Space structures

3. Space mission environments: sources for

loading and structural requirements
Prof. P. Gaudenzi
Università di Roma La Sapienza, Rome Italy
[email protected]

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 THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM OF A SPACECRAFT

The structural system of a spacecraft has three main functions:

1. To provide the support of all the other subsystem and materialize the
geometry of the spacecraft and its payloads;

2. To guarantee the necessary STRENGTH to survive all phases of the

spacecraft life (in particular the most critical: e.g. the launch) without failures.

3. To keep the structural STIFFNESS in certain limits to guarantee the

operational functionality of the overall system and avoid coupled resonant
responses (e.g. between a satellite and its launcher).

Since the cost of mass is very critical in a space mission, the structural
system should be optimized with respect to it both in terms of material and in
terms of the optimal structural geometries.

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 NATURAL AND INDUCED ENVIRONMENT (ECSS 4.2.2)
a. All structural assemblies and components shall be able to withstand the
environment loads and conditions to which they are exposed both
during manufacture and their complete service-life.

b. Components and assemblies for space applications shall be compatible

with the operational environment conditions and with the atmospheric
conditions on earth in which they are manufactured and tested.

c. Consideration shall be given to effects of gravitation and exposure of

sensitive materials to manufacturing and atmospheric environments;
suitable provisions (e.g. gravitational compensation and purging) shall
be made where necessary for the protection of sensitive equipment or
components.

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 NATURAL AND INDUCED ENVIRONMENT (2)

The sensitivity of materials to the environment on earth can stipulate the

requirements for quality control procedures.

The natural environment generally covers the climatic, thermal, chemical

and vacuum conditions, required cleanliness, levels of radiation and the
meteoroid and space debris environment.

The induced environments cover the mechanical loads induced by ground

handling and pre-launch operations, launch,manoeuvres and disturbances,
re-entry, descent and landing. Additional induced environments include
static pressure within the payload volume, temperature and thermal flux
variations and the electromagnetic and humidity environments.

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 MECHANICAL ENVIRONMENT (ECSS 4.2.3)

a. The mechanical environment shall be defined by static and

dynamic environment loads which shall be further defined in
terms of constant acceleration, transient, sinusoidal and
random vibration, acoustic noise and shock loads.
b. All loads shall be considered in the worst combinations in
which they occur.
The severest loads can be experienced during launch, ascent
and separation,and, where relevant during re-entry, descent
and landing. However, consideration shall also be given to the
other loads which can effect the performance in an operational
mode.

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 LOADS (ECSS 4.2.10)

a. All relevant mechanical and thermal load events

experienced throughout the service-life of the structure
shall be identified.

b. Loads shall be defined according to their nature,

static or dynamic, their level and time corresponding to
the events during the lifetime, and as a minimum the
following load events shall be considered:

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 LOAD EVENTS (1)

1. Ground and test loads:

— handling, transportation and storage loads;
— assembly and integration loads;
— ground test loads.

2. Launch loads:
— launch preparation;
— operational pressures;
— engine ignition;
— thrust build up;
— lift-off;
— thrust (constant or varying slowly);
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 LOAD EVENTS (2)

2. Launch loads (continued):

— aerodynamic loads;
— heat flux from engine and aerodynamics;
— gust;
— dynamic interaction between the structure and
propulsion system;
— acoustic noise;
— manoeuvres;
— thrust decay;
— pyrotechnics;
— separation of parts (e.g. stage, fairing, spacecraft);
— depressurization.
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 LOAD EVENTS (3)

3. In-orbit loads:
— operational pressures;
— static and dynamic loads induced by thrusters;
— shocks due to pyrotechnical operation and
deployment of appendages;
— thermo-elastic loads induced by temperature
variations,-- hygroscopic-induced load due to variations
in moisture content;
— micro-vibrations induced by moving elements (e.g.
momentum wheels) and thrusters;

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 LOAD EVENTS (4)

3. In-orbit loads (continued):

— micrometeoroids and debris;
— docking;
— berthing;
— crew induced loads (e.g. on handles, rails and by
movements).
4. Re-entry, descent and landing:
— aerodynamic loads and thermal fluxes;
— parachute ejection and deployment shocks;
— operational pressures;
— landing loads;
— impact loads.
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 GROUND LOADS

Example of ground loads sources and corresponding indicative figures

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 LAUNCH LOADS: AXIAL ACCELERATION

ARIANE 5 AXIAL ACCELERATION PROFILE

From Arian 5 User’s Manual

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 DESIGN LOADS FACTORS (from Ariane 5 User’s manual)

The design load factors are represented by the Quasi-Static Loads (QSL) that are the more
severe combinations of dynamic and steady-state accelerations that can be encountered at
any instant of the mission (ground and flight operations).
The QSL reflect the line loads at the interface between the spacecraft and the adapter (or
dispenser). Also frequency requirements and static moment limitation are imposed.

Gravity is included, SRB: solid rocket booster, The Quasi-Static-Loads (QSL) apply on
payload C of G, The minus sign with longitudinal axis values indicates compression.
From Arian 5 User’s Manual
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 DESIGN LOADS FACTORS (other launchers)

In the following table two other launchers load factors are reported and a possible envelope
condition is obtained in the case of a possible launch alternative

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 STATIC UNBALANCE AND ALIGNMENT REQUIREMENTS

Static unbalance
a) Spun-up spacecraft The centre of gravity of the
spacecraft must stay within a distance d ≤ 30 mm from the
launcher longitudinal axis.

b) Three-axis stabilized spacecraft The acceptable static

unbalance limit varies with the spacecraft mass as
reported BELOW:

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 FREQUENCY REQUIREMENTS (1)

In the table the frequency requirements of different Amplification of the dynamic

launchers are illustrated. Frequency should be response of a single degree of
equal or higher than the reported values. freedom damped system

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 FREQUENCY REQUIREMENTS (2) (ARIANE 5)
To prevent dynamic coupling between the low-frequency launch vehicle and spacecraft
modes, the spacecraft should be designed with a structural stiffness which ensures that
the following requirements are fulfilled.
Lateral frequencies - The fundamental frequency in the lateral axis of a spacecraft hard-
mounted at the interface must be as follows with an off-the-shelf adapter:

Longitudinal frequencies - The fundamental frequency in the longitudinal axis of a

spacecraft hard-mounted at the interface must be as follows:
≥ 31 Hz for S/C mass < 4500 kg
≥ 27 Hz for S/C mass ≥ 4500 kg
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 FAIRING ENVELOPE

Not a load but a volume and geometry constraint

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 LOADS FOR PAYLOAD COMPONENTS

Dynamic amplification factors or other causes may affect the real

loads on components

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 SOURCES OF SINE VIBRATIONS AND

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 SINE VIBRATIONS

Sinusoidal excitations
affect the L/V during
its powered flight,
mainly the
atmospheric
flight, as well as
during some of the
transient phases.
The envelope of the
sinusoidal (or sine-
equivalent) vibration
levels at the
spacecraft base does
not exceed the values
given in table aside,
taken from Ariane 5
user’s manual.

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 DEPRESSURIZATION AND VENTING

Variation of pressure inside the fairing of Ariane 5

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 ACOUSTICS
Acoustic pressure fluctuations under the fairing are generated by engine operation
(plume impingement on the pad during liftoff) and by unsteady aerodynamic phenomena
during atmospheric flight (i.e., shock waves and turbulence inside the boundary layer),
which are transmitted through the upper composite structures. Apart from liftoff and
transonic phase, acoustic levels are substantially lower than the values indicated
hereafter.

Note: OASPL – Overall Acoustic

Sound Pressure Level
(reference: 0 dB = 2 x 10–5 Pa)

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 SHOCKS

The spacecraft is subjected to shocks during L/V stages separation

events, mainly fairing jettisoning, and during spacecraft separation.
With respect to the L/V shock events, the envelope of the shocks
generated during the flight has to be considered.

Ariane 5

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 ON ORBIT ENVIRONMENT: THERMAL FLUX

During its on orbit life and according to the characteristics of the orbit, an earth
orbiting spacecraft is subjected to sun radiation, albedo and earth radiation. The
same is true for other space vehicles orbiting or flying by other planets. The
thermal control subsystem is responsible for keeping the spacecraft in the
admissible range of temperatures. The variations of temperature generate
thermoelastic actions on the spacecraft structures.
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 RADIATION, MOLECULAR PARTICLE, ATOMIC OXIGEN

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 ON ORBIT ENVIRONMENT: DEBRIS

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 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Requirements coming from the natural and induced

environment

Main environment forces and conditions depending

upon the phase of the mission (ground, launch, in orbit,
descent re-entry)

Launching environment and constraints

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