The Human Body in Health and Illness

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Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Acknowledgments

To the Instructor

To the Student

Chapter 1. Introduction to the Human Body

Anatomy and Physiology: What They Are

Why Do I Need to Know This?

The Body’s Levels of Organization

Major Organ Systems

Homeostasis: Staying the Same

Anatomical Terms: Talking About the Body

Anatomical Position

Relative Positions
 Planes of the Body

Regional Terms

Cavities of the Body

Dorsal Cavity

Ventral Cavity

Chapter 2. Basic Chemistry

Matter, Elements, and Atoms

Elements

Atoms

Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bonds

Covalent Bonds

Hydrogen Bonds

Polarity

Ions

Ion Formation

Ionization

Molecules and Compounds

Compounds

Some Important Compounds and Molecules

Chemical Reactions

Acids and Bases

Acids

Bases

Neutralization of Acids and Bases

Measurement: The pH Scale

 Energy

Forms of Energy

Conversion of Energy

Energy Transfer: The Role of Adenosine Triphosphate

Mixtures, Solutions, Suspensions, and Precipitates

Mixtures

Solutions

Suspensions

Precipitates

Chapter 3. Cells
Typical Cell

Cell Membrane

Inside the Cell

On the Cell Membrane

Movement Across the Cell Membrane

Passive Transport Mechanisms

Active Transport Mechanisms

Cell Division

Cell Cycle

Cell Differentiation

Stem Cells

Order, Disorder, and Death

Chapter 4. Cell Metabolism

Metabolism

Carbohydrates
 Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Polysaccharides

Uses of Glucose

The Breakdown of Glucose

The Making of Glucose

Lipids (Fats)

Uses of Lipids

Proteins

Amino Acids

Uses of Proteins

Protein Synthesis and DNA

DNA Structure

Steps in Protein Synthesis

Chapter 5. Microbiology Basics

What Is Disease?

Types of Pathogens

Microorganisms (Microbes)

Other (Multicellular) Disease-Causing Organisms

Laboratory Identification of Pathogens

The Spread of Infection

Portals of Entry and Exit

Five Germ-Laden Stories

Dr. Semmelweis Screams, “Wash Those Mitts!”

Flora and Her Vaginal Itch

Rick, Nick, and the Sick Tick

 Why Typhoid Mary Needed to Lose Her Gallbladder

A Pox News Alert!

Chapter 6. Tissues and Membranes

Epithelial Tissue

What Does It Do?

What Is It Like?

Classification

Simple Epithelia

Stratified Epithelia

Glandular Epithelia

Connective Tissue

What Does It Look Like?

Types of Connective Tissue

Nervous Tissue

Neurons

Muscle Tissue

Skeletal Muscle

Smooth Muscle

Cardiac Muscle

Tissue Repair

Membranes

Chapter 7. Integumentary System and Body Temperature

Functions of the Integumentary System

Structure of the Skin

Layers of the Skin

 Skin Color

Accessory Structures of the Skin

Hair

Nails

Glands

Body Temperature

Heat Production

Heat Loss

Regulation

When Skin Is Burned

A Note About Skin Care

Chapter 8. Skeletal System

Arrangement and Functions of Bones

The Skeletal System: What It Does

Many Sizes and Shapes of Bones

Bone Tissue and Bone Formation

Compact and Spongy Bone

Long Bones

Ossification

Growing Bones

Divisions of the Skeletal System

Axial Skeleton

Appendicular Skeleton

Joints (Articulations)

Joint Classification

Naming Joints
 Moving Synovial Joints

Clinically “Big” Synovial Joints

Chapter 9. Muscular System

Types and Functions of Muscles

Skeletal Muscle

Smooth Muscle

Cardiac Muscle

Structure of the Whole Muscle

Layers of Connective Tissue

Muscle Attachments

Structure and Function of a Single Muscle Fiber

How Muscles Contract

The Role of Calcium and Adenosine Triphosphate

Skeletal Muscles and Nerves

The Motor Unit

The Neuromuscular Junction

Muscle Responses

Energy Source for Muscle Contraction

Muscle Fatigue

Muscle Terms

Prime Mover, Synergist, and Antagonist

Muscle Overuse and Underuse Terms

How Skeletal Muscles are Named

Size

Shape

Orientation of Fibers
 Location

Number of Origins

Origin and Insertion

Muscle Action

Muscles From Head to Toe

Muscles of the Head

Muscles of the Neck

Muscles of the Trunk

Muscles of the Shoulder (Pectoral) Girdle and Arm

Muscles That Move the Forearm

Muscles That Move the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers

Muscles That Move the Thigh, Leg, and Foot

Muscles That Move the Leg

Muscles That Move the Foot

Chapter 10. Nervous System: Nervous Tissue and Brain

The Nervous System: Structure and Function

Divisions of the Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System

Cells That Make Up the Nervous System

Neuroglia

Neuron

White Matter Versus Gray Matter

The Neuron Carrying Information

The Nerve Impulse: What It Is

The Nerve Impulse: What Causes It

The Nerve Impulse: What Causes It to Move

 The Nerve Impulse: What Causes It to Move Quickly

Synapse Across Neurons

Parts of a Synapse

Events at the Synapse

Brain: Structure and Function

Cerebrum

Diencephalon

Brain Stem

Cerebellum

Structures Across Divisions of the Brain

Protecting the Central Nervous System

Bone: First Layer of Protection

Meninges: Second Layer of Protection

Cerebrospinal Fluid: Third Layer of Protection

Blood–Brain Barrier: Fourth Layer of Protection

Chapter 11. Nervous System: Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nerves

What the Spinal Cord Is

Gray on the Inside, White on the Outside

What the Spinal Cord Does

Reflexes

The Reflex Arc

Many, Many Reflexes

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves

Classifying the Peripheral Nervous System

Spinal Nerves Attached to the Spinal Cord

Chapter 12. Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic (Visceral) Reflexes

Pathway

Organization and Function of the Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic Tone and Vasomotor Tone

Autonomic Nervous System Neurons

Neurons of the Sympathetic Nervous System

Neurons of the Parasympathetic Nervous System

Naming Fibers and Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters: Termination of Activity

Receptors of the Autonomic Nervous System

Cholinergic Receptors

Adrenergic Receptors

Autonomic Terminology: “Doing” Autonomic Pharmacology

Chapter 13. Sensory System

Receptors and Sensation

Sensation and Perception

Experiencing a Sensation

The General Senses

Pain

Touch and Pressure

Temperature

Proprioception

The Special Senses

Sense of Smell: The Nose

Sense of Taste: The Tongue

 Sense of Sight: The Eye

Sense of Hearing: The Ear

Sense of Balance: The Ear

Chapter 14. Endocrine System

Endocrine Glands

Classification of Hormones

Targets

Hormone Receptors

Control of Hormone Secretion

Pituitary Gland and the Hypothalamus

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Thyroid Gland

Thyroid Follicle

What Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4) Do

Regulation of Secretion

The Need for Iodine

Calcitonin

Parathyroid Glands

PTH Deficiency and Hypocalcemic Tetany

Adrenal Glands

Adrenal Medulla

Adrenal Cortex

Pancreas

Insulin

Glucagon
 Gonads

Thymus Gland

Pineal Gland

Other Hormones

Prostaglandins

Adipose Tissue Hormones

Chapter 15. Blood

What Blood Does

Composition of Blood

Blood Has Two Parts

Origin of Blood Cells

Bone Marrow Woes: Too Little, Too Much

Blood Cells

White Blood Cells

Platelets

Blood Counts

Hemostasis: Prevention of Blood Loss

Blood Vessel Spasm

Formation of a Platelet Plug

Blood Coagulation

Blood Types

Antigens and Blood Types

Antibodies and Blood Type

Antigen–Antibody Interaction

Compatibility and Incompatibility of Blood Types

Rh Classification System
Chapter 16. Anatomy of the Heart
Function, Location, and Size of the Heart

Layers and Covering of the Heart

Endocardium

Myocardium

Epicardium

Pericardium

A Double Pump and Two Circulations

The Heart’s Chambers and Great Vessels

Right Atrium

Right Ventricle

Left Atrium

Left Ventricle

Great Vessels of the Heart

Heart Valves

Atrioventricular Valves

Semilunar Valves

Heart Sounds

Pathway of Blood Flow Through the Heart

Blood Supply to the Myocardium

Ischemia and Infarction

Cardiac Enzymes and Leaky Cells

Cardiac Conduction System

Parts of the Cardiac Conduction System

Automaticity and Rhythmicity

Electrocardiogram
Chapter 17. Function of the Heart
The Coordinated and Adaptable Pump

Autonomic Control of the Heart

Heart Talk

Heart Talk: Receptor Language

The Failing Heart: When the Heart Can’t Pump

Left Heart Failure

Right Heart Failure

Chapter 18. Anatomy of the Blood Vessels and Special Circulations

Circles, Circuits, and Circulations

Blood Vessels

Blood Vessel Walls: The Layered Look

Blood Vessels: What They Do

Major Arteries of the Systemic Circulation

Aorta

Branches of the Aorta

Major Veins of the Systemic Circulation

Venae Cavae

Special Circulations

Blood Supply to the Head and Brain

Blood Supply to the Liver and the Hepatic Portal Circulation

Fetal Circulation

Pulse

What Can You Learn About a Patient by Feeling the Pulse?

Chapter 19. Functions of the Blood Vessels

 Blood Vessels Deliver

Blood Vessels Regulate Blood Pressure

Blood Pressure in Different Blood Vessels

What Determines Blood Pressure?

How Blood Pressure Stays Within Normal Limits

Blood Vessels Act as Exchange Vessels

What Is an Exchange Vessel?

Why Capillaries Are Good Exchange Vessels

Capillary Forces: Exchange

Blood Vessels Distribute Blood

Blood Vessels Regulate Body Temperature

Chapter 20. Lymphatic System

Lymph and Lymphatic Circulation

Lymphatic Vessels

What Causes Lymph to Move?

Lymphatic Tissue

Lymphatic Organs

Lymph Nodes

Thymus Gland

Spleen

Lymphatic Nodules

Chapter 21. Immune System

Classification of the Immune System

Nonspecific Immunity

Specific Immunity: Third Line of Defense

 Types of Immunity

Genetic Immunity

Acquired Immunity

Other Immune Responses

Allergic Reactions

Chapter 22. Respiratory System

Structure: Organs of the Respiratory System

Nose and Nasal Cavities

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea

Bronchial Tree: Bronchi, Bronchioles, and Alveoli

Lungs

Pleural Membranes

Collapsed and Expanded Lungs

Why Lungs Collapse

Why Lungs Expand

Saying It Another Way: Compliance

Respiratory Function

Amounts of Air

Control of Breathing

Chapter 23. Digestive System

Overview of the Digestive System

Digestion and Absorption

Layers and Membranes of the Digestive Tract

 Structures and Organs

Pharynx

Esophagus

Stomach

Small Intestine

Large Intestine

Accessory Digestive Organs

Liver

Gallbladder

Pancreas

Digestion and Absorption

Carbohydrates and Carbohydrate-Splitting Enzymes

Proteins and Protein-Splitting Enzymes

Fats, Bile, and Fat-Splitting Enzymes

Nutrition: Concepts to Know

Carbohydrates

Proteins

Fats (Lipids)

Vitamins

Minerals

Health and a Balanced Diet

Chapter 24. Urinary System

Excretion

Urinary System Organs

Urinary System Terms

Kidneys
 Structure

Blood Supply

Nerve Supply

Functions of the Kidneys

Urine Making: The Nephron Unit

Urine Formation

Hormones That Work on the Kidneys

Aldosterone

Antidiuretic Hormone

Natriuretic Peptides

Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin

Composition of Urine

Uremia and Dialysis

Your Plumbing

Ureters

Urinary Bladder

Urination

Urethra

An Autonomic Moment

Chapter 25. Water, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base Balance

Body Fluids: Distribution and Composition

Composition of Body Fluids

Water Balance

Water Intake

Water Output

Water Imbalances
 Why Does Fluid Shift?

Fluid Spacing—in Other Words

Electrolyte Balance

Quick Reference: Electrolytes

Most Important Ions

Acid–Base Balance

Quick Reference: Acids and Bases

Where the Acid Comes From

How the Body Regulates pH

Buffers

Lungs

Respiratory Activity as the Cause of Changes in pH

Respiratory Activity as the Correction for Changes in pH

Acid–Base Imbalances

Acidosis

Alkalosis

Chapter 26. Reproductive Systems

Male Reproductive System

Testes

Genital Ducts

Accessory Glands

Semen

External Genitals

Male Sexual Response: Erection, Emission, Ejaculation, and Orgasm

Male Sex Hormones

Female Reproductive System

 Ovaries

Genital Tract

External Genitals

Female Sexual Response

Hormonal Control of the Reproductive Cycles

Two Reproductive Cycles

Female Breast and Lactation

Methods of Birth Control

Chapter 27. Human Development and Heredity

Fertilization

When Fertilization Occurs

Where Fertilization Occurs

How Fertilization Occurs

Human Development

Prenatal Development

Early Embryonic Period

Embryonic Period

Fetal Period

Changes in the Mother’s Body During Pregnancy

Birth

Postnatal Changes and Developmental Stages

Development as a Lifelong Process

Heredity

DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes

It’s a Boy; It’s a Girl: How the Sex of the Child Is Determined

Congenital and Hereditary Disease

Answers to Review Your Knowledge and Go Figure Questions

Glossary

Index