1 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V.

Tiwari

5CE05 : (ii) Disaster Management

Learning Objectives of Subject:

 Student should learn about the term Disaster and definitions associated
with it.
 Student should know various types, reasons for happening and
preventive measures for Natural Disasters.
 Student should know various types, reasons for happening and
preventive measures for Artificial Disasters.
 Student should know about Impact and mitigation measures against
disasters.
 Student should know about Disaster Risk Reduction and its utility
practices.
 Learner should know about various Government and NG organization
working for Disaster Management.
 Student should know role and responsibility of individual and group for
managing Disaster.

Course outcomes: At the end of the subject the students will be able

 To understand concept and terms related to Disaster.

 To understand various types of Natural and Artificial Disaster.
 To decide and take actions to mitigate impact of disaster.
 To know roles and responsibility of organizations – public and private,
individual and group to manage disaster.

SECTION A

Unit I: Introduction - Concepts and definitions: disaster, hazard, vulnerability,

risks severity, frequency and details, capacity, impact, prevention, mitigation.
Study about natural disasters (floods, draught, cyclones, volcanoes,
earthquakes, tsunami, landslides, coastal erosion, soil erosion, forest fires etc.)

Unit II: Study about manmade disasters (industrial pollution, artificial flooding
in urban areas, nuclear radiation, chemical spills, transportation accidents,
terrorist strikes, etc.); hazard and vulnerability profile of India, mountain and
coastal areas, ecological fragility.

Unit III: Disaster Impacts - Disaster impacts (environmental, physical, social,

ecological, economic, political, etc.); health, psycho-social issues; demographic
aspects (gender, age, special needs); hazard locations; global and national
disaster trends; climate change and urban disasters.

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2 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

SECTION B

Unit IV: Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) - Disaster management cycle – its
phases; prevention, mitigation, preparedness, relief and recovery; structural
and non-structural measures, vulnerability and capacity assessment; early
warning systems, Post disaster environmental response

Unit V: Institutional mechanism for Disaster Management, Roles and

responsibilities of government, community, local institutions, NGOs and other
stakeholders; Policies and legislation for disaster risk reduction, Disaster
Management Policy Environment and local Action, Funding for Disaster
Management, Capacity Building, Disaster Management Act 2005.

Unit VI:. Disaster Management practices at working and residential places. Key
responsibility of engineers in disaster reduction techniques, medical
preparedness aspect of disaster, plan to counter, threats to water supply.

Books Recommended:

1. Cuny, Fred C; Disasters and management, oxford Uni. Press.

2. Alexander, David; Principles of emergency planning and management,
Terra publishing, ISBN 1-903544-10
3. National Disaster Management Authority, Govt. of India, Report.
4. A.S. Arya Action Plan For Earthquake, Disaster, Mitigation in V.K. Sharma
(Ed) Disaster Management IIPA Publication New Delhi, 1994

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3 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Unit I: Introduction - Concepts and definitions: disaster, hazard, vulnerability,

risks, severity, frequency and details, capacity, impact, prevention, mitigation.
Study about natural disasters (floods, draught, cyclones, volcanoes,
earthquakes, tsunami, landslides, coastal erosion, soil erosion, forest fires etc.)

INTRODUCTION

Disasters have always been a result of human interaction with nature,

technology and other living entities. Sometimes unpredictable and sudden,
sometimes slow and lingering, various types of disasters continually affect the
way in which we live our daily lives. Human beings as innovative creatures have
sought new ways in which to curb the devastating effects of disasters. However,
for year’s human conduct regarding disasters has been reactive in nature.
Communities, sometimes aware of the risks that they face, would wait in
anticipation of a disastrous event and then activate plans and procedures.
Human social and economic development has further contributed to creating
vulnerability and thus weakening the ability of humans to cope with disasters
and their effects.

