S.NO CONTENT PAGE.

NO

1. Introduction 2
2. Discovery of electrons 3-5

3. Discovery of protons and 6-7

neutrons
4. Thomson's model of atom 8

5. Rutherford's nuclear model 9-11

6. Bhor's model of atom 12-13

7. Quantum mechanical model 14-15

8. Conclusion 16

9. Bibliography 17

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 Introduction

Atoms can join together to form molecules, which make up

most objects. Different elements (e.g. oxygen, carbon,
uranium) are made up of different types of atoms. An atom
is the smallest unit of an element that will behave as that
element.

Atoms consist of an extremely small, positively charged

nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged
electrons. Although typically the nucleus is less than one
ten-thousandth the size of the atom, the nucleus contains
more that 99.9% of the mass of the atom. Nuclei are made
of positively charged protons and electrically neutral
neutrons held together by a nuclear force. This force is
much stronger than the electrostatic force that binds
electrons to the nucleus, but its range is limited to
distances of the order of 1 x 10-15 meters.

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 Discovery of electrons
Hundred years ago, amidst glowing glass tubes and the
hum of electricity, the British physicist Thomson, was
venturing into the interior of the atom. At the Cavendish
Laboratory at Cambridge University, Thomson was
experimenting with currents of electricity inside empty
glass tubes. He was investigating a long-standing puzzle
known as "cathode rays His experiments prompted him to
make a bold proposal: these mysterious rays are streams
of particles much smaller than atoms, they are in fact
minuscule pieces of atoms. He called these particles
"corpuscles," and suggested that they might make up all of
the matter in atoms. It was startling to imagine a particle
residing inside the atom-most people thought that the
atom was indivisible, the most fundamental unit of matter.
During the 1880s and 90s scientists searched sathede
rays for the carrier of the electrical properties in matter.
Their work culminated in the discovery by English
physicist Thomson of the electron in 1897. The existence
of the electron showed that the 2,000-year-old conception
of the atom as a homogeneous particle was wrong and
that in fact the atom has a complex structure.

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Cathode-ray studies began in 1854 when Heinrich
Geissier, a glassblower and technical assistant to the
German physicist Julius Plucker, improved the vacuum
tube. Plücker discovered cathode rays in 1858 by sealing
two electrodes inside the tube, evacuating the air, and
forcing olectric curront between the electrodes. He found a
green glow on the wall of his glass tube and attributed it to
rays emanating from the cathode in 1869, with better
vacuums, Plücker's pupil Johann W. Hitter saw a shadow
cast by an object placed in front of the cathode. The
shadow proved that the cathode rays originated from the
cathode. The English physicist and chemist William
Grookes investigated cathode rays in 1879 and found that
they were bent by a magnetic field, the direction of
deflection suggested that they were negativoly charged
ticles. As the luminescence did not depend on what gas
had been in the vacuum or what metal the electrodes were
made of, he surmised that the rays were a property of the
electric current itself. As a result of Crookes's work,
cathode rays wore widely studied, and the tubes came to
be called Crookes tubes

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5
 CANAL RAYS

Anode rays (or Canal rays) were observed in experiments

by a German scientist. Eugen Goldstein, in 1886.
Goldstein used a gas discharge tube which had a
perforated cathode. A "ray" is produced in the holes
(canals) in the cathode and travels in a direction opposite
to the "cathode rays," which are streams of electrons.
Goldstein called these positive rays "Kanalstrahlen-canal
rays because it looks like they are passing through a
canal. In 1907 a study of how this "ray" was deflected in a
magnetic field. revealed that the particles making up the
ray were not all the same mass- The lightest, formed when
there was a little hydrogen in the tube, was calculated to
be 1837 times as massive as an electron. They were

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 Discovery of the Neutron
● It is remarkable that the neutron was not discovered
until 1932 when James Chadwick used scattering
data to calculate the mass of this neutral particle.
Since the time of Rutherford it had been known that
the atomic mass number A of nuclei is a bit more than
twice the atomic number Z for most atoms and that
essentially all the mass of the atom is concentrated in
the relatively tiny nucleus. As of about 1930 it was
presumed that the fundamental particles were protons
and electrons, but that required that somehow a
number of electrons were bound in the nucleus to
partially cancel the charge of A protons. But by this
time it was known from the uncertainty principle and
from "particle: in-a-box type confinement calculations
that there just wasn't enough energy available to
contain electrons in the nucleus

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 J. J. Thomson's raisin bread
model(plum pudding model)

J. J. Thomson considered that the structure of an atom is

something like a raisin bread, so that his atomic model is
sometimes called the raisin bread model. He assumed
that the basic body of an atom is a spherical object
containing N electrons confined in homogeneous jellylike
but relatively massive positive charge distribution whose
total charge cancels that of the N electrons. The
schematic drawing of this model is shown in the following
figure. Thomson's model is sometimes dubbed a plum
pudding model.

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 RUTHERFORD'S ALPHA
SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

In the years 1909-1911 Ernest Ruthefordand his students -

Hans Geiger (1882-1945) and Ernest Marsden conducted
some experiments to search the problem of alpha particles
scattering by the thin gold-leaf. Rutheford knew that the
particles contain the 2e charge. The experiment
causedthe creation of the new model of atom - the
"planetary" model.

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Rutheford suggested to hit the gold-leaf (picture no. 1)
with fast alpha particles from the source 214Po. (The
source R was in the lead lining F). The particles felt from
the source on the gold-leaf E and were observed by the
microscope M. The whole experiment was in the metal
lining A and was covered with the glass plate P. The
instrument was attached to the footing B. The gold leaf
was about 5*10-7 meter thick. The scientist knew that
reckoning the scattering angle could say much about the
structure of atoms of the gold-leaf.

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 Rutheford made a theoretical
analysis of angles of
scattering in accordance
Thomson's theory of atom
and in accordance with his
own theory. He assumed that
atom consisted of positive
charged nucleus and
negative charged electrons
circling around the nucleus.
Then his theoretic
calculations he compared
with the experiment result. Alpha particles going through
atom created in accordance with the "plum cake" model
wouldn't be strong abberated because the electric field in
that atom wouldn't be strong. In the model created by
Rutheford the field is much stronger near to the nucleus,
so some of alpha particles are much more abberated. The
other going in the far distance to the nucleus are almost
not at all abberated. The probability that any alpha particle
will hit the nucleus is small but there is such a chance

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 PLANETARY MODEL OF ATOM BY
BOHR

The Bohr Model is probably familar as the "planetary

model" of the atom illustrated in the adjacent figure that,
for example, is used as a symbol for atomic energy (a bit
of a misnomer, since the energy in "atomic energy" is
actually the energy of the nucleus, rather than the entire
atom). In the Bohr Model the neutrons and protons
(symbolized by red and blue balls in the adjacent image)
occupy a dense central region called the nucleus, and the
electrons orbit the nucleus much like planets orbiting the
Sun (but the orbits are not confined to a plane as is
approximately true in the Solar System). The adjacent
image is not to scale since in the realistic case the radius
of the nucleus is about 100.000 times smaller than the
radius of the entire atom, and as far as we can tell
electrons are point particles without a physical extent

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 This similarity between a planetary model and the Bohr
Model of the atom ultimately arises because the attractive
gravitational force in a solar system and the attractive
Coulomb (electrical) force between the positively charged
nucleus and the negatively charged electrons in an atom
are mathematically of the same form. (The fonn is the
same, but the intrinsic strength of the Coulomb interaction
is much larger than that of the gravitational interaction; in
addition, there are positive and negative electrical charges
so the Coulomb interaction can be either attractive or
repulsive. but gravitation is always attractive in our present
Universe.)

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 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

According to the Principles of Quantum Mechanics

electrons are distributed around the nuclous in "probability
regions". These probability regions are called "atomic
orbitals". According to Quantum Mechanics, these orbitals
are mathematically defined and are described by a
uniquely different for each electron in the atom called an
"eigen function and a differential equation generated by
the following equalion

• Heigen function) = Energy (eigen function) The H in the

above equation stands for a mathematical operator

called the Hamiltonian. We should be familiar with math

operators since we have been dealing with them since
grade. school. The addition operator has to operate upon
two numbers one that appears on its left and the other on
its right. Far example the addition operator operates upon
the number 4 and 3 and the result of that operation as all
knows would be 7. We have subtraction, multiplier,
division,common log, natural log.exponentiation etc. The
Hamiltonian operator is kinda like these but much more
complex. The result of the Hamiltonian operator operating
on the eigen function of an electron is to generate a
differential equation. Differential equations often have

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more than one root or solution which is not new to those
who have had a finst year algebra course where quadratic
equations are studied. However, one property of
differential equations that might be new to you is the fact
that differential equations cannot be solved exactly. We
must use approximation methods to extract any roots out
of the equation, and those roots or solutions will be
approximate solutions.

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 Conclusion

The structure of the atom is the best way of describing the

atom and the subatomic particles. It describes the
properties of atoms and helps us understand the different
behaviors and characteristic features of the atom. Over
the past century, many different physicists and scientists
proposed different atomic models, but the model proposed
by Neils Bohr satisfies most principles and properties of
the atom and this model is considered the most
appropriate atomic model.
Atoms consist of electrons, neutrons, and protons. The
electrons are negitively charged and protons are positively
charged. Protons and electrons are attracted to each
other. Protons and neutrons are about the same size while
electrons are much smaller. The nucleus is positively
charged and consists of neutrons and protons. Electrons
move around the nucleus in certain rings. The particles
within the atom are held together by very strong forces.

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 Bibliography

● https://www.slideshare.net/DeepAmloh/atoms-physics
-class-12th-nonmed
● https://byjus.com/jee/atomic-structure/
● https://www.arpansa.gov.au/understanding-radiation/w
hat-is-radiation/ionising-radiation/atomic-structure
● https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/atomic-structure/
● https://www.universetoday.com/56469/atom-diagram/
amp/
● Refrence books
● Ncert

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