adolescent Health for Health-Care
Providers. Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development (CAH),
30 World Health Organization.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. New York: Norton. Youth: Concept and Identity

https://counseling.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/bam-1-wheel.pdf
http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-definition.pdf
Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 3 (5), 551.
Marcia, J. E. (1980).Identity in adolescence. Handbook of adolescent psychology,
9 (11), 159-187.
Youth in India (2017). Youth in India. A report published by Central Statistics
Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of
India (Social Statistics Division). Retrieved on 1st March 2018 from http://
mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/Youth_in_India-2017.pdf

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Berk, L. E. (2010). Child Development (9th Ed.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall.

Brown, B. B., R. Larson, & T. S. Saraswathi. (2002).The world’s youth:

Adolescence in eight regions of the globe. New York: Cambridge University
Press. (Chapters 1 & 2).

31
Introduction
UNIT 2 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF
YOUTH*

Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Concept of Development
2.4 Aspects of Development
2.5 Developmental Aspects of Youth: Adolescence Years
2.5.1 Developmental Tasks of Adolescence
2.6 Physiological/Physical Development of Youth: Adolescence Years
2.7 Cognitive Development of Youth: Adolescence Years
2.8 Emotional and Social Development of Youth: Adolescence Years
2.8.1 Body Image
2.8.2 Peer Relations
2.8.3 Parent-Child Relation
2.9 Moral Development of Youth: Adolescence Years
2.10 Developmental Aspects of Youth: Early Adulthood Years
2.10.1 Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood
2.11 Physiological/Physical Development of Youth: Early Adulthood Years
2.11.1 Sexual Development
2.12 Cognitive Development of Youth: Early Adulthood Years
2.13 Emotional Development of Youth: Early Adulthood Years
2.14 Social Development of Youth: Early Adulthood Years
2.14.1 Close Relationships
2.14.2 Friendships
2.14.3 Loneliness
2.15 Moral Development of Youth: Early Adulthood Years
2.16 Let Us Sum Up
2.17 Key Words
2.18 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
2.19 Unit End Questions
2.20 References
2.21 Suggested Readings

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through the Unit, you will be able to:
Know the adolescent and young adult stages of development;
Describe the developmental tasks in these stages;

32 * Dr. Shivantika Sharad, Assistant Professor in Psychology, Vivekananda College, New Delhi
 Explain different aspects of development (physical, cognitive, socio- Developmental Aspects of
Youth
emotional, moral); and
Understand specific obstacles individuals face in each aspect.

2.2 INTRODUCTION
Youth years are the formative years of an adult, where most of the foundation
for future development is laid. In order to contribute to the successful
development of youth and also to devise effective youth development programs,
it is essential to have a thorough understanding of the physiological, physical,
emotional, social, cognitive and moral development of youth. Knowledge about
the diverse facets of physical and psychological development of youth facilitates
work of psychologists, social workers, clinicians, psychiatrists, policy makers
and government agencies. In this Unit we will learn some important theories
that explain developmental aspects of youth as well as their key developmental
tasks and challenges.

2.3 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT

Development has been defined as a pattern of change that begins at conception
and continues throughout the life span (Santrock, 1998). The key word in
development is ‘change’. Nonetheless ‘stability’ or ‘constancy’ is also an
important part of growing up. The newer aspects that we acquire as we grow,
stabilizes to some extent and defines who we are as an individual at any given
point of time. Apart from this, development is not just about growth or gains but
also about decline and losses. As we grow our brain matures and so does our
thinking. At the same time, we also see decline in certain childhood habits like
thumb sucking. In older people their wisdom keeps on growing as they age,
while their memory might deteriorate. Overall we can say that development is
all about learning, maturing and adapting. Development is a lifelong process.
We keep changing and evolving throughout our lifespan. This development can
be gradual or rapid, and its pace varies from individual to individual. It is
influenced by the context or culture in which the individual is embedded. The
context is defined by one’s family, school, socio-economic status, one’s
nationality, culture, traditions and practices.

2.4 ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

Development is multi-dimensional. This means that development occurs in varied
domains. It is not just about physical growth, but other aspects of growth as
well. These dimensions include:
Physical/ Biological/Physiological: This aspect of development comprises
of any change in the individual’s physical nature and functioning. For
instance, increase in height, weight, changes in physical features, brain
development etc.
Cognitive: It implies changes in an individual’s thinking, learning,
intelligence, language, attention, memory, academic abilities, knowledge,
problem solving, decision making, imagination, creativity etc.

33
Introduction Emotional: Emotional aspects of development incorporate development
of emotional connection or attachment, understanding one’s own self,
development of personality, managing one’s feelings or emotional
regulation. For example, a baby smiles when her mother holds her and
cries on seeing a stranger is a part of infant’s emotional development.
Moral: Development of the ability to reason out right and wrong (moral
reasoning) and behave accordingly (moral behaviour) is a part of one’s
moral development. Our understanding of morality changes as we grow.
When we are kids we regard our parents as our moral compass, when we
grow up we might make universal ethical principles as the bases of our
moral reasoning.
Social: Social development comprises of knowledge about other people,
development of relationships like intimate relationships, friendships etc.,
development of interpersonal skills like communication, empathy etc.
Spiritual: Another dimension of development that has been added includes
spiritual development. It is defined as the development of one’s
consciousness, deeper awareness of one’s self, growing connection with
the transcendent or the Divine and engagement in spiritual practices to find
deeper meaning in life.
It is important to note that these dimensions are not independent and they do not
function in isolation from one another. Understand of the developmental aspects
of youth will equip us to better their lives through socialization, parenting,
education, health care and counselling.
As mentioned in the previous Unit on Concept of Youth, the age group of youth
as per National Youth Policy of India (2014) is 15-29 years. This is quite a broad
age domain, and hence youth is not a homogeneous group. Youth falling in the
lower age group have different concerns and needs, and play different roles and
responsibilities as compared to youth at the upper age limit. An adolescent of 15
years has different developmental issues as compared to a young adult of 20-21
or an adult of 29 years of age. Each stage of development has specific markers.
Thus it is necessary to divide the entire youth age bracket into sub groups to
have a better understanding of their respective developmental issues:
a) The first sub-group of 15-19 years: It covers adolescence. Contemporary
researchers conceptualize adolescence as a period ranging from 10 to 24
(Sawyer, Azzopardi, Wickremarathne, and Patton, 2018). Reaching puberty
at an early age due to improvement in nutrition intake has accelerated the
onset of adolescence. At the same time, due to many social transitions like
delayed completion of education, late marriages etc., the period of
adolescence extends much beyond the 20s. Thus, this period of transition
from childhood to adulthood has been expanded and now covers significant
portions of our entire life span.
b) The second sub-group of 19-29 years: This period has been classified by
Arnett (2000) as emerging adulthood. It includes young adults in the process
of completing their education and initiating their career through job. By the
end of this time period, adults mostly have a relatively stable career and
34 relationships.
We should remember that these sub-groups have been created for the purpose of Developmental Aspects of
Youth
understanding developmental aspects of youth in detail. The classification has
fuzzy boundaries. For instance, adolescence has been broadly divided into three
periods by developmental psychologists – early adolescence (11-14 years),
middle adolescence (15-17 years), and late adolescence (18-21 years). At the
same time, individuals in the age group of 20 - 24 years are also referred to as
young adults.

2.5 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF YOUTH:

ADOLESCENCE YEARS
The developmental phase that serves as an intermediary between childhood and
adulthood is called adolescence. This is a dynamic phase. Adolescence is a
transition from rapid and flexible phase of development (childhood) to a less
plastic and more settled phase (adulthood). Early scientific literature in this area
suggested that adolescence is the period from the age of 10 to 19. Contemporary
literature, however, differs. Millennium has ushered in technology, globalization
of the culture and a workforce that was a product of both of these. Throughout
the globe the age of sexual maturation has started declining as a result of improved
healthcare systems. As self-exploration became a norm, the social roles which
were considered the telltale sign of reaching adulthood (getting married, having
fixed jobs, childrearing) have been pushed further ahead in the lifetime. Thus
individuals are recognized as active agents of their own development. As a result,
the contemporary definition of adolescence is much more plastic, spanning from
10 years and going on to the mid-20s.

2.5.1 Developmental Tasks of Adolescence

Developmental tasks are tasks that are specific to each of the stages in the human
life span. Havighurst (1972) has described developmental tasks at each of the
stages of development. These tasks are shaped by societal expectations from the
individual and societal norms, e.g., learning to read and write is an important
developmental task of middle childhood. Following are some important
developmental tasks during adolescence.
a) Mature relationships: The phase of adolescence ushers in a new ability to
understand and relate to others. Relationships formed in this stage set the
stage for future relationships and thereby it is essential to achieve new and
mature relations with age-mates of both sexes during this stage.
b) Social roles: A big part of adolescence is to recognize and realize one’s
gender identity. What follows this is a concentrated attempt to fulfil the
social roles laid out by the specific culture for the given gender.
c) Accepting one’s body: Adolescence is synonymous with a sea-change in
one’s body. A part of going through this phase is to develop a sense of
acceptance and ownership towards one’s body. For certain segments of the
society (transgender people and eunuchs) this task and the one
mentioned above overlap greatly as they fall out of the spectrum of male or
female and struggle to make sense of their bodies and find a place in the
society.
35
Introduction
Forming
Mature
relationship
Acquiring
socially Achieving
responsible social roles
behaviour

Acquiring
values & Developmental Accepting
ethics Tasks one’s body

Acquiring Being
relevant emotionally
skills independent
Preparing
for career

Figure 2aF: Developmental Tasks of Adolescence

d) Emotional independence: Adolescents begin by moving their emotional

expectations away from parents. As they grow they must find an enduring
emotional anchor within themselves, independent from parents and other
adults.

e) Preparing for an economic career: Adolescents increasingly continue to

make choices which narrow down their fields of interest and effectively
choose their career paths for adulthood.

f) Acquiring skills: This phase of development also witnesses adolescents

picking up vocational activities and equipping themselves with skills needed
for productive occupation.

g) Acquiring values and an ethical system: By the end of adolescence,

individuals have developed a functional identity and have also started
making moral judgments in accordance with the stage of post conventional
morality of Kohlberg. These individuals have forged their own set of guiding
principles and an ideology to serve as a roadmap for their behaviour.

h) Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour: At the end of

this stage, individuals are at the threshold of adulthood. This affords them
freedom but also requires them to be conscientious members of society.

2.6 PHYSIOLOGICAL/PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

OF YOUTH: ADOLESCENCE YEARS
Adolescents experience striking physical growth and development. It is
characterized by a major physical developmental milestone – that of the onset
36
of puberty and the myriad changes it brings along. A phase of rapid growth, Developmental Aspects of
Youth
called the growth spurt, precedes the onset of puberty.
Physical Development in Adolescent Girls: Sexual maturity in girls is
evolutionarily aimed at making them adept for producing and rearing children.
The body gets ready to produce an offspring by starting the cycle of ovulation
and menstruation. Secondary growth characteristics involve development of
breasts, appearance of coarse hair in the under arms and pubic regions. There is
increase in the body’s muscle mass which is devoted to the limbs and the hip
bones widen in order to add curves associated with the female body. While the
average age of attaining puberty differs greatly from region to region, a worldwide
trend of gradually decreasing age of menarche has been observed. In India,
recently girls as young as 8 and 9 years old have been reported to hit menarche
with the previous recorded average being between 13 and 14 years. This has
been called the secular trend, i.e. with improved health and nutrition
(nurturance), the body gets prepared for its sexual roles sooner.
Motor development is refined in girls as they experience the growth spurt, but
stagnates as the period of growth comes to a halt (i.e. the age of 14). This
corresponds with the diminishing participation of girls in athletic activities and
segregated physical educations for the sexes.
Physical Development in Adolescent Boy: Sexual maturity in boys is
evolutionarily aimed at making them able for defending their territory and tribe.
The growth begins around the age of 13 (when the girl’s growth is about to
come to an end). There is an increase in the size of the testes, prostate gland and
seminal vesicles (all together responsible for the production and transportation
of sperms and semen respectively). Secondary sexual characteristics in boys
include growth of hair on the face, in the underarm region and the pubic area.
The larynx or the voice box enlarges resulting in a deeper voice.
Boys experience a rapid growth phase with increase in the heart and lung capacity
coupled with an enormous growth in skeletal muscles. This reflects in the
enormous growth of their motor abilities.
Some differences in male and female development during puberty can be seen
in Table 2aT below:
Table 2aT: Difference in Male and Female Development during Puberty
Event Girls Boys
Growth Spurt 10yrs 12yrs
Menarche (for girls) 11-13 yrs 12-14yrs
and Spermarche (for boys)
Action of sex hormones Widening of the Addition of larger
on body pelvic girdle, skeletal muscles,
addition of fat in increased heart and
the arms, legs and lung capacity
trunk
Pace of growth Slow and gradual Rapid
Growth stops by 14 Continues till the end
of teens
Sleep requirement More than 9 hours More than 9 hours
37
Introduction
MORE TO KNOW
Why does our height stop growing after a certain age?
Why do girls develop curves as they attain puberty but boys don’t?
A part of the maturation is the widening of the hip bones. The hip is guarded
by three fused pelvic bones which widen because of female hormones. This
happens to facilitate pushing the baby out of the womb. Another part of female
maturation is the development of breasts. Coupled with the addition of muscle
mass in the limbs, females develop bodies which have curves. Since there is
no such adaptation required in the bodies of the male counterparts, they
continue to grow without curves.

Self Assessment Questions I

1) How is puberty different for males and females?
..................................................................................................................
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..................................................................................................................
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2) Mention three major developmental tasks of adolescence.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
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..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
3) What does the term “secular trend” mean?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

2.7 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH:

ADOLESCENCE YEARS
By cognitive development we mean development of abilities to think, process
information, make decisions, solve problems etc. During early adolescence/early
teens cognitive abilities are largely governed by concrete thinking, egocentrism,
and impulsive behaviour. Gradually, abstract reasoning starts to develop. The
actions are no longer impulsive, but well thought out.
38
Cognitive development can be seen as a two-pronged growth, i.e., the growth of Developmental Aspects of
Youth
a) cognitive processes and b) cognitive abilities. One of the significant theories
of cognitive development provided by Piaget conceptualizes cognitive
development in four stages (see figure 2bf below). This model talks about distinct
cognitive processes achieved at every consecutive phase. Adolescents have
entered Piaget’s final stage. They may consider themselves invincible and often
still display impulsive behaviours.

Figure 2bF: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Let us first discuss the new abilities that adolescents attain according to Piaget’s
stages of cognitive development. Jean Piaget viewed children as little scientists
who actively engaged with their environment and constructed their own
understanding. He saw cognitive development as a process with discreet stages,
with each stage corresponding to the attainment of superior cognitive skills.

According to Piaget, adolescents have entered the formal operational stage.

Individuals attain the following abilities in this stage:

Deductive reasoning: This is the ability to draw specific conclusions from

generalized statements.

Abstract or propositional thought: The ability to conceptualize and

evaluate concepts which are outside the bounds of objective, testable reality.
Before this stage individuals deal with concrete things. This stage opens up
the possibility for them to mentally manipulate intangible things like – being
able to recognize patterns in a random set, being able to formulate theories,
being able to understand multiple underlying meaning in a single statement.
For instance, the child at this stage would be able to understand that when
asked not to play for too long because it is “bad” is an idea that can be
challenged; that playing isn’t inherently bad as long as the homework is
finished and it isn’t unsafe.

Metacognition: The ability to think about one’s own thoughts. Individuals

at this stage are able to consciously recognize their own thoughts (“What
am I thinking?”), regulate them, use them to assess one’s abilities (“I don’t
like History and I didn’t score very well during the last test. I should put in
more effort this time.”) and solve problems using this insight (“Okay, let
me see. I need to make 24 out 4, 5, 9, 12, using +, -, * and / symbols. Let me
test and try different alternatives.”)
39
Introduction Systematic problem-solving: This ability evolves from the pre-operational
ability to use trial and error method of solving problems. Now the individual
uses a set of systematic steps to solve problems. For instance in the above
math problem, an adolescent will quickly take out factors to know which
numbers can be multiplied or divided to achieve the result and which
numbers would take them farther away from the goal; rather than proceeding
in a haphazard manner.

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning also assists

individuals to construct and test hypotheses. A hypothesis is a theory or a
proposition of the structure “If A then B”. Individuals are able to mentally
thinking of multiple possibilities for an action (If A then B, C, D) and
systematically test how accurate the propositions are.

MORE TO KNOW
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

Meaning To draw generalized conclusions To draw specific conclusions from

from specific statements. generalized statements.

Example When a mother asks her baby boy When a mother asks her child to
to say “Namaste” to his not “mess around” when there are
grandparents and neighbours, the guests at home, the child’s ability
child’s ability to draw a general to draw a specific conclusion that
conclusion that he is supposed to spreading toys, shouting and
say “Namaste” to elderly people running are a part of making a mess
as a greeting is inductive reasoning. is deductive reasoning.

Now let us try to understand how the cognitive processes enhance as we grow
with the help of another theoretical framework called information processing
model. This model likens the human mind to a computer or an information
processor which takes in information, processes it, stores it and uses it for further
analysis and understanding. Different processes help this computer to function.
As we reach the stage of adolescence, these processes are enhanced for peak
functionality. These processes are:

Attention and Memory: Individuals are better adapted to the attentional

requirements and differentiate between relevant and irrelevant stimuli. In a
stark contrast from the pre-nursery students who have to be engaged
rigorously and still fail at staying seated and focused, adolescents
increasingly develop attention to sit for one and two hour lectures. They
can also continue to focus on their object of interest, even with distractions
around. They use memory strategies to enhance their retention and recall
of stored information. Research shows that the brain continues to grow
through adolescence even into early adulthood, and therefore memory
(particularly working memory) continues to develop during adolescence.

Cognitive self-regulation: With the development of meta-cognition,

individuals are better accustomed to recognize, alter and regulate their
thinking. For instance, when an individual recognizes a thought pattern,
they have the agency to exercise control on that thought (“I am too worried
about tomorrow’s test and can’t stop thinking about it. Maybe I should
distract myself.”).
40
 Processing capacity: As a combined effect of brain development and Developmental Aspects of
Youth
abstract thought, individuals are able to hold more information and
efficiently manipulate and organize it. This process includes forming new
schemas or connections between existing information, concepts and
categories.

2.8 EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

OF YOUTH: ADOLESCENCE YEARS
Middle adolescence is characterized by increasing detachment from family and
the development of deep bonds with peers (see Figure 2cF). Teens gradually
become less dependent on family and an emotional separation from parents
occurs.

Decreasing
influence the
family

Increasing
influence of
friends

Figure 2cF: Social Development Trend in Adolescents

2.8.1 Body Image

Adolescents also adapt to new body image as well as to their emerging sexuality.
Body image is a mental representation – our perception of our body type, how
we look and our physical attractiveness. Physical growth leads them to be
preoccupied with their bodies. Adolescent girls who mature early struggle to
deal with their changing bodies and might even experience name-calling.
Adolescent boys who mature later than their peers too deal with negative peer
reactions and bullying. Negative experiences during this period, particularly
relating to the body lead to psychological conditions such as body image issues,
eating disorders, internalised shame regarding the gender or sexual identity.

This is also a phase of significant identity development as discussed in Unit 1.

Adolescents become acutely conscious of the need to have a distinct identity,
while at the same time struggling to be accepted by their peers. Greater cognitive
development means a better understanding of available choices and decision
making. As discussed above, this leads to conflicts regarding personal freedom
with parents. Peer influence is a dominant psychosocial issue during adolescence,
especially during the early stages. Adolescents also start investing in hobbies as
an attempt to both socialise and increase their competencies.

41
Introduction 2.8.2 Peer Relations
Adolescents usually associate within small groups of five to seven individuals
with similar backgrounds, thoughts and values. These smaller groups are called
cliques. When a number of cliques come together and are loosely organised
they are referred to as crowds. These small and large groups provide individuals
with emotional support and security throughout this phase of development. It
has also been seen that friendships are significantly different for boys and girls.
While the former come together for events and activities (for instance, a game
of football), girls come together to share experiences (Burhmister, 1996).
Friendships play a pivotal protective role throughout adolescence and pave the
way for future expectations and relationships.

Another form of relating to the peer is through dating and romantic relationship
which is perceived differently across cultures. Some Western cultures have a
transparent and encouraging atmosphere towards such relationships; Eastern
cultures on the other hand are perceived to be hostile towards them. This
phenomenon is however very different for individuals who do not belong to the
heterosexual majority. Sexual minorities are grappling with the reality of their
respective sexualities. The transgender individuals are faced with hostility and
disdain for their “wrongly” growing bodies. Dating for such individuals is either
an attempt to renounce their inner identities (for example, when LGBT individuals
try dating in a hetero-normative fashion) or a fearful journey in which they risk
exposing themselves for ridicule and bullying.

2.8.3 Parent-Child Relation

As mentioned above, adolescence is a phase of individuals seeking emotional
separation from their parents while their cognitive abilities make them more
argumentative. This puts the onus on parents to balance between handholding
and giving freedom. Parents invest greatly in the child’s early development and
help the formation of key habits and values. At this phase however, they are
required to acknowledge their child’s identity and start moderating the level of
control they exercise. Based on the dimensions of control/demandingness and

42 Figure 2dF: Parenting Styles by Baumrind

responsiveness, Baumrind (1991) has classified four types of parenting styles Developmental Aspects of
Youth
as given below in Figure 2dF. Adolescents struggle to establish themselves as
independent thinkers who are worthy of respect while still wanting to be loved
and cherished as a child. Hence it is crucial that we understand the different
parenting styles and the need for using an effective parenting style with the
adolescents.

As peer acceptance is a strong need in the adolescents, it also results in acquiring

unhealthy behaviours such as smoking, alcohol consumption, using drugs, and
engaging in irresponsible sexual activities. This mostly occurs during middle
adolescence due to peer pressure. By late adolescence social autonomy, impulse
control and vocational plans start to take shape. Social relationships are
developed. Another challenge of this period is the worldwide practice of bullying.
Bullying in the modern age takes various forms, such as cyber bullying, name-
calling, eve-teasing, sexual exploitation, physical and verbal aggression and
extreme forms of shaming. Victims of bullying go through a range of experiences,
from stress diorder and depression to even suicide.

Self Assessment Questions II

Match the following:
1) Deductive reasoning a) High control, low responsiveness
2) Inductive reasoning b) High control, high responsiveness
3) Authoritative parenting c) Going from specific to generalized
4) Authoritarian parenting d) Going from generalized to specific

2.9 MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH:

ADOLESCENCE YEARS
Development of morality was studied by noted cognitive psychologist Jean
Piaget. As you can see below in Figure 2eF, he posited that morality is either
heteronomous (contingent on the other) or autonomous (views rules as
changeable if need be).

Figure 2eF: Jean Piaget’s Morality Framework

These distinctions were further developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg

who used the method of story-telling to collect data and develop his theory of
moral development. One of his famous story is depicted in the picture below
(Figure 2fF: Heinz Dilemma). He conducted a cross-sectional study to examine
43
Introduction the development of morality across age groups and posited a stage theory of
moral development, comprising of pre-conventional, conventional and post
conventional stage. These stages are depicted in the Figure 2gF.

Figure 2fF: Heinz dilemma used by Kohlberg to arrive at the stage theory of moral
development

Adolescence is usually characterized by conventional morality. Conventional

morality is moral reasoning based on societal do’s and don’t’s. Individuals initially
adopt moral behavior to be perceived as “good” people in the eyes of others
(Conformity) in order to maintain social relationships and later evolve this to a
general stance of upholding laws as a symbol of good morality (Law and order)
to maintain social order.
However, the transition from early to late adolescence sees a shift from
conventional to post-conventional morality. Individuals develop a stronger sense
of self and thereby, a stronger sense of “my values” and “values that are central
to me”. These developments help them adopt a more humanistic view of morality,
valuing human rights and universal human ethics over systemic rules.

44 Figure 2gF: Kohlberg’s Model of Morality

 Developmental Aspects of
Self Assessment Questions III Youth

Identify the stage of moral development for each of the statement below.
1) Heinz decides that stealing the medicine is right thing because his wife
expects him to do so and he doesn’t want to disappoint her.
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..................................................................................................................

2) Heinz decides not to steal the medicine because he doesn’t want to go

against the law.
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..................................................................................................................

3) Heinz decides not to steal the medicine as he doesn’t want to be perceived

as a thief by his friends and family.
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..................................................................................................................

4) Heinz decides to steal the medicine but also go to prison for the crime.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

2.10 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF YOUTH:

EARLY ADULTHOOD YEARS
A significant part of our youth years falls under what developmental psychologists
call early adulthood (a period ranging from 19 to 35 years of age). However, as
stated earlier there are no clear boundaries demarcating adolescence and young
adulthood. In fact, Arnett (2000) classified the period between adolescence and
adulthood as emerging adulthood. The key developmental aspects of early adults
are establishing a secure personal identity that would entail committing one’s
self to certain ideological values and selecting a long term vocation or career,
forming mature friendships and mature intimate relationships, as well as
reorientation of family ties.

2.10.1 Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

Early adulthood usually is a busy time of life, buzzing with a lot of activities.
The developmental tasks of youth include: i) achieving autonomy and making
oneself independent, ii) establishing one’s personal identity, preferences, and
philosophies, iii) becoming more emotionally stable, iv) setting up one’s career
and getting education in that direction, v) developing intimate, long-term
relationships (including marriage and starting a family), vi) setting up a home
and managing a household, vii) becoming a parent, making marital adjustments
and rearing children and viii) becoming active in community life and taking
civic responsibility. Accomplishment of these tasks defines the developmental
aspects of early adults. 45
Introduction
2.11 PHYSIOLOGICAL/PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH: EARLY
ADULTHOOD YEARS
Most young adults aged 19 and above would have completed the process of
physical maturation like attaining full adult height and having secondary sexual
characteristics. The brain development is also more or less complete by the age
of 25 (Health Encyclopedia, University of Rochester Medical Center). Early/
young adults are at the peak of their physiological development. Their organ
systems are functioning at their best. However, by mid to late 30s individuals
start to feel a slight decline in their health, and some signs of ageing set in like a
decline in the time one takes to respond or increase in the time one takes to
recover quickly from physical exertion or reduction in manual dexterity. On the
whole, young adults feel energetic and strong. Yet, this is also the age when they
start using unhealthy substances like alcohol and tobacco, or fall in the trap of
unhealthy lifestyle and eating habits. At this stage, health is more a matter of
behavioural choice than anything else.

2.11.1 Sexual Development

Young adults, who are now fully developed sexually, enter into intimate sexual
and emotional relationships. There is an increasing understanding of their own
sexual orientation. They now also understand that sexuality is connected to
commitment in a relationship. This involves progression to achieving significant
developmental tasks like marriage and bearing children. Men reach the peak of
their sexual responsiveness in their late teens and early twenties. Sexual arousal
can easily occur in response to physical stimulation or fantasizing. Women are
more sexually responsive throughout their 20s and 30s and may peak in the late
30s or early 40s owing to their greater self-confidence and diminished inhibition
about sexuality. For most couples, early adulthood is the time for having
children. However, in urban youth there is an increased tendency towards
delaying marriage until late 20s or early 30s. Education and career is accorded
primary importance during these years in contemporary times. Thus the social
clock of youth seems to be shifting from early adulthood towards mid-adulthood.
Social clock is the term given by Neugarten (1968) which means age graded
expectations regarding major life events like career, marriage, becoming a parent,
buying a house etc. Adherence to social clock patterns helps maintain stability
in the society.

2.12 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH:

EARLY ADULTHOOD YEARS
The young adults usually identify career goals, and prepare themselves to achieve
them. Most of them either pursue higher education or take up a job. They possess
skills with respect to a particular area of work or hobby like computers,
mathematics, science, social science, art etc. They have pronounced
understanding of abstract concepts and decision making skills. They can look at
their own behaviour objectively, are aware of the consequences of their behaviour
as well as their strengths and limitations.
46
As has been discussed in the previous section under cognitive development of Developmental Aspects of
Youth
adolescence, Piaget conceptualized the last stage of cognitive development as
formal operations stage. However, the early adults reach beyond the stage of
formal operational thought, what is referred to as the post-formal thought (Riegel,
1975). Thus abstract thinking is just one characteristic of young/early adults’
thought. With experience of early adults (as compared to adolescents) comes an
understanding that possibilities do not always convert into realities, as their
thinking gets mature and takes into consideration the practicalities. Thus, post-
formal thought is practical, flexible, realistic and dialectic. It is characterized by
the understanding that there could be multiple perspectives of looking at a
problem and that solutions to a problem are context dependent. There is a greater
appreciation of complexity and contradictions that we face in life on a daily
basis. Thus young adults through their dialectical reasoning are able to reconcile
two opposing viewpoints. So, rather than seeing a particular issue as either good
or bad or right or wrong, they tend to look for middle grounds. They become
gradually aware that there is always some degree of goodness or badness in
everything.

Self Assessment Questions IV

State whether the following are True or False.
1) Young adults have ego-centric cognition.
2) Post formal thought refers to understanding that all ideas can become
reality.
3) Young adulthood is marked with physiological decay and decline in
physical abilities.
4) Developing intimate relationships is a developmental task of young
adulthood.

2.13 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH:

EARLY ADULTHOOD YEARS
The emotional and social development is strongly linked during early adulthood.
As discussed in the previous chapter, the young adults deal with the psycho-
social crisis of intimacy versus isolation (Erikson, 1950, 1968). The issue here
is to develop intimate and close relationships with a partner. This stage is marked
by the young adult’s perception that peer groups are less important as
determinants of one’s behaviour (unlike adolescents for whom peers and friends
at times become the second family). Young adults feel empathetic towards others.
They also experience development of romantic and love relationships. It is also
the period when young adults have established a fair sense of their identity,
including their body image. Their relationships with parents mature and is marked
by greater independence.

One of the biggest emotional accomplishments of this stage is gaining adult

status, and is also the reason why at this stage the focus is more on the future.
The striving towards independence and becoming an “adult” reflects in the
developmental tasks discussed above. Launching a career becomes the central
task. This requires attaining critical qualifications, receiving induction training
47
Introduction at the entry level of an organization, or even preparing for being selected in a
job. In India, a lot of youth devote their early 20s in preparing for Civil Services
examinations and examinations for Public sector organizations. However, it is
also a known fact that in our country youth unemployment rates have been high
and pose a serious threat to the development of youth. This stage of building a
career and finding employment can be quite stressful for the youth.

One of the important theories of adulthood has been given by Daniel Levinson,
titled The Seasons of a Man’s Life. Levinson (1978) extended some of Erikson’s
ideas and built on social psychological theory to explain the relationship between
the developing youth and the societal demands. Based on in-depth interviews of
males and females, Levinson (1986) arrived at the understanding that
development is a sequence of seasons (or eras), with each season beginning
with a transition and followed by a phase of stability marked by harmony of
inner self and outer demands. He suggested that period of transition last about
5 years and periods of “settling down” last about 7 years. The phases in the
adult development include the following:

Late Adult Era

Late-adult Transition
Culmination of
middle adulthood

Age 50 Middle Adult Era

transition

Entering middle
adulthood

Midlife Transition

Settling down

Age 30
Transition Early Adult Era

Entering the
adult world

Early Adult Transition

Childhood and Adolescence

Figure 2hF: Levinson’s Seasons of Life Theory

The stages are shown in Figure 2hF above with a) early adult transition: 17–22
years; b) entry life structure for early adulthood (entering the adult world): 22–
28 years, c) age-30 transition: 28–33 years; d) culminating life structure for
early adulthood (settling down): 33–40 years; e) midlife transition: 40–45 years;
f) entry life structure for middle adulthood: 45–50 years; g) age-50 transition:
50–55 years; h) culminating life structure for middle adulthood: 55–60 years; i)
late adult transition: 60–65 years and j) late adulthood: 65 years–death. Now let
us consider in detail the first three phases of early adulthood that comprise youth
years.

1) Early adult transition (17-22): this phase is characterized by leaving home

and parental family, and making first significant choices about career
and education. Young people, at this stage, are working towards autonomy
from their parents and framing a ‘Dream’ of what they hope to become in
life, their vision of their life. Dream is motivational as it guides their efforts
48
 and choices in occupational and personal spheres of life. Levinson posited Developmental Aspects of
Youth
that women held a “split dream” – their dream was both about their future
work/occupation and family life, and coordination of the two.

2) Entering the adult world (22-28) incorporates committing to an occupation,

defining one’s goals and finding intimate, personal relationships.

3) Age 30 transition (28-33): This phase of change entails re-evaluating and

reviewing previous choices about work and relationships. It may also entail
making modifications in one’s attitude toward love and work. Realization
of one’s dreams brings up aspects of its imperfections and deficits. Reality
might not converge with one’s fantasized image. Thus, young adults undergo
a moderate degree of self-questioning – reviewing their dream, the choices
they have made and the problems in their lives.

2.14 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH: EARLY

ADULTHOOD YEARS
Apart from launching one’s career, young adults also explore a new world of
romance. Erikson emphasized that a secure sense of identity fosters attainment
of intimacy. This has also been supported by research evidence. A person’s
commitment to values and goals prepares him/her for interpersonal commitments
as well (Kroger, 2007). Thus career development and investment in intimate
relationships go side by side. Relationships with parents also undergoes
significant change, with increasing importance of independence and
responsibility.

2.14.1 Close Relationships

The quest for intimacy and love leads the young adults to develop close
relationships. Finding romantic love and choosing a romantic partner is another
important task of youth years. Usually people look for similarity in their partners.
A number of biological and social factors influence mate selection. Sternberg
(1986) has offered a triangular theory of love that comprises of three
components which gradually become important as the romantic relationship
progresses. These components are passion (desire for sexual activity and
romance), intimacy (emotional warmth and concern for other’s wellbeing) and
commitment (cognition of being in love and deciding to maintain that love).
Initial period of romantic relationship is characterized by intense sexual attraction
or passionate love. Gradually, passion takes a backseat and companionate
love (of intimacy and commitment) emerges. Love balanced with all the three
components is called consummate love (see Figure 2iF). Commitment is the
element that is necessary for relationships to survive. In western culture
passionate love becomes the basis for marriages, where the individual considers
partner’s uniqueness and his/her autonomy in the relationship. On the other hand,
in Eastern cultures with collectivistic values like China, Japan and India, decision
to marry someone is based on obligations to parents and family members.
Arranged marriages are still very common in these cultures.

49
Introduction

Figure 2iF: Triangular Theory of Love (Sternberg, 1986)

2.14.2 Friendships
In friendships too young adults look for similarity – similarity of age, sex, cultural
and socio-economic background., interests etc. Friendships are necessary for
development as they boost self esteem and provide support and acceptance.
Trust, intimacy, and loyalty form the basis of all relationships. Self disclosure
and sharing is at times more in friendship than in marriage. There are gender
differences in the level of sharing with friends. Females tend to share more with
their friends as compared to males, who share more with their partners. Females
have more long term and more intimate (same sex) friendships as compared to
males.

2.14.3 Loneliness
Many young adults are vulnerable to loneliness that is lack of intimate tie with
a partner or lack of satisfying friendships. Loneliness tends to peak in youth
years, the late teens and early twenties (Rokach, 2001). This is because period
of youth involves change in social groups from school to college to workplace
and necessitates development of new relationships in new settings. Young adults
also desire a perfect relationship from their partners and anything falling short
leads to loneliness. Loneliness triggers search for satisfying relationships.
However, they can also lead to depression in some individuals.
Self Assessment Questions V
State whether the following are True or False:
1) Loneliness is a key feature of old age only.
2) Having a stable career and intimate relationships is a developmental task
for young adulthood.
3) Young adults relate to their parents in a distant and needy manner
Answer the following briefly:
4) What is age 30 transition?
5) What is Sternberg’s triangular theory of love?
50
 Developmental Aspects of
2.15 MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH: EARLY Youth
ADULTHOOD YEARS
The phase of young adulthood ushers in post-conventional morality. As
individuals have formed a stable identity and an independent set of values, they
stop looking outside for moral validation. The stage of post conventional morality
is characterized by understanding the limitations of generalized legal frameworks
and accommodating changes to these laws in specific circumstances (for example,
in Heinz’s case, saving a life is more important than persecuting theft). This is
the fifth sub-stage of moral development and is called Social Contract and
Individual Rights stage. The last sub-stage is called the Universal Principles
stage and is defined by the existence of values which are independent of rules
and laws and are applicable to everyone. It must also be noted that moral
development stops being linear after the stage of conventional morality.
Individuals go back and forth, depending upon situations and people, between
abiding by external or internal standards for moral judgment. The young adult is
capable of choosing moral principles and respect the rights of others. In cases of
conflict with others over ethical issues, depending upon the issue they tend to
settle down on a state of mutual satisfaction.

2.16 LET US SUM UP

The Unit discussed the developmental processes that the youth (comprising of
adolescents and young adults) go through. We discussed the physical growth in
adolescence; the changes that they go through during puberty and how they deal
with their changing bodies. Then we explored the cognitive aspects of
development in terms of a) achieving new cognitive abilities and b) enhancing
existing cognitive processes. These developments shape the socio-emotional
growth during this period as adolescents experience emotional separation from
the family and invest in friendships and other peer relations. The increasing
influence of peers sometimes results in unhealthy habits like drug abuse. This is
also a period of transforming morality from self-centered to society-centered.
The culmination of this period sees a humongous growth in all areas of
development. As individuals go through the culmination of adolescence, they
stand on the threshold of adulthood. This period of relative hand-holding and
relative freedom is called young adulthood. The period sees peak physical
capabilities and the emergence of dialectical thought. Individuals explore intimate
relationships and invest in deep friendships. They also try to “settle down” i.e.,
have a stable career and build a family. Individuals who struggle to achieve
these socio-emotional and career benchmarks experience loneliness, a prominent
feature of young adults. Morality also transforms to post-conventional moral
thought at this stage.

2.17 KEY WORDS

Adolescence : refers to the developmental phase that serves as an
intermediary between childhood and adulthood is
called.
Growth spurt : is a phase of rapid growth, which precedes the onset
of puberty.
51
Introduction Secular trend : denotes that, with improved health and nutrition
(nurturance), the body gets prepared for its sexual
roles sooner.
Deductive reasoning : is the ability to draw specific conclusions from
generalized statements.
Body image : is a mental representation – our perception of our
body type, how we look and our physical
attractiveness.
Age 30 transition : is a phase of change (28-33 years) that entails re-
evaluating and reviewing previous choices about
work and relationships. It may also entail making
modifications in one’s attitude toward love and work.
Triangular theory of : comprises of three components of passion, intimacy
love and commitment Sternberg (1986).

Post conventional : is characterized by understanding the limitations of

morality generalized legal frameworks and accommodating
changes to these laws in specific circumstances.

2.18 ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions I
1) Refer to table 1.1
2) Emotional independence, adopting relevant social roles, forming mature
relationships
3) The increase in global healthcare has led to better health and hygiene of
individuals which in turn is making the global average of puberty attainment
come down. This is called secular trend.
Self Assessment Questions II
Match the following:
1) d, 2) c, 3) b, 4) a

Self Assessment Questions III

1) Good interpersonal relationship stage
2) Maintaining social order stage
3) Good interpersonal relationship stage
4) Maintaining social order stage

Self Assessment Questions IV

1) False
2) False
3) False
52
4) True Developmental Aspects of
Youth
Self Assessment Questions V
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) Re-evaluating one’s dreams and other major decisions made so far
5) Sternberg’s triangular theory of love consists of three main components of
passion, intimacy and commitment.

2.19 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
2) Discuss the emotional and social development in the adolescence years.
3) Describe the parenting styles and explain the implications for the
development of the adolescents.
4) Describe the cognitive development of the adolescents.
5) Elaborate on the social development of the youth in the early adulthood
years.

2.20 REFERENCES
Arnett, J.J. (2000). Emerging Adulthood: A theory of development from the late
teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469-480.
Baumrind, D. (1991).The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence
and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence 11 (1), 56-95.
Berk, L. E. (2004). Development through the lifespan (3rd ed.). Delhi: Pearson
Education.
Burhmester, D. (1996). Need fulfillment, interpersonal competence, and the
development of contexts of early adolescent friendships. In W.M. Bukowski,
A.F. Newcomb, & W.W. Hartup (Eds.), The company they keep: Friendship
during childhood and adolescence (pp. 158-185). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Health Encyclopedia. Understanding the teen brain. Health Encyclopedia
retrieved from https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.
aspx?ContentTypeID=1&ContentID=3051
Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: McKay
Company.
Kroger, J. (2007). Why is identity achievement so elusive? Identity, 7(4), 331-
348.

53
Introduction Levinson, D. J. (1986). A conception of adult development. American
Psychologist, 41 (1), 3-13.
Levinson, D. J., with Darrow, C. N., Klein, E. B., Levinson, M. H. & McKee, B.
(1978). The seasons of a man’s Life. New York: Knopf.
National Youth Policy of India (2014). National Youth Policy of India, 2014.
Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports. Govt. of India.
Neugarten, B. L. (1968). Adult personality: toward a psychology of the life
cycle. In B. L. Neugarten (Ed.), Middle age and aging: Reader in social
psychology (pp. 137-147). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Riegel, K.F. (1975). Toward a dialectical theory of development. Human
Development, 18 (1-2), 15-64.
Rokach, A. (2001). Perceived causes of loneliness in adulthood. Journal of Social
Behaviour and Personality, 15, 67-84.
Santrock, J.W. (1998). Life span development. 6th Edition. McGraw Hill College.
Sawyer, S. M., Azzopardi, P. S., Wickremarathne, D., & Patton, G. C. (2018).
The age of adolescence. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 2 (3), 223 –
228.
Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A triangular theory of love. Psychological Review, 93
(2), 119-135.

2.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Berk, L. E. (2004). Development through the lifespan (3rd ed.). Delhi: Pearson
Education.
Furlong, A. (2013). Youth studies: An introduction. London: Routledge.
Wyn, J., & White, R. (2014). Rethinking youth. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

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