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4 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Disaster Management is the process of reducing the risk of, and vulnerability to
hazards. Traditionally Disaster Management meant the measures taken to bring
quick and effective relief to disaster hit areas. However, contemporary studies
of Disaster Management focus on preventing disasters by pre-planning effective
measures for regions that are prone to disaster; both man made as well as
natural. Disaster Management can thus be defined as the body of policy and
administrative decisions and operational activities which pertain to the various
stages of a disaster at all levels.

To understand Disaster Management, it is necessary to understand the

concepts of Vulnerability, Risk, Hazard and Disaster that are embedded in the
process of Disaster Management. All levels 33 potential hazards have been
identified for Indian context which can be further classified based on their
origin as follows:

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5 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

LIST OF FEW IMPORTANT DISASTER EVENTS IN INDIA

Name of Event Year State & Area Fatalities

Corona Virus 2020 Entire Country 5.27L (as on 04.08.2022)
Cyclone Fani 2019 Ganjjam, 8 lakh people evacuated.
Gajapati,Khurda
and Jajpur
Kerela Floods 2015 Kerela
Floods 2014 Jammu & Kashmir —
Cyclone HudHud 2014 September 2014 —
Odisha Floods 2013 Odisha 21 Fatalities
Andhra Floods 2013 Andhra Pradesh 53 Fatalities
Cyclone Phailin 2013 Odisha and 23 Fatalities
AndhraPradesh
Floods/ Landslides 2013 Uttarakhand and 4,094 Fatalities
Himachal
Pradesh
Cyclone Mahasen 2013 Tamil Nadu 08 Fatalities
UttarakhandFloods 2013 Uttarkashi, 52 Fatalities
Rudraprayagand
Bageshwar
Cyclone Nilam 2012 Tamil Nadu 65 Fatalities
Assam Floods 2012 Assam —
Cyclone Thane 2011 Tamil Nadu, Puducherry 47 Fatalities
Odisha Floods 2011 19 Districts of Odisha 45 Fatalities
Sikkim Earthquake 2011 North Eastern 97 People Died
India with epicenter (75 in Sikkim)
near Nepal Border
and Sikkim
Cloudburst 2010 Leh, Ladakh in J&K 257 People Died
Drought 2009 252 Districts in
10States
Krishna Flood 2009 Andhra 300 People Died
Pradesh,
Karnataka
Kosi Floods 2008 North Bihar 527 Deaths, 19,323 Livestock
Perished,2,23,000 Houses
Damaged, 3.3 Million Persons
Affected
Cyclone Nisha 2008 Tamil Nadu 204 Deaths
Kosi-Bihar Floods 2008 Bihar 434 Dead Bodies
Tsunami 2004 Tamil Nadu, Kerala, 10,749 Casualties,
Karnataka 5,640 People Missing

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6 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Gujarat Earthquake 2001 Kutch 13,805 Death, Injured

another 167,000
Orissa Super Cyclone 1999 Bhubaneshwar More than two lakh animals were
killed and 25 lakh people were
marooned.
Maharashtra Earthquake 1993 Latur 10,000 People Died,
while another 30,000 were
Injured.

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Acceptable Risk

The level of potential losses that a society or community considers acceptable

given existing social, economic, political, cultural, technical and environmental
conditions.

Biological Hazard

Process or phenomenon of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors,

including exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive
substances that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts,
property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage.

Building Code

A set of ordinances or regulations and associated standards intended to control

aspects of the design, construction, materials, alteration and occupancy of
structures that are necessary to ensure human safety and welfare, including
resistance to collapse and damage.

Capacity

The combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within a
community, society or organization that can be used to achieve agreed goals.

Capacity Development

The process by which people, organizations and society systematically

stimulate and develop their capacities over time to achieve social and economic
goals, including through improvement of knowledge, skills, systems, and
institutions.

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7 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Climate Change

(a) The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate

change as: “a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by
using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its
properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or
longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external
forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the
atmosphere or in land use”.

(b) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

defines climate change as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed
over comparable time periods”.

Disaster

A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving

widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts,
which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its
own resources.

Disaster Risk

The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and
services, which could occur to a particular community or a society over some
specified future time period.

Disaster Risk Reduction

The concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts
to analyse and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through
reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property,
wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for
adverse events.

Disaster Risk Reduction Plan

A document prepared by an authority, sector, organization or enterprise that

sets out goals and specific objectives for reducing disaster risks together with
related actions to accomplish these objectives.

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8 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Early Warning System

The set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and

meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities and
organizations threatened by a hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and
in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or loss.

Environmental Degradation

The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological
objectives and needs.

Environmental Impact Assessment

Process by which the environmental consequences of a proposed project or

programme are evaluated, undertaken as an integral part of planning and
decision-making processes with a view to limiting or reducing the adverse
impacts of the project or programme.

Hazard

A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may

cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental
damage.

Mitigation

The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related

disasters.

Preparedness

The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional

response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to
effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the impacts of likely,
imminent or current hazard events or conditions.

Prevention

The outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters.

Risk

The combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences.

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9 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Risk Assessment

A methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by analysing

potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that
together could potentially harm exposed people, property, services, livelihoods
and the environment on which they depend.

Sustainable Development

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Technological Hazard

A hazard originating from technological or industrial conditions, including

accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or specific human
activities, that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts,
property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage.

Vulnerability

The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that

make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HAZARD, VULNERABILITY AND DISASTER

Hazard

Hazards are defined as physical phenomena that pose a threat to the people,
structures or economic assets and which may cause a disaster. Generally
speaking, there are two types of hazards, namely:

 Natural - These are hazards caused by nature such as floods, droughts,

earthquake cyclones, tsunami, landslides etc
 Manmade - These are hazards that are caused by human beings either
deliberately or by accident such as industrial and chemical accident, road
and railway accidents, aviation disasters, fire, building collapse,
communal violence, bomb blasts etc.

More and more, the distinction between natural and human made hazards is
becoming harder to delineate. Some hazards are natural in nature but are
exacerbated due to human activities such as flooding and drought. These can
be caused due to deforestation, unplanned development, improper drainage

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10 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

system etc. For example, flooding may be increased through landfill, drainage
or groundwater extraction; storm surge may be worsened by the destruction of
mangroves.

Vulnerability

It is the extent to which a community, structure, service or geographic area is

likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of a particular hazard on
account of its nature, construction, and proximity to hazardous terrain or a
disaster prone area. It is the likely extent of damage due to a hazard.

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11 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

In the face of a particular hazard, it is important to determine how each hazard

interacts with each and every dimension of vulnerability. Therefore, a study of
vulnerability is a study of what might happen to people or communities and
while it is not certain that a crisis might occur; it definitely affects different
populations in a different manner. Vulnerability represents the interface
between exposure of any physical threats to human well-being and the capacity
of people and communities to cope with those threats. Threats may arise from
a combination of social and physical processes. Human vulnerability thus
integrates many environmental concerns and may undermine the entire
sustainable development process in developing countries.

Vulnerability can be of varied types like:

1) Physical vulnerability: Depending on physical location of people and

elements at risk and technical capacity of buildings, structures, and
infrastructure. It varies according to construction techniques, materials used
and location.

2) Economic vulnerability: Poor people are considered to be more vulnerable as

their houses are built of weak material and in dangerous areas. They do not
have the essential safety nets to recover as the affluent population. Their loose
the essential tools and equipments of their livelihood as well.

3) Social Vulnerability: Some sections of the population are more vulnerable

than the others like women, children, elderly, physically and mentally
challenged and those dependent on critical facilities.

4) Other types of vulnerability: Some other types of vulnerability have also been
identified like Environmental vulnerability, Cultural vulnerability, Educational
vulnerability and Political vulnerability.

Disaster

As per the Disaster Management Act, 2004 disaster is defined as a catastrophe,

mishap, calamity or a grave occurrence in any area arising out of natural or
manmade causes, or by accident or negligence, which results in substantial loss
of life and human suffering or damage to, or destruction of, or degradation of
environment, and is of such a nature, or magnitude as to be beyond, the coping
capacity of the affected community of the affected area. The term Disaster
Management is a collective term referring to all aspects of planning and
responding to disasters, including both pre and post disaster activities. It may
refer to the management of both the risks and consequences of disasters.

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12 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

When a hazard is not managed properly, it turns into a disaster. So, while
hazards can be considered natural, disasters are generally human made.
Earthquakes, cyclones, etc are all natural hazards and we can prevent them
from becoming disasters.

A disaster happens when a hazard impacts on a vulnerable population and

causes damage, casualities and disruption. An earthquake in an uninhabited
desert cannot be considered a disaster, no matter how strong the intensity
might be. An earthquake is disastrous when it affects people, infrastructure
and activities.

hazard × vulnerability = disaster

When extent of hazard and vulnerability is low, the resulting disaster will also
be of small magnitude.

HAZARD × vulnerability = disaster

When extent of hazard is high but vulnerability is low then the disaster will be
of small magnitude.

Hazard × VULNERABILITY = disaster

When vulnerability is high but extent of hazard is small then the resulting
disaster will also be of small magnitude.

HAZARD × VULNERABILITY = DISASTER

When extent of hazard is very high and the vulnerability is also high then it will
result in a huge disaster.

Capacity

Vulnerability is one side of a coin; the other side representing the resources
people have to resist, cope with, or recover from a hazard, or “capacities”.
Vulnerability is about “not having” while capacities are about “having”. Capacity
is knowledge, skills, resources, abilities and strength, present in individuals,
households and the communities, which enable them to prevent, prepare for,
stand against, survive and recover from a disaster.

People’s capacities are also highlighted by what are known as “coping

strategies”. These are responses linked to capacities (or resources) which, in the
face of a hazard determine how vulnerable or resilient an individual or
household becomes.

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13 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Some examples of capacity are:

 Permanent houses
 Adequate food and income sources
 Fire stations
 Developed health infrastructure,
 Good Community Networks for support
 Local knowledge
 Strong community leadership and organizations

Capacity =1/Vulnerability

Risk

Risks have always been part of daily life for humans. However, both the level of
acceptance and the perception of risk vary from one individual to another.
Perception also varies between regions, societies and cultures and therefore,
there is no universally valid definition of risk. Risk is the expected damage or
loss due to the combination of vulnerability and hazards. People are considered
at ‘risk’ when they are unable to cope with a hazard. A disaster occurs when a
significant number of vulnerable people experience a hazard and suffer from
severe damage and/or disruption of their livelihood system in such a way that
recovery is unlikely without external assistance.

Risk is the probability of harmful consequences or expected losses (deaths,

injuries, property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environment
damaged) resulting from interaction between natural or human-induced
hazards and vulnerable conditions (HPC Report, 2001).

As far as disaster risk is concerned, it refers to the probability of the

occurrence of a disaster. It is a subject to the extent of hazard, vulnerability
and capacity. In relation to disasters, Kotze and Holloway (1996) define risk as
the expected losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property and
disruption of economic activity or livelihood) caused by a particular
phenomena. Risk is a function of hazard occurrence and the projected losses. A
societal element is said to be ‘at risk’ or vulnerable when it is exposed to
hazards and is likely to be adversely affected by the impact of those hazards if
and when they occur, especially in situations of limited capacity.

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14 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

It can be best explained by

Disaster Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability

Capacity

The relationship between these four components, indicate that each of the
three variables that define risk - the hazard, the elements exposed and their
vulnerability- are of equal value. Reducing any one or more of the three
contributing variables will lessen the risk to a community. In reality, however,
there is little opportunity to reduce the hazard component, therefore, only the
vulnerability and the elements at risk will vary. When hazard and vulnerability
are high, it will cause disaster but when capacity is present, it will decrease the
impact. Hence, to reduce the risk of a disaster,

1) Decrease the vulnerability of the community; and

2) Increase the capacity of the community

TYPES OF DISASTERS

A disaster as mentioned earlier is natural because any disaster event by

definition requires interaction either with man, his built environment, or both.
It is possible, and is often the case, that human actions exacerbate the effect of
these natural processes, such as increased flooding after the destruction of
wetlands, or landslides on slopes where anchor vegetation has been removed.
This section identifies the most common of these.

Types of Hazards

 Natural Hazards – Natural processes or phenomena occurring in the

biosphere that may constitute a damaging event. Hazardous events can
vary in magnitude or intensity, frequency, duration, area of extent, speed
of onset, spatial dispersion and temporal spacing. Natural hazards can be
classified into Geological hazards, Hydro-meteorological hazards and
Biological hazards
 Technological Hazards – Danger originating from technological or
industrial accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or
certain human activities, which may cause the loss of life or injury,
property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental
degradation.

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15 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Some examples: industrial pollution, nuclear activities and radioactivity, toxic

wastes, dam failures; transport, industrial or technological accidents
(explosions, fires, spills).

According to the High Powered Committee, appointed by Government of India

in 1999 at the behest of the Prime Minister to look into the issue of Disaster
Management Planning at National, State and District levels, various types of
hazards prevailing in India can be classified into the following groups:

 Water and Climate Related Disasters – Floods, Droughts, Cyclones,

Tornadoes, Hurricanes, Cloud burst, Snow Avalanches, Heat & Cold
Waves
 Geological Disasters – Earthquakes, Landslides, Mudflows, Sea Erosion,
Dam Bursts & Dam Failures.
 Biological Disasters – Biological Disasters, Epidemics, Cattle Epidemics
 Chemical/Industrial/ Nuclear Disasters – Chemical and Industrial
Disasters, Forest Fires, Oil Spill Fires, Mine Fires and Mine Flooding,
Nuclear Disasters
 Accident Related Disasters – Road, Rail and other Transportation
accidents including Waterways (Boat Capsizing), Major Building Collapse,
Serial Bomb Blasts, Festival related Disasters

The natural hazards/disaster can be further classified as:

 Hydro-meteorological Hazards – Natural processes or phenomena of

atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature, which may cause the
loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or
environmental degradation. Hydro meteorological hazards include:
floods, debris and mud floods; tropical cyclones, storm surges,
thunder/hailstorms, rain and wind storms, blizzards and other severe
storms; drought, desertification, wild land fires, temperature extremes,
sand or dust storms; permafrost and snow or ice avalanches.
 Geological Hazards – Geological hazard includes internal earth processes
or tectonic origin, such as earthquakes, geological fault activity,
tsunamis, volcanic activity and emissions as well as external processes
such as mass movements, landslides, rockslides, rock falls or avalanches,
surfaces collapses, expansive soils and debris or mud flows.

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16 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Geological Disaster

1. Earthquake

It is a sudden movement shift of the Earth's crust below or at the surface that
results in ground vibration and the potential collapse of buildings and possible
destruction of life and property if the quake is of sufficient magnitude.
Earthquakes are considered to be one of the disastrous phenomena and its
occurrence is usually sudden with little or no warning. It is not yet possible to
predict earthquakes.

2. Tsunamis

Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves. Tsunami is a Japanese word

meaning "harbour wave". These are the waves, which often affect distant
shores, originate from undersea or coastal seismic activity, landslides and
volcanic eruption. Whatever may be the cause, sea water is displaced into a
violent motion and swells up, ultimately breaking over land even at very long
distances with great destructive power

3. Volcanic eruption

Volcano is like a vent or chimney to the earth's surface from a reservoir of

molten rock, called magma, deep in the crust of the earth. A study shows that
approximately 600 volcanoes are active or have erupted. On an average, about
50 volcanoes erupt every year. At present, about 10% of the world's population
live on or near potentially dangerous volcanoes. Usable short term forecasts,
within hours or days may be made through volcano monitoring techniques
including seismic monitoring, ground deformation studies and observation and
recording of geoelectrical, and geochemical changes. Structures with roof
designs which do not resist ash accumulation are vulnerable even at large
distance from a volcano.

4. Landslides

Landslides generally occur as secondary effects of heavy rain storms,

earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It occurs as a result of changes, either
sudden or gradual, in the composition and structure of rocks or hydrology or
vegetation a slope. It covers a wide variety of land forms and processes
involving the movement of soil under the influence of gravity.

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17 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

Climatic Disasters

Climatic disaster includes the following types:

1. Cyclone

It is a tropical storm in which the winds can reach speeds of over 120 kph. The
cyclone blows in a large spiral around a relatively calm centre or eye. Every
year, these, violent storms with torrential rain and very strong winds bring
widespread devastation to coastlines and islands lying in their paths. Cyclones
pose a major threat to lives and property in many parts of the world. While
such storms are called cyclones in India and neighborhood, they have different
nomenclature in other parts of the world, e.g., hurricanes in the Americas and
typhoons in Japan and the Philippines.

2. Flood

It can arise from abnormally heavy precipitation, dam failures, rapid snow
melts, river blockages or even burst water mains. It is usually sudden in onset.

Types of floods are as follows:

i) Flash floods

ii) River floods and

iii) Coastal floods due to tsunami, tidal wave or storm surge in the wake of a
cyclone.

Major floods result in physical damage, deaths and injuries, problems in

drinking water supply and food shortages, and displacement of population.

3. Drought

Droughts have disastrous and long term impacts on the economy and can
affect a large segment of the society which may last for months and in some
cases several years. Generally, drought situation may be defined as a temporary
reduction in water or moisture availability significantly below the normal or
expected amount, for a specific period. Drought is a slow onset phenomenon.

There are three types of droughts, viz.

i) Meteorological drought when rainfall is appreciably below normal.

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18 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

ii) Hydrological drought when the water scarcity results in reduction in the
available water in inland water bodies.

iii) Agricultural drought when the scarcity results in partial or total loss of
crops and effects agricultural activity adversely.

Environmental Disasters

Environmental disasters are the result of:

1. Environmental pollution

There are five aspects of the environmental pollution hazard:

(i) air and water pollution

(ii) ozone depletion and
(iii) global warming
(iv) sea level rise
(v) forest fires

People in developing countries are much more vulnerable to the effects of

environmental degradation because they often directly depend on the land.

2. Deforestation

It can be explained as the removal of vegetation ill a region that is

predominantly tree covered. Deforestation may contribute to disasters caused
by flooding, landslides and drought. The spread of agriculture, firewood
collection, and unregulated timber harvesting are the main reasons for
deforestation. Trees inhale carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Depreciation
contributes to increase carbon dioxide the atmosphere.

3. Desertification

Broadly speaking desertification can be defined as the decline in biological

productivity or production potential due to a long term process of degradation
or change in climate. Desertification worsens the condition f the poor, bring
malnutrition and disease, and destabilizes the soico-economic base of a
country.

4. Pest Infestation

A pest may be defined as any animal or plant causing harm or d mage to

people, their animals, crops etc. The primary pests are insects, diseases and
weeds.
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19 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

CAUSES OF DISASTERS

Each type of disaster has its own cause. Here is a brief description of natural
phenomena which may lead to disasters.

1. Earthquakes may arise either due to the release of energy from strained
rocks inside the Earth, or tectonic movements or volcanic activity. The sudden
release of accumulated energy or stresses inside the earth or sudden movement
of massive land areas on the earth's surface cause tremors, commonly called
earthquakes.

2. Tsunami could be the after effect of undersea earthquake due to which the
abrupt movement of ocean floor generates waves which travel at high speed in
the ocean. As approach land, their speed decreases while their height increases.
It can be highly destructive to coastal areas.

3. Tropical cyclones, typhoons or hurricanes are the names given to the same
phenomenon in the different parts of the world. They are weather systems with
strong winds that circulate anti-clockwise around a low pressure area in the
northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Tropical
cyclones form in certain tropical areas over the open seas where the sea,
surface temperature is around 26°C.

4. Floods are excessive accumulations or flow of water which results from

heavy rainfall, snow melt or high tides and other causes such as dam burst,
embankment failure etc. They .include flash floods which are rapidly rising and
falling river and overland 'flows resulting from the rapid run off of rainfall
from upland areas; river floods in which river water spills over adjoining: areas,
tidal flooding usually saline from the backflow of sea waters into coastal rivers
at high tides, and storm surge floods associated with the landfall of tropical
cyclones.

5. Drought or scarcity of water to satisfy the normal needs of agriculture,

livestock or human population is generally associated with desert climates, but
drought can also occur in areas that normally enjoy adequate rainfall and
moisture levels.

6. Volcanic eruptions are vents in the crust of the earth through which the
molten rock is extruded as lava or ejected as ash, sometimes accompanied by
steam or hot gases.

Department of Civil Engineering, Sipna College of Engineering and Technology, Amravati

20 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

7. Landslide can be caused by heavy rainfall earthquakes or undercutting of the

base of slopes by rivers. They are common in mountainous areas where they
frequently destroy the infrastructure, agriculture and buildings.

EFFECTS OF DISASTERS

Disasters vary in terms of their severity, disruptive potential, frequency,

predictability and duration. In turn, remedial needs differ according to the
nature of the disaster and the magnitude of the resultant destruction. The
effects of disaster depend upon the types of disasters.

I. Disasters may be categorised as sudden or calaclysmic, with immediate

destruction. Natural phenomena like earthquake, floods, wind storms, tidal
waves, volcanic eruptions, landslides and avalanches can suddenly destroy
important parts of the housing stock, physical and social infrastructure,
production facilities and crops. Disasters may disrupt the productive base of
the economy by creating effect on its capital stock. Its timely repair and
replacement, of course, diverts the national savings which otherwise might have
been allocated to the infrastructure and productive capital stock.

2. Some disasters may be slow in materializing and showing their effects. These
may be categorised as continuing disasters. As time passes, the situation may
further deteriorate. For instance, continuing disasters include prolonged
droughts and crop failure. While in cataclysmic disasters the affected area is
relatively small, it may be very large in a continuing disaster situation. For
example, droughts may compound long standing problems of deforestation,
encroaching desertification and soil erosion over vast stretches of land for
many years. Agriculture may suffer severe setback and large groups of affected
population may have to migrate. In turn, it may cause pressure on urban
centers, creating new demands and infrastructure.

3. Manmade disasters like wars, civil strife, population explosion,

environmental degradation and major industrial accidents. The direct
destruction caused by war and civil strife is similar to that of a sudden natural
disaster. A period of war and civil strife results in diversion' of resources,
affecting infrastructure as well as production facilities.

4. Disasters disrupt economic activities. Physical damage after cataclysmic

disasters temporarily halts developmental activities. Continuing disasters
require changes to the infrastructure. In either case, repair and response take
time and require additional resources. These resources may not be immediately
available without dislocating ongoing development activities in priority sectors.

Department of Civil Engineering, Sipna College of Engineering and Technology, Amravati

21 Disaster Management by Dr. Anurag V. Tiwari

5. The impact of disasters on the physically weak and socioeconomically

disadvantaged sectors of the society is tremendous, e.g., on subsistence
farmers, small shopkeepers, casual laborers and marginal fishermen. Their
capital stock or savings may be completely wiped out by disasters, pushing
them into the poverty group. Migration to urban centres in search of work as a
result of disasters, in turn tends to increase the urban plight and the demand
for remedial action. They may even halt or slow the chances of the poor coming
out of the poverty net. The physically weak, such as children, pregnant and
lactating mothers, the aged and infirm bear the brunt of the adverse impacts of
disasters.

Department of Civil Engineering, Sipna College of Engineering and Technology, Amravati