Unit-II

Energy : Sources, Conversion and Storage

Chemical fuels - Introduction, Calorific value - definition, gross and net calorific values;
Determination of calorific value of a solid/liquid fuel using Bomb calorimeter and
numerical on calorific value; Petroleum cracking - fluidized bed catalytic cracking; Octane
number- Reformation of petrol.

Sustainable energy sources: Hydrogen as a fuel - advantages, production and storage.

Biofuels- Production of Biodiesel. Solar cells - Construction and working of Si based PV cell,
advantages. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s)- Principle, Properties and
Applications.

Electrochemical Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, Classification of batteries -

primary and secondary batteries; Battery characteristics; construction, working and
applications of Lithium ion batteries.
 Electrochemical Energy Systems: Batteries
Battery
➢ Battery is an electrochemical device, working on the principle of redox
reaction it mainly converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
➢ Energy storage device- which stores electrical power and act as a portable
power supply for the commercial purposes.
➢ Commercial purposes- Electronic devices, power backup, vehicle
transportation and emergency power and so on…
➢ The basic functional unit of a battery is galvanic cells, two or more galvanic
cells which are arranged in series to get the desired power.
 Main components of a battery

Four components

1. Anode- Oxidation take place (ex: metal)

Metal Metal ion + electron

2. Cathode- Reduction take place (ex: metal)

Metal ion + electron Metal

3. Electrolyte – medium which helps the movement

of ions
Ex: solution of acid/base or salt with high ionic conductivity

4. Separator – Separates anode and cathode in a battery

and prevent internal short circuit.
Separator is electrolytic conductor but an electronic insulator
Example: cellulose or polymer membrane
 Classification of battery- Batteries are classified into 3 types

1.Primary battery:- Primary batteries are the battery which cannot be recharge because the cell reactions
are irreversible. Cannot be reused
Ex:- Dry cell, Li-MnO2 cell

2. Secondary battery:- Secondary batteries are the battery which can be recharge because the cell
reactions are reversible. Can be reused
Ex:- Lead storage battery, Li-ion battery

3) Reserve batteries:- The batteries which can be stored in an inactive state and made ready for use by
activating them prior to the applications (usage) are called as reserved batteries. The key components of
the batteries such as electrolyte and electrode is separated from the battery. And the battery is stored for
a longer time. The electrolyte if filled before its usage. The advantages of the reserved batteries are,

▪ Batteries can be stored for a longer period.

▪ To prevent corrosion at contact points during storage.
▪ Self-discharging reactions during storage can be eliminated or avoided
▪They can be used whenever they are required. Used in defense field.
Ex: Mg-water activated batteries, Zn-Ag2O batteries etc
Advantages of Li-batteries:
❖ They have high energy density than other rechargeable batteries.
❖ They are less weight.
❖ They have improved safety, i.e. more resistance to overcharge.
❖ No liquid electrolyte means they are immune from leaking.
 Lithium Batteries
Why Lithium metal used as battery materials?
▶ Lithium is a light metal with low electrode potential
▶ Good conductivity.
▶ High energy density and storage density
▶ The batteries where lithium is used as an anode are known as lithium batteries.
▶ A large number of lithium batteries are available which have lithium as anode,
but they differ in choice of cathode and electrolyte.
 Construction, working and applications of Li-ion battery Li-CoO2
Construction
▶ Anode: Lithium inserted layered structure of graphite (for 1 Li atom covered by 6 C atoms)
▶ Cathode: Lithium metal oxides (Li-MO2) like LiCoO2
▶ Electrolyte :Lithium salt such as LiPF6 dissolved in organic solvents like propylene
carbonate, ethylene carbonate etc.
▶ Separator: Micro porous polymer membrane
▶ Li ion battery develops a potential of 3.6 V
Working
Cell reactions during discharging

Anode : LiC6 Li+ + 6C + e- Oxidation

Cathode: MO2 + Li+ + e- Li - MO2 Reduction

Above reactions are reversed during charging

Uses:
➢ Used in electronic devices like watches, mobile, calculator, laptops
and so on
Used in the construction some medical devices
Characteristics of Batteries:
1. Voltage: The voltage of a battery mainly depends upon the emf of the cells which constitute
the battery system. The emf of the cell depends on the free energy changes in the overall cell
reaction. As given by Nernst equation,

Where, 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙0 = 𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒0 − 𝐸𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒0 and K is the reaction quotient for the cell reaction at any stage
of the reaction, which is the ratio of the product of molar concentration of the reaction product
molecules to that of reactants. As it is evident from the above equation, emf of the cell and the
voltage available from the battery is dependent on standard electrode potential difference
between the cathode and anode, temperature and the extent of the cell reaction. The anodic
and cathodic overpotentials, and internal resistance of the cell should be minimum to obtain
higher voltages.

2. Current: Current is a measure of the rate at which the battery is discharging. Higher the rate of
spontaneous reaction, higher is the current. Higher the surface area of the electrodes and higher the
concentrations of the active materials, higher is the rate of reaction. Current is measured in A.
3. Capacity: Capacity is a measure of the amount of electricity that may be obtained from the
battery. It is expressed in Ah (ampere hours). It is proportional to the amount of charge in
Coulombs that may be transported from anode to cathode through the external circuit. The
charge (C) in Coulombs is given by the Faraday’s relation:

where w is the weight of active material present at one of the electrodes, n = number of
electrons involved in discharge reaction, F = 96500 C/mol, and M its molar mass.

More is the length of the flat portion of the

curve, better is the capacity of the battery.
4. Energy density: It is the ratio of energy available from the battery to its weight (or volume). If
a battery can be discharged at a current I and at an average voltage E for a period of time t, then
the energy density is given by Energy density = (I x E x t)/w, where w is the weight of the
battery. It may be expressed in either Joules/kg or Wh/kg

5. Power density: It is the power per unit weight (or volume) of the battery. If a battery can be
discharged at a current I and at a voltage E, then the power density is given by
Power density = (I x E)/w
where w is the weight of the battery. It may be expressed in W/kg.

6. Energy efficiency: The energy efficiency of a rechargeable battery is given by

7. Cycle life: It is the number of discharge–charge cycles possible in a rechargeable battery

before failure occurs. A good battery must have high cycle life.
8. Shelf life: The duration of storage of a battery, at the end of which the battery is able to give
required performance is called shelf life. A good battery must have long shelf life.
Energy Sources
 Chemical Fuels
Chemical fuels are the chemical substances made up of hydrocarbons (C and H)
upon combustion in presence of air or oxygen it releases energy in the form
of heat and light and the released energy can be economically used for
domestic and industrial applications.
Importance of hydrocarbons as fuels:
❖Petroleum, coal and natural gas are excellent hydrocarbons.
❖These fuels are important sources of energy in daily life.
❖Hydrocarbons are used as energy sources in cooking, lighting, automobiles,
production of electricity in thermal power plants etc.
❖These hydrocarbon fuels meet 80% of the world’s energy demand. Thus,
hydrocarbons are important sources of energy.
Classification of Fuels
On the basis of physical state, fuels are classified as solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
On the basis of their origin, fuels are classified as primary and secondary fuels.
Primary fuels: The fuels which occur naturally and can be used in their original
form without subjecting into any chemical modification are called as primary fuels.
Secondary fuels: The fuels which are obtained by subjecting the naturally
occurring substances into chemical processes are called as secondary fuels.
Calorific value:
Definition: It is defined as the total amount of heat liberated when a unit mass or volume of fuel
is burnt completely in air or oxygen.

Gross (High) calorific value (GCV or HCV)

Definition: The total amount of heat liberated when a unit quantity of fuel is burnt completely in
air and the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature. It is also called as higher
calorific value (HCV).

Net (low) Calorific value (NCV or LCV)

Definition: It is the amount of heat liberated when a unit quantity of a fuel is burnt completely in
air or oxygen and the products of combustion are allowed to escape.

GCV value is higher than NCV.

❖ In case of GCV, on cooling the combustion products, steam gets condensed to water and
liberates its latent heat.
❖ The measured GCV includes the latent heat of steam. Therefore, it is always higher than the
net calorific value.
❖ Whereas in case of NCV, the products of combustion are let off in to the atmosphere, the
calorific value does not include the latent heat of steam.
❖ Therefore, NCV is always lower than GCV

Two main reactions that occur during combustion are:

❖ Carbon and hydrogen present in the fuel are converted in to carbon dioxide and steam
respectively, on combustion.
C + O2 CO2
H2 + 1/2O2 H2O(liquid) H2O (vapour)

GCV is total heat liberated by fuel including heat of condensation of water and NCV is heat
liberated by combustion of fuel excluding heat of condensation of water. Both are related by,

NCV = GCV – heat associated with steam

Calculation of Heat associated with steam
NCV = GCV – heat associated with steam
Heat associated with steam = Mass of H2O formed in combustion x Latent heat of H2O
Mass of H2O formed in combustion = 9 x Mass of H2 present
(1 part by mass of hydrogen produces 9 parts by mass of water)
% of Hydrogen present in fuel
Mass of H2 present = = 0.01 x % of hydrogen present in fuel
100
∴ Mass of H2O formed in combustion = 9 x 0.01 x % of hydrogen present in fuel
= 0.09 x % of hydrogen present in fuel
Heat associated with steam = 0.09 x % of hydrogen present in fuel x Latent heat of H2O
Latent heat of steam = 587 cal/g
∴ NCV= [GCV- 0.09 x % of H2 X 587] cal/g
OR NCV= [GCV- 0.09 x % of H2 X 2454] kJ/Kg

Note: The unit of latent heat of water and unit of GCV, NCV should be same.
S. I. unit of calorific value: For solids, calorific value is expressed in kJkg-1 (KiloJoules per kg). For gaseous fuels it is expressed in Jm-3
(Joules / m3)
Specific heat: Specific heat of water is the amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of one kg of water by one degree
C. Units: J/kg/oC.
Latent heat of steam: Latent heat of steam is the amount of heat energy required to convert 1 Kg of liquid to vapor or steam
Units: kJ/kg.
Determination of Calorific Value:
The calorific value of solid and non-volatile liquid fuels is determined by bomb
calorimeter.

Principle: A known mass of a

solid/liquid fuel is burnt in excess
oxygen. The surrounding water in
the calorimeter absorbs the heat
liberated. Thus, the heat liberated
by the fuel is equal to the heat
absorbed by the water in the
calorimeter. By recording the rise
in temperature of water and
knowing specific heat of water,
calorific value is calculated.
Construction & working:
❖ The bomb calorimeter consists of a stainless-steel vessel with an airtight lid. This vessel is
called bomb.
❖ The bomb has an inlet valve for providing oxygen atmosphere inside the bomb and an
electrical ignition coil for starting of combustion of fuel.
❖ The bomb is placed in an insulated copper calorimeter. The calorimeter has a mechanical
stirrer for dissipation of heat and a thermometer for reading the temperature.
❖ A known mass of the solid fuel is placed in a crucible. The crucible is placed inside the bomb.
The lid is closed tightly. The bomb is placed inside a copper calorimeter.
❖ A known mass of water is taken in the calorimeter. The bomb is filled with oxygen at a
pressure of 25-30 atm. The temperature t1 in the thermometer is noted.
❖ On passing an electric current through the ignition coil, the fuel gets ignited. The fuel burns
liberating heat.
❖ The water is continuously stirred using the stirrer. The maximum temperature attained by the
water, t2 , is noted.
Note: Water equivalent is nothing but the amount of water that would absorb the same amount of heat as the calorimeter per
degree temperature increase.
 Numericals
1) When 0.935g of fuel undergoes complete combustion in excess of oxygen the increase in temp
of water in the calorimeter containing 1365 g of water was 2.4°C. Calculate HCV. [Water
equivalent of calorimeter = 135 g and S = 4.187 kJ/Kg/°C].
2. When 0.8g of coal sample with 92% Carbon, 5% H2 & 3% ash caused a rise in temp of 4000 g of
water by 6.2°C in a bomb calorimeter experiment. Calculate the GCV and NCV values of coal
sample.
[w = 400 g, s = 4.187 kJ/kg/0C] and L = 587 cal/g.
3. On burning 1.15g of coal sample in a bomb calorimeter the temp of 3.5 kg of water in the
calorimeter increases from 26.5 0C to 28.5 0C. [w = 325 g, s = 4.187 kJ/kg/0C, L = 587 cal/g]. If the
fuel contains 4% of H2, calculate GCV and NCV. [S = 4.187 kJ/Kg/°C]
4. Calculate GCV and NCV of the fuel sample from the following data.
[Mass of the fuel = 7.4 *10^-3 kg, weight of water = 3.8 kg, w = 0.7 kg, t1 = 25 0C, t2 = 27.9 0C. % of
H2 = 5.8. S = 4.187kJ/kg/0C, L = 2454 kJ/Kg]
5. GCV of coal sample is 35400 kJ/kg in an experiment when 0.73 g of sample was burnt under
1.23 kg of water in the bomb calorimeter experiment. Due to combustion of sample rise in temp
was 4.92 0C. Calculate water equivalent. S = 4.187 kJ/Kg/0C.
 Chemical Processing of Crude Petroleum
➢Petroleum is the most important substance consumed in modern society as a fuel for
energy, industry, heating, and transportation, and as a raw material for the
polymers and petrochemicals.

➢More than 50% of our energy requirements are met by petroleum.

➢Petroleum is a naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons with small quantities of

nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur-containing compounds, which occur in sedimentary rock
deposits in gaseous, liquid, and solid states.

➢If we use raw crude petroleum products as fuel directly without any chemical
processing then the efficiency of the fuel is very less because raw crude petroleum
has some unwanted elements which are not support for combustion reaction.

➢To get the desired chemical composition, structure, and desired elements it is very
much necessary for us to do chemical processing of crude petroleum.
Processing of crude oil into desired products involve mainly three steps:
(1)Fractional distillation
(2)Cracking of petroleum
(3)Reforming of petrol (gasoline), and hydro treating to remove sulfur.

Fractional Distillation:
❖ Petroleum is a complex mixture of variety of hydrocarbons.
❖ Physical and chemical properties of molecules vary with the number of carbon
atoms and structure.
❖ It is impossible to separate and purify each and every component of petroleum.
❖ However, petroleum can be separated into a variety of fractions on the basis of
the boiling point range by the fractional distillation method.

Fractional distillation is a separation process used in the refining of crude oil to separate its various components
based on their boiling points. Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with different molecular weights and
boiling points. Fractional distillation takes advantage of the fact that different hydrocarbons vaporize at different
temperatures.
 In general, fractionation of crude oil yields three basic groups of products:
1) Light oil fraction (Lower boiling products): This provides gas (liquefied
petroleum gas), naphtha, aviation fuel, motor fuel and feedstock for
petrochemicals.
2) Middle oil fraction (Middle boiling range products): This includes kerosene,
diesel fuel, distillate fuel oil, and light gas oil.
3) Heavy oil fraction (Higher boiling range products): This includes lubricating oils,
gas oil, and waxes.

❖ Among these fractions, lower boiling range products have highest market
demand of 40% due to their variety of applications. But, fractionation yields
only about 7% of these products.
❖ On the other hand, higher boiling range products have less demand (5%) but
obtained in higher yield (>50%) from fractional distillation.
❖ Therefore, heavy oil fractions are subjected to cracking to convert them into
light oil fractions.
CRACKING OF PETROLEUM
Definition: The decomposition of bigger hydrocarbons into simpler, low boiling hydrocarbons of
low molecular weight.

What is the need for cracking?

Cracking is very important in the petroleum industry for following reasons:
1. To produce extra petrol: Heavy fractions in less demand can be cracked to produce extra
petrol.
2. To improve the quality of ‘straight-run’ gasoline. It has to be properly blended. It is important
to note that the characteristics of gasoline obtained by cracking are far more superior to the
straight run gasoline.
3. To produce alkenes: Cracking always produces alkenes that can be used to many useful
organic chemicals.
4. There is surplus of heavier petroleum fractions.
There are two methods for cracking:
1. Thermal cracking: The heavy oils are subjected to high temperature and
pressure; when the bigger hydrocarbon molecules break down to give smaller
molecules.
2. Catalytic cracking: The cracking procedure involves a suitable catalyst like
aluminum silicate, Al2(SiO3)3 or alumina, Al2O3

Fluidized-bed catalytic cracking (Moving-bed catalytic cracking):

Reaction conditions
Feed stock: Heavy oil
Catalyst used: y-type zeolite activated with a rare-earth oxide (12.5% Al2O3 +
87.5% SiO2)
Temperature: 450-550 0C
Pressure: 1 atm
Yield: 70-80%
❖ The solid catalyst is very finely powdered, so that
it behaves almost as a fluid, which is circulated in
gas stream.
❖ The vapors of heavy oil mixed with fluidized
catalyst are forced up in to large reactor bed in
which cracking of the heavier into lighter
molecules occurs.
❖ Near the top of the reactor, there is a centrifugal
separator called cyclone, which allows only the
cracked oil vapors to pass on to the fractionating
column, retains the catalyst in the reactor itself.
❖ Spent catalyst from the cracking chamber is
continuously transported into the regeneration
chamber through an air stream.
❖ The carbon deposited on catalyst particles is
burnt off in regeneration chamber.
❖ The regenerated catalyst is transported back in to
the cracking chamber together with feed stock
Fluidized bed Catalytic Cracking (FCC)
KNOCKING IN PETROL ENGINE:
❖It is defined as the metallic sound similar to the rattling of a hammer produced
in internal combustion engine due to immature ignition of fuel air mixture.
❖The tendency of knocking has the following trend:
Straight chain paraffins > branched-chain paraffins > olefins > cycloparaffins > aromatics
OCTANE NUMBER:
Octane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage of isooctane in a mixture of
isooctane and n-heptane, which has the same knocking characteristics as that of
the fuel under examination, under the same set of conditions.

❖It is observed that n-heptane knocks very badly; hence, it was arbitrarily
assigned an antiknock value of zero.
❖On the other hand, isooctane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) has a high resistance to
knocking and hence was arbitrarily assigned a value of 100.
❖The octane number changes with the change in the structure of the
hydrocarbons as follows
Straight chain alkanes < branched chain alkanes < alkenes < cycloalkanes < aromatics
 REFORMATION OF PETROL
Definition of reformation of petrol: Conversion of straight chain hydrocarbons in petrol into the
branched chain, cyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons, resulting in the upgradation of quality of the
petrol is known as reformation.

How reformation improve the quality of petrol?

The octane number for straight-chain hydrocarbons is low. For branched chain, cyclic and
aromatic hydrocarbons, the octane number is high. Thus, reformation converts the low octane
number petrol into high-octane number petrol.

Reformation reaction conditions:

The reaction conditions
Feed stocks: pre-processed gasoline
Catalyst: Platinum supported on alumino-silica
Temperature: 460-530 0C
Pressure: 35-50 atm
Reformation reactions:
The main reformation reactions are:
1. Dehydrogenation
2. Dehydrocyclization
3. Hydrocracking
4. Isomerization
Disadvantages of non-renewable energy
1. Once a non renewable energy source is used up it cannot be replaced again.
2. Non renewable energy source are highly polluting sources and increase the greenhouse gases.
3. The exposure to non renewable energy sources has increased the level of pollution.
4. The rise in temperature due to greenhouse gas accumulation.

All energy resources available in this universe can be broadly classified into two categories:
a) Renewable energy resources: The energy resources which are reproducible as a part of
natural process are called as renewable energy resources. Ex: Hydro, solar, Bio, geothermal
and wind energy resources.

b) Non - renewable energy resources: The energy resources which get depleted on continuous
usage and which cannot be reproducible are called as non-renewable energy resources.
Ex: Fossil fuels, Nuclear and Thermal energy resources.
 Alternative Energy sources
Examples: Bio –Diesel, CNG, Biogas, Hydrogen-as a fuel, Solar energy-PV cell, wind energy ,
hydro-electric energy, Geothermal, and so on…
Biofuels
BIODIESEL:
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil - or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long chain alkyl
(methyl, ethyl, or propyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g.,
vegetable oil, soybean oil) animal fat with an alcohol producing fatty acid esters.

Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable
and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended
with petrodiesel in any proportions. Biodiesel blends can also be used as heating oil.

Synthesis: Bio-diesel is commonly produced by the trans-esterification of vegetable or animal fat.

The process involves reacting vegetable oils or animal fats catalytically with short chain aliphatic
alcohols.
Advantages of biodiesel fuel
❖ Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source unlike petroleum-based diesel.
❖ An excessive production of soybeans in the world makes it an economic way to utilize this
surplus for manufacturing the Biodiesel fuel.
❖ It is less polluting than petroleum diesel.
❖ The lack of sulfur in 100% biodiesel extends the life of catalytic converters.
❖ The lubricating property of the biodiesel may lengthen the lifetime of engines.

Disadvantages of biodiesel fuel

❖ Biodiesel fuel is more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel.
❖ Not Suitable for use in low temperatures
❖ Biodiesel fuel distribution infrastructure needs improvement, which is another of the
biodiesel fuel disadvantages.
Hydrogen-as a fuel
 Sustainable energy sources: Hydrogen as a fuel
❖ Hydrogen is the first element of the periodic table with the electronic
configuration 1s1.

❖It is the simplest and the most plentiful element in the universe. It is always
combined with other elements.

❖Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel which uses electrochemical cells or

combustion in internal engines, to power vehicles and electric devices.

❖It is also used in spacecraft propulsion and can be mass-produced and

commercialized for passenger vehicles and aircraft.

❖In a flame of pure hydrogen gas, burning in air, the hydrogen (H2) reacts with
oxygen (O2) to form water (H2O) and releases heat. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
Method of Preparation of Hydrogen
Electrolysis of water:
❖ Electrolysis of water involves passing an electric current
through the water which results in its decomposition to
hydrogen and oxygen.

❖ It is a nonspontaneous redox (oxidation-reduction)

reaction. Since energy in the form of electricity is
supplied to the electrolytic cell, it is an endothermic
reaction.

❖ Pure water does not conduct electricity and requires

excess energy to overcome the activation barrier.

❖ Therefore, the electrolysis is carried out in the presence

of an acid/base/salt to improve the electrical
conductivity. Such electrolytes are sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and sodium nitrate salt (NaNO3).
Electrolysis occurs in an electrolytic cell consisting of a positively charged anode and a negatively
charged cathode, typically made of platinum. The chemical reaction for water electrolysis can be
split into two half-reactions occurring at the cathode and anode.
An oxidation reaction occurs when water molecules give electrons to the anode and liberate
oxygen gas at the anode. The half-reaction is shown below.
2H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 H+(aq.) + 4 e–

A reduction reaction occurs at the cathode when hydrogen ions acquire electrons and are
converted into hydrogen gas.
The half-reaction is as follows:
2H+(aq.) + 2e– → H2(g)

The overall chemical reaction is

2H2O(l) + electrical energy → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Thus, the water electrolysis reaction shows the separation of hydrogen and oxygen from water.
For two moles of water, two moles of hydrogen and one mole of oxygen are liberated. The
number of moles of hydrogen generated is twice the oxygen. Also, charges are transferred
between the electrodes and the electrolyte.
Storage of Hydrogen
Hydrogen has high calorific value (three times greater than gasoline) but it is highly flammable
and forms an explosive mixture with air; hence, its storage and transportation is one of the most
challenging tasks.
The methods employed for the storage of hydrogen are as follows:
1. Chemical storage:
❖ As hydrides in chemical storage, hydrogen is stored as hydrides.
❖ The most commonly used substance for chemical storage of hydrogen is sodium aluminium
hydride, which is an inorganic compound with the formula NaAlH4.
❖ It serves as an important agent for the reversible storage of hydrogen. Hydrogen is stored by
reacting with sodium and aluminium at high pressure and temperature of about 200 °C in the
presence of triethylaluminium catalyst.

❖ When heated to above 200 °C, sodium tetrahydroaluminate releases about 7.4% hydrogen by
weight. Other metal hydrides used to store hydrogen are MgH2, LiAlH4, LiH, TiFeH2, palladium
hydride, ammonia borane, etc.
2. Physical storage:
A. Hydrogen is compressed to its liquid state at high pressure in high-pressure tanks.
B. Hydrogen can be cooled to –253 °C at a pressure of 6 – 350 bars to give cryogenic hydrogen.
C. Many molecules reversibly adsorb hydrogen in their structure.

The commonly used substances for hydrogen storage are as follows

❖ Carbon nanotubes and carbon bucky balls store hydrogen in the spaces in between and inside.
❖ Carbon materials such as graphene store hydrogen easily and release it on heating up to 450
°C.

Advantages
❖ It is readily available.
❖ It doesn’t produce harmful emissions.
❖ It is environmentally friendly
❖ It can be used as fuel in rockets.
❖ It is fuel efficient. It is renewable.

Limitations/Disadvantages
❖ It is expensive.
❖ It is difficult to store.
❖ It is highly flammable
 SOLAR ENERGY
❖ Solar radiation is believed to be the only realistic alternative to fossil fuel. It is a
clean and renewable source of energy available in abundance.
❖ As per an estimate, if solar energy received by earth’s surface per day is
converted into electrical energy, it is sufficient to meet the energy requirements
of the whole world for 16 years.

Utilization of solar energy:

a) Direct Utility: Where solar energy is directly converted to electrical energy.
Example: photovoltaic cell.

b) Indirect Utility: Where solar energy is converted to chemical energy which can
be later used as energy source. Photosynthesis is a classical example for
conversion of solar energy into chemical energy. Solar energy can be used for
photo-splitting of water to produce H₂, which can be used as a fuel.
Solar energy-PV cell- Solar cells
 Solar photovoltaic cell (PV cell)
Solar photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is a device used to convert solar light directly into an electric
current.
Working of solar cell is based on photovoltaic effect. According to this, when a light particle with
energy E=hv falls on a material and if the energy of photon is greater than binding energy of
electron, then it can eject an electron from it creating an electron hole pair.

Advantages of solar PV cells:

1) They are environmental friendly.
2) It is non-polluting, low maintenance energy source.
3) They need no recharging.
4) They do not suffer wear and tear as they have no movable parts.
5) They do not corrode.
6) They operate at ambient temperature.
7) Power generation by PV cell can minimize dependence on fossil fuel and at the same time
reduce greenhouse gas emissions mainly CO₂.

(Approximately, 8182 ton of greenhouse gases can be avoided entering into the atmosphere each year from a 5MW
capacity PV power plant)
 Construction
Photovoltaic cell mainly consists of a p-n junction diode made from Si
semiconductor. It has two electrical contacts; one is a metallic grid over n-type and
second is a layer of silver metal at the back of p-type semiconductor. An
antireflective layer (Silicon nitride or TiO₂) is coated in between the metal grids to
prevent reflection of solar light.
Working
When sunlight with their photons carrying energy E=hv (which is enough to cross
the barrier potential), falls on p-n diode, electrons are ejected from p- type
semiconductor creating an electron - hole pair. These ejected electrons move to n-
side through p-n junction. Since p-n junction allows only one way movement of
electrons, these electrons must flow through the external circuit to recombine with
holes present in p-side of semiconductor. This movement of electrons from n-side
to p-side through the external circuit generates an electric current.
Advantages of Solar Cells
➢ Solar cells work on renewable energy which can be continuously drawn from the sun.
➢ They are economical because once installed there will be minimum maintenance charges for
small usage.
➢ Solar energy is environment friendly and green energy because it doesn’t produce any
greenhouse gasses and pollutants.

Disadvantages of Solar Cells

➢ Space utilization: Solar cells require a large area for installation.
➢ It requires high investment costs for a big power plant.
➢ During the rainy season power production is less hence grid maintenance will be difficult.
➢ Solar energy is produced only in the daytime hence storage will be a big challenge.
Quantum dot solar cell (QDSC)
➢ A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell device that uses quantum dots as the
captivating photovoltaic material. It is used to replace bulky materials such as silicon, or copper
indium, gallium, selenide etc.
➢ Quantum dot solar cells have the potential for solar or photovoltaic cells that reduce wasteful
heat and capitalizes on the amount of the sun's energy that is converted to electricity. This is
significant toward making solar energy more cost-competitive with conventional power sources.

Quantum dots make use of surplus photon energy (which otherwise is usually lost to heat
generation) through a process called multiple exciton generation. The light rays enter through
the transparent electrode of a quantum dot solar cell onto a light absorbing layer of quantum
dots in order to generate electron hole pairs. The charged particles then separate with electrons
travelling in the external circuit through load, producing electric current and reach the counter
electrode. The holes oxidize the sulfide species to sulfur. Sulfide is regenerated at the counter
electrode when sulfur is reduced taking the electrons coming from the external circuit.
Because the bandgap of the quantum dots can be adjusted, quantum dots are desirable for solar
cells. Frequencies in the far infrared that are characteristically difficult to achieve with traditional
solar cells can be obtained using lead sulfide colloidal quantum dots. Half of the solar energy
reaching the Earth is in the infrared region. A quantum dot solar cell makes infrared energy as
accessible as any other.
Advantages
❖ Existing solar cells has less conversion efficiency. Therefore, if quantum dot solar cells could be
manufactured cheaply they would be at least three times more efficient than existing
manufactured solar cells.
❖ Solar cells based on quantum dots could convert more than 65 percent of the sun's energy
into electricity. They have a favorable power to weight ratio with high efficiency. The mass and
area savings as well as flexibility leads to miniaturization

Disadvantages
❖ Cadmium selenide-based quantum dot solar cells are highly toxic in nature and require a very
stable polymer shell.
❖ Cadmium and selenium ions which are used in the core of quantum dots are known to be
cytotoxic.
❖ Quantum dot metabolism and degradation within a human body is still chiefly unknown and
studies have shown that quantum dots accumulate in the kidney, spleen, and liver.
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