The tiling problem revisited

Jarkko Kari
Mathematics Department, University of Turku, Finland

Consider the following decision problem, the tiling problem: Given a nite set of tiles (say, for example, polygons), is it possible to tile the innite plane with copies of the tiles ? For instance, can one tile the plane with copies of

By a tiling we mean a covering of the plane without overlaps (i.e. two tiles may only overlap in their boundary).

But there are other tile sets that do not admit any tiling, e.g. the regular pentagon

does not tile the plane.

So is there an algorithm to tell which tile sets admit a plane tiling ?

So is there an algorithm to tell which tile sets admit a plane tiling ? R.Berger 1966: No, the tiling problem is undecidable. R.Berger: Undecidability of the Domino Problem. Memoirs of the American Mathematical Society 66, 72 pp., 1966. A simplied version (but based on Bergers ideas) was given by R.M.Robinson in 1971. R.M.Robinson. Undecidability and nonperiodicity for tilings of the plane. Inventiones Mathematicae 12, 177209, 1971.

In this talk we present a new, quite dierent proof. Why a new proof to an old result ?

In this talk we present a new, quite dierent proof. Why a new proof to an old result ? The new proof is simpler. It is based on simple algebra, it is precise and easy to verify.

In this talk we present a new, quite dierent proof. Why a new proof to an old result ? The new proof is simpler. It is based on simple algebra, it is precise and easy to verify. The same technique works in other set-ups as well. In particular, the same approach shows that the tiling problem on the hyperbolic plane is undecidable. This is an open problem posed in Robinsons 1971 paper, and investigated later in more depth in R.M.Robinson: Undecidable tiling problems in the hyperbolic plane. Inventiones Mathematicae 44, 259264, 1978.

Our proof is based on constructing tiles that simulate certain dynamical systems. The dynamical systems that we use are piecewise ane transformations of Rd . The construction can be done for any d, but d = 2 is sucient to prove undecidability. The undecidability of the tiling problem will be concluded from the undecidability of the immortality problem of these dynamical systems.

Outline of the talk

Introduction. Historical perspective. Wang tiles The immortality problem of piecewise ane transformations. Reductions: (a) Immortality problem of Turing machines immortality problem of piecewise ane transformations of R2 . (b) Immortality problem of piecewise ane maps the tiling problem Undecidability of the tiling problem in the hyperbolic plane.

Wang tiles
A Wang tile is a unit square tile with colored edges. A tile set T is a nite collection of such tiles. A valid tiling is an assignment Z2 T of tiles on innite square lattice so that the abutting edges of adjacent tiles have the same color.

Wang tiles
A Wang tile is a unit square tile with colored edges. A tile set T is a nite collection of such tiles. A valid tiling is an assignment Z2 T of tiles on innite square lattice so that the abutting edges of adjacