Introduction and Recaps

Dr Nonni Soraya Sambudi

[email protected]
Course Layout

• 3 Credit Values:

• Assignments – 10%

• Quizzes – 20%

• Project – 20%

• Mid-term Exam – 20%

• Final Exam – 30%

Reference Book
Yunus A. Çengel is the Dean of the Faculty
of Mechanical Engineering and the Director
of the Energy Center at Yildiz Technical
University in Istanbul, Turkey, and Professor
Emeritus at the University of Nevada, Reno,
USA. He received his Ph. D. in Mechanical
Engineering in 1984 from North Carolina
State University in USA. Before joining YTU
in 2010, he served as a faculty member at
the University of Nevada, Reno for 18
years. He also served as the director of the
Industrial Assessment Center at UNR for
several years.
Course Learning Outcome

1 2
Analyse and Perform related
explain the calculations and
properties of apply them in
pure substances various
using thermodynamics
thermodynamics systems.
data and
relationship.
 CHAPTER 1:

CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Learning Outcome

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with thermodynamics through the

precise definition of basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as system, state, state
postulate, equilibrium, process and cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales, pressure and absolute and
gage pressure.
What is Thermodynamics?

Greek Words

Therme Dynamis
(Heat) (Power)

• Early description: Convert heat into power

• Current definition: The study of energy and energy transformations, including
power generation, refrigeration and relationship among the properties of
matter.
What is Energy?
What is Energy?

▪ Energy: The ability to cause changes.

▪ Conservation of energy principle:

During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.

▪ The first law of thermodynamics: An

expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
▪ The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it

can only change forms (the first law).
What is Energy?

Heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature.

heat
Hot Cold body (spontaneous)
heat
Cold Hot body (require work)
BRAINSTORMING

One of the most amusing things a person can experience is that in certain parts of
the world a still car on neutral going uphill when its brakes are released. Such
occurrences are even broadcast on TV. Can this really happen or is it a bad
eyesight? How can you verify if a road is really uphill or downhill?

Mysterious Road - Jeju, South Korea

Application Areas of Thermodynamics

House-hold utensils appliances:

Air-cond, heater, refrigerator
humidifier, pressure cooker, water heater
computer & TV

Engines:
Automotive, aircraft, rocket

Plant/ Factory
Refinery, power plants, nuclear power plant
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

Predictions of Life
Dimensions and Units

• Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.

• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
Dimensions and Units

Mass – kilogram (kg)

Length – meter (m)
Temperature – kelvin(K)
Primary Time – second (s)
Amount of matter – mole (mol)
Electric current– ampere (A)
Dimension Amount of light – candela (cd)

Volume V
Secondary /
Velocity v
Derived
Energy E
Dimensions and Units

Units

Metric SI System English System

A simple and logical system It has no apparent systematic

based on a decimal numerical base, and various
relationship between the units in this system are related
various units. to each other rather
arbitrarily.
 Dimensions and Units

• Conversion of units
Quantity Conversion
Length 1 m = 100 cm
= 3.280 84 (ft) = 39.3701 (in)

Mass 1 kg = 103 g
= 2.204 62 (lbm)

Force 1 N = 1 kg m s-2
= 105 (dyne)
= 0.224 809 (lbf)

Pressure 1 bar = 105 kg m-1 s-2 = 105 N m-2

= 105 Pa = 102 kPa
= 106 dyne cm-2
= 0.986 923 atm
= 14.5038 psia
= 750.061 Torr

Volume 1 m3 = 106 cm3 = 103 liters

= 35.3147 (ft)3
= 264.172 (gal)

Density 1 g cm-3 = 103 kg m-3

= 62.4278 (lbm) (ft)-3

Energy 1 J = 1 kg m2 s-2 = 1 N m
= 1 m3 Pa = 10-5 m3 bar = 10 cm3 bar
= 9.869 23 cm3 atm
= 107 (dyne) cm = 107 (erg)
= 0.239 006 (cal)
= 5.121 97 × 10-3 (ft)3 (psia) = 0.737 562 (ft) (lbf)
= 9.478 31 × 10-4 (Btu) = 2.777 78 × 10-7 kWh

Power 1 kW = 103 W = 103 kg m2 s-3 = 103 J s-1

= 239.006 (cal) s-1
= 737.562 (ft) (lbf) s-1
= 0.947 831 (Btu) s-1
= 1.341 02 (hp)
Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
Some SI and English Units

W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

A body weighing 60 kgf on earth will

weigh only 10 kgf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the force units newton

(N), kilogram-force (kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a unit mass at sea level.

EXAMPLE 1

What is the weight, in N, of an object with a mass of 200 kg at a location where g =

9.6 m/s2?

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
9.6𝑚 1𝑁
= (200 𝑘𝑔)( )( 𝑚)
𝑠2 1 𝑘𝑔. 2
𝑠
= 1920 𝑁
EXAMPLE 2

A 3-kg rock is thrown upward with a force of 200 N at a location where the local
gravitational acceleration is 9.79 m/s2. Determine the acceleration of the rock, in
m/s2.

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑢𝑝 − 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛

9.79 𝑚 1𝑁 = 200 − 29.37
= (3 𝑘𝑔)( )( 𝑚)
𝑠2 1 𝑘𝑔. 2
𝑠 = 170.63 𝑁
= 29.37 𝑁
𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚
170.63
=
3
= 56.88 𝑚/𝑠 2
EXAMPLE 3

A lunar exploration module weighs 2800 N at a location where g = 9.8 m/s².

Determine the weight of this module in newtons when it is on the moon where g
= 1.64 m/s².

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑊𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛
2800 N = m (9.8 m/s²)
= (285.714 kg)(1.64 m/s²)
m = 285.714 kg = 468.57 N

Conversion: 1 N = 1 kg.m/s²
Closed and Open Systems

Surroundings: The mass

or region outside the
system

System: A quantity of
matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
- Closed or open

Boundary: The real or imaginary

surface that separates the
system from its surroundings.

- Can be fixed or movable.

Closed and Open Systems

Types of system:
(a) Isolated - no energy/mass transfer across boundary
(b) Closed(control mass) - only energy transferred
(c) Open system(control volume) - energy & mass transferred
Energy and Human Life
Properties of a System

Property: Any characteristic of a system.

✓ Some familiar properties are P, T, V and m. But can be extended to include less
familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity,
thermal expansion coefficient and etc.
✓ Density: Mass per unit volume,

✓ Specific gravity: Ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some

standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4 ⁰C, for which
ρH2O = 1000 kg/m3),

✓ Specific volume,
Properties of a System

Those that are

independent of the
mass of a system
Properties Intensive

T, P, 

Those whose values

depend on the size - or
extent - of the system.
Extensive
Total mass, total
volume, total
momentum
State & Equilibrium

▪ Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.

▪ Equilibrium: A state of balance.
▪ In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within
the system.
▪ Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the
same throughout the entire system.
▪ Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change
in pressure at any point of the system with
time.
▪ Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two
phases and when the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
▪ Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical
composition of a system does not change with
time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
Processes & Cycle

Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.

To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Processes & Cycle

▪ The prefix iso- is often used to

designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.
▪ Isothermal process: A process during
which the temperature T remains
constant.
▪ Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
▪ Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
▪ Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.

The P-V diagram of a compression process.

Quasi-equilibrium / Quasi-static

Quasi-equilibrium or quasi-static process: When a process proceeds in such a

manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all
times.
Sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust to itself internally so
that properties in one part of the system do not change any faster than those at
other parts.
Temperature

• Measure of hotness and coldness.

• Transfer of heat from higher to lower temp. until both bodies attain the same
temp. At that point, heat transfer stops and the two bodies have reached
thermal equilibrium.

• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

• Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when they have reached the same
temperature. If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

• Temperature scales: Celcius (C)

Fahrenheit (F)
Kelvin (K)
Rankine (R)
Temperature Scale Comparison

Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of magnitudes of various

temperature units.
Pressure

Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

68 kg 136 kg

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P = W/A = 68/300 = 0.23 kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
Some basic than on the feet of a slim person.
pressure gages.
Pressure

▪ Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to

absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
▪ Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.
▪ Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout
this text, the
pressure P will
denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.

In thermodynamic, absolute pressure is always used unless stated.

Example 4

A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location

where the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute
pressure in the chamber.

Solution:
From Pvac = Patm - Pabs
Using Pabs = Patm - Pvac = 14.5 - 5.8 = 8.7 psi
Example 5

A pressure gage connected to a valve stern of a truck tire reads 240

kPa at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is
the absolute pressure in the tire, in kPa and in psia?

Solution:
Pabs = Patm + Pgage
= 100 kPa + 240 kPa
= 340 kPa

The pressure in psia is

14.5 psia
Pabs = 340 kPa × = 49.3 psia
100 kPa
Variation of Pressure with Depth

When the variation of density with

elevation is known
Variation of Pressure with Depth

In a room filled with a

gas, the variation of
pressure with height is
negligible.

Pressure in a liquid at
rest increases
linearly with distance
from the free surface.

The pressure is the

same at all points on a
horizontal plane in a
given fluid regardless of
geometry, provided that
the points are
interconnected by the
same fluid.
Example 6

Both a gage and a manometer are attached to a gas tank to

measure its pressure. If the pressure gage reads 80 kPa, determine
the distance between the two fluid levels of the manometer if the
fluids is mercury whose density is 13,600 kg/m3.

P
h=
g
103 N / m3
80 kPa kPa
h=
kg m 1N
13600 3 9.807 2
m s kg m / s2
= 0.6 m
Example 7

The gage pressure in a liquid at a depth of 3 m is read to be 28 kPa.

Determine the gage pressure in the same liquid at a depth of 9 m.
Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is called the

ideal mechanical advantage of the
hydraulic lift.

Lifting of a large weight by a small force by

the application of Pascal’s law.
Manometer

It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A manometer

contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

P1 = P 2

The basic manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the pressure
change across a fluid layer of density  and
height h is gh.
Other Pressure Measurement Devices

• Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like

a hook whose end is closed and connected to a dial
indicator needle.
• Pressure transducers: Use various techniques to convert
the pressure effect to an electrical effect such as a
change in voltage, resistance, or capacitance.
• Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and they
can be more sensitive, reliable, and precise than their
mechanical counterparts.
• Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by having a
diaphragm deflect between two chambers open to the
pressure inputs.
• Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-state
pressure transducers, work on the principle that an
electric potential is generated in a crystalline substance
when it is subjected to mechanical pressure.

Various types of Bourdon tubes used

to measure pressure.
Example 8

A dead-weight gauge with a 1 cm diameter piston is used to measure pressures

very accurately. In particular instance a mass of 6.14 kg (including piston and
pan) brings it into balance. If the local acceleration of gravity is 9.82 m s-2, what
is the gage pressure being measured? If the barometric pressure is 748 Torr
(Patm), what is the absolute pressure?

Solution
Given d = 1 cm, m = 6.14 kg, g = 9.82 m s-2

𝐹 𝑚𝑔 (6.14 kg)(9.82 m s−2 )

Pgage = = 𝜋 = 2 = 76.77 × 104 N m−2
𝐴 𝑑2 π
1 cm 2
1m
4 4 100 cm

Pabsolute = Pgage + Patmospheric * The

atmospheric
105 N m−2 pressure is
= 76.77 × 104 N m−2 + 748 Torr
750.061 Torr measured by a
barometer
= 867 425 N m−2 = 867 425 Pa = 867.4 kPa
Example 9

At 27oC (300.15 K), the reading on a manometer filled with mercury is 60.5 cm.
The local acceleration of gravity is 9.784 ms-2. To what pressure does this height
of mercury correspond? At 27oC (300.15 K), the density of mercury is 13.53 g
cm-3.

Solution
Given h = 60.5 cm, g = 9.784 m s-2, 𝜌 = 13.53 g cm-3
P = h𝜌𝑔
3
1𝑚 𝑔 100 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
= 60.5 𝑐𝑚 × 13.53 × 9.784 2
100 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚3 1𝑚 1000 𝑔 𝑠
= 80088.4 kg m-1 s-2
= 80088.4 Pa
= 80.09 kPa