Module -3

BIOLOGY FOR COMPUTER ENGINEER

By: Hemavathi Patil

Dept. Data Science
GNDEC, Bidar

21-06-2024
 Table: Comparison Chart

Basis for Comparison Brain Computer

Construction Neurons and synapses ICs, transistors, diodes, capacitors,

transistors, etc.

Memory growth Increases each time Increases by adding more

connecting synapic links memory chips

Backup systems Built-in backup system Backup system is constructed

manually

Memory power 100 million megabytes

Memory density 7 1014 bits/cm3

Energy consumption 12 watts of power Gigawatts of power

Information storage Stored in electrochemical and electric Stored in numeric and symbolic
impulses. form (i.e. in binary bits).

Size and weight The brain's volume is 1500 cm3 and Variable weight and size form few
weight is around 3.3 pounds. grams to tons.

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 -Contd
Uses chemicals to fire the action Communication is achieved through
potential in the neurons. electrical coded signals.

Information processing Low High

power

Input/output equipment Sensory organs Keyboards, mouse, web

cameras, etc.

Structural organization Self-organized Pre-programmed structure

Parallelism Massive Limited

Reliability and Brain is self-organizing, self Computers perform a monotonous

damageability properties maintaining and reliable. job and can't correct itself.

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 2.1.1 Architecture

The architecture of the human brain as a CPU system can be compared to that of a parallel
distributed processing system, as opposed to the Von Neumann architecture of traditional
computers.

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• In the human brain, information is processed in a
distributed manner across multiple regions, each with
specialized functions, rather than being processed
sequentially in a single centralized location.
• Just like how a computer's CPU has an arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) to perform mathematical calculations, the
human brain has specialized regions for processing
mathematical and logical operations. The prefrontal
cortex, for example, is responsible for higher-level
cognitive functions such as decision making and
problem solving Similarly, a computer's CPU also has
memory units for storing information, and the human
brain has several regions dedicated to memory storage,
including the hippocampus and amygdala
Figure: Schematic representation of
the frontal lobes of brain
Figure: Limbic system. Cross section of
the human brain
• While the comparison between the human brain and a
computer's CPU can provide useful insights, it is
important to note that the human brain is a vastly
more complex and capable system, with many
functions that are still not fully understood

• The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and

spinal cord and is responsible for receiving, processing,
and integrating sensory information and transmitting
commands to the rest of the body. The brain acts as
the command center, receiving and processing sensory
inputs and generating motor outputs, while the spinal
cord acts as a relay center, transmitting information
between the brain and peripheral nerves.
 Figure: Representation of function of somatic nervous system

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• A neuron receives inputs from other neurons at
its dendrites, integrates the information, and
then generates an electrical impulse, or action
potential, that travels down its axon to the
synaptic terminals. At the synaptic terminals, the
neuron releases chemical neurotransmitters,
which cross the synaptic gap and bind to
receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to
the initiation of another action potential in the
postsynaptic neuron.
• This process of transmitting information from one
neuron to another is known as synaptic
transmission and forms the basis of
communication within the brain.
• The somatic nervous system controls
voluntary movements, while the
autonomic nervous system controls
involuntary functions such as heart rate,
digestion, and respiration.
Figure: Representation of function of
autonomic nervous system
 EEG
• EEG stands for electroencephalography, which
is a non-invasive method for measuring the
electrical activity of the brain. An EEG records
the electrical signals generated by the brain's
neurons as they communicate with each
other. The signals are recorded through
electrodes placed on the scalp and the
resulting EEG pattern provides information
about the synchronized electrical activity of
large populations of neurons.
 Signal Transmission
Signal transmission in the brain occurs through the
firing of nerve cells, or neurons.
• A neuron receives inputs from other neurons at
its dendrites, integrates the information, and
then generates an electrical impulse, or action
potential, that travels down its axon to the
synaptic terminals. At the synaptic terminals, the
neuron releases chemical neurotransmitters,
which cross the synaptic gap and bind to
receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to
the initiation of another action potential in the
postsynaptic neuron.
• This process of transmitting information from one
neuron to another is known as synaptic
transmission and forms the basis of
communication within the brain.
• Different types of neurotransmitters have different
effects on postsynaptic neurons, and the balance of
neurotransmitter levels can influence brain function,
including mood, learning, and memory.
•
Signal transmission in the brain is also influenced by
various forms of synaptic plasticity, including long-term
potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD),
which can modify the strength of synaptic connections
and contribute to learning and memory processes.
Figure: Representing EEG
 Applications of EEG
• Diagnosis of Epilepsy: EEG is a widely used tool to diagnose epilepsy and other
seizure disorders. It can detect abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which can
help to confirm the diagnosis and determine the location of the seizure focus.
• Sleep Studies: EEG is often used in sleep studies to evaluate sleep patterns and
diagnose sleep disorders.
• Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI): EEG can be used to control external devices such
as prosthetic limbs or computer software. This is done by detecting specific brain
waves associated with a particular mental state, such as concentration or
relaxation.
• Research on Brain Function: EEG is used in research to study brain function during
various activities such as reading, problem-solving, and decision-making. EEG can
also be used to investigate how the brain responds to stimuli such as light, sound,
and touch.
• Diagnosis of Brain Disorders: EEG can be used to diagnose a wide range of brain
disorders including dementia, Parkinson's disease, and traumatic brain injury.
• Anesthesia Monitoring: EEG can be used to monitor the depth of anesthesia
during surgery to ensure that the patient remains in a safe and comfortable state.
• Monitoring Brain Activity during Coma: EEG is also used to monitor brain activity in
patients who are in a coma to determine the level of brain function and assess the
likelihood of recovery
 -Contd
• Alpha waves (8-12 Hz): Alpha waves are present when
the brain is relaxed and not focused on any particular
task. They are also associated with meditation and
creativity.
• Beta waves (12-30 Hz): Beta waves are present when
the brain is focused on a task, such as problem-solving
or decision-making. They are also associated with
anxiety and stress.
• Gamma waves (30-100 Hz): Gamma waves are
associated with high-level cognitive processing, such as
attention, perception, and memory. They are also
involved in sensory processing and motor control.
Robotic Arm Prosthetic Direct Control
through Muscle Signals (myoelectric
control)
• Myoelectric control of a robotic arm
prosthetic involves using the electrical signals
generated by the wearer's remaining muscles
to control the movement of the prosthetic.
The system typically involves electrodes
placed on the skin over the remaining muscle
that are used to detect and interpret the
electrical signals generated by the muscle
contractions.
Robotic Arm Prosthetic Direct Control through
Muscle Signals (myoelectric control)
 Robotic Arm Prosthetic Direct Control
through Muscle Signals (myoelectric
control)
• When the wearer contracts their muscles, the electrodes detect the electrical
signals and send them to a control unit, which interprets the signals and uses them
to control the movement of the robotic arm. Depending on the specific design, the
control unit may use pattern recognition algorithms to determine which
movement the wearer is intending to perform, or the wearer may use a
combination of muscle signals to control specific degrees of freedom in the
prosthetic arm.

• Myoelectric control has the advantage of being directly controlled by the user,
allowing for a more intuitive and natural interaction with the prosthetic. It can also
provide a high level of control and precision, as the electrical signals generated by
the muscles are unique to each individual and can be used to perform a wide
range of movements.

• However, myoelectric control systems can be complex and may require extensive
rehabilitation and training to use effectively, as well as ongoing maintenance to
ensure proper function. Additionally, the system may not be suitable for
individuals with muscle weakness or other conditions that affect the ability to
generate strong electrical signals
 valuable information about brain
function and activity, as well as offer
insights into the workings of the
human mind
 Robotic Arms for Prosthetics
• Robotic arms for prosthetics are advanced prosthetic
devices that use robotics technology to restore
functionality to individuals with upper limb amputations.
• These devices typically use motors, actuators, and sensors
to mimic the movements of a human arm and hand,
allowing the wearer to perform tasks such as reaching,
grasping, and manipulating objects.
• Robotic arms for prosthetics can be controlled in a variety
of ways, including direct control through muscle signals
(myoelectric control) or brain-machine interfaces, which
use electrodes implanted in the brain or placed on the
scalp to detect and interpret brain activity.
• Some prosthetic arms also incorporate machine learning
algorithms to improve their performance and adapt to the
user's needs over time.
 Robotic Arm Prosthetic by Brain-
Machine Interfaces
• Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) are a type of
technology that allows a user to control a robotic arm
prosthetic directly with their brain activity. The system
typically involves electrodes placed on the scalp or
implanted directly into the brain to detect and
interpret the user's brain signals
• When the user thinks about moving the prosthetic
arm, the electrodes detect the corresponding brain
activity and send the signals to a control unit, which
uses algorithms to interpret the signals and control the
movement of the prosthetic. The user can then control
the movement of the prosthetic in real-time by
thinking about the desired movement.
Figure: Representing brain-machine
interfaces
 Representing brain-machine
interfaces
• BMIs have the advantage of providing a direct and intuitive
connection between the user's brain and the prosthetic, allowing
for a high level of control and precision. Additionally, BMIs can be
used to provide sensory feedback to the user, allowing them to
experience the sensation of touch through the prosthetic.
• However, BMIs can be complex and invasive systems, requiring
surgical implantation and ongoing maintenance to ensure proper
function. Additionally, they may not be suitable for individuals with
conditions that affect brain activity or who are unable to generate
strong enough brain signals to control the prosthetic effectively.
• Ongoing research and development is aimed at improving the
performance and accessibility of BMIs, as well as increasing their
ease of use and reliability
 Engineering Solutions for Parkinson’s
Disease
• Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects
movement and motor function. There are several engineering
solutions aimed at improving the quality of life for individuals with
Parkinson's disease, including:
• Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): DBS involves the implantation of
electrodes into specific regions of the brain to deliver electrical
stimulation, which can help to relieve symptoms such as tremors,
stiffness, and difficulty with movement.
• Exoskeletons: Exoskeletons are wearable devices that provide
support and assistance for individuals with mobility issues. Some
exoskeletons have been developed specifically for people with
Parkinson's disease, and can help to improve balance, reduce
tremors, and increase overall mobility.
 Eye as a Camera System:
• The human eye can be analogized to a camera system, as both the eye and
a camera capture light and convert it into an image.
• The main components of the eye that correspond to a camera system
include:
•
• The Cornea: This transparent outer layer of the eye functions like a camera
lens, bending light to focus it onto the retina.
• The Iris: The iris functions like the diaphragm in a camera, controlling the
amount of light that enters the eye.
• The Pupil: The pupil functions like the aperture in a camera, adjusting the
size to control the amount of light entering the eye.
• The Retina: The retina functions like the camera film or sensor, capturing
the light and converting it into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.
•
The Optic Nerve: The optic nerve functions like the cable connecting the
camera to a computer, transmitting the electrical signals from the retina to
the brain.
Figure: Representing anatomy of eye
Architecture of Rod and Cone CellS
 Representation of photoreceptor cells
• Rod Cells
• Rod cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are
responsible for detecting light and transmitting signals to the brain for the
perception of vision, especially in low light conditions. They contain a
protein called rhodopsin that absorbs light and triggers a chain of events
leading to the activation of neural signals. Rods are more sensitive to light
than cone cells but do not distinguish color as well.
• Cone Cells
• Cone cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are
responsible for color vision and visual acuity (sharpness of vision). There
are three types of cone cells, each containing a different photopigment
sensitive to different wavelengths of light (red, green, and blue), which
allow for the perception of color. Cones are less sensitive to light than rod
cells but provide better visual acuity and color discrimination. They are
concentrated in the fovea, the central part of the retina responsible for
detailed and sharp vision.
 Architecture
Rod and cone cells have a similar basic structure, but there are
some differences that are crucial for their different functions
Figure: Representing ganglion cells
and bipolar cells
 Optical Corrections

• Optical corrections refer to devices or techniques

used to improve or correct vision problems
caused by a refractive error in the eye.
• Refractive errors occur when light entering the
eye is not properly focused on the retina, leading
to blurred vision. There are several types of
refractive errors, including:
– Myopia (nearsightedness): Light is focused in front of the retina,
making distant objects appear blurry.
– Hyperopia (farsightedness): Light is focused behind the retina,
making near objects appear blurry.
– Astigmatism: Light is not focused evenly on the retina, leading to
blurred or distorted vision.
Cataract
 Bionic Eye or Artificial Eye
• A bionic eye, also known as a retinal implant, is a type of
prosthetic device that is surgically implanted into the eye to
help restore vision to people who have lost their sight due
to certain conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa or age-
related macular degeneration.

• The device typically consists of a camera, a processor, and

an electrode array that is attached to the retina.
• The camera captures images and sends signals to the
processor, which then transmits electrical stimulation to
the electrodes in the retina to stimulate the remaining
healthy cells and restore vision. The restored vision is not
perfect, but it can help people with vision loss to perform
daily tasks more easily and safely.

Figure: Photo of a bionic eye

 Materials Used in Bionic Eye
• The materials used in a bionic eye can vary depending on the specific
device and manufacturer. However, some of the common materials used
in bionic eye technology include:
– Silicon or other semiconducting materials for the camera and the electrode
array.

– Biocompatible materials for the casing of the device and the electrode array,
such as titanium or titanium alloys, to minimize the risk of infection and
rejection by the body.

– Conductive materials, such as platinum, iridium, or gold, for the electrodes in

the array to provide efficient electrical stimulation to the retina.

– Polymers, such as silicone or polyimide, for insulation and protection of the

electrodes and other components.

– Optical materials, such as glass or acrylic, for the lens of the camera.
• Biocompatible and flexible materials for the electrical connections
between the camera and the processing unit and between the processing
unit and the electrode array.
• In addition to these materials, advanced computer algorithms and
machine learning techniques are also used to improve the accuracy and
reliability of the bionic eye technology.
Working of Bionic Eye
 Working of Bionic eye
• A bionic eye typically works by capturing images with a small camera and
transmitting the information to a processing unit that is attached to the
eye. The processing unit then converts the visual information into
electrical signals and sends them to an electrode array that is surgically
implanted onto the retina. The electrodes stimulate the remaining healthy
cells in the retina, which then sends signals to the brain to create the
perception of vision.

• The restored vision is not perfect, but it can help people with vision loss to
perform daily tasks more easily and safely. The amount and quality of
vision that can be restored varies depending on the individual and the
type of bionic eye being used. Some bionic eyes only restore basic visual
shapes and patterns, while others can provide more detailed vision.

• The bionic eye is powered by a battery that is typically implanted behind

the ear. The battery is recharged through a device that is held near the
eye, which transmits power wirelessly to the battery. The device is
typically rechargeable and can be used for several years before it needs to
be replaced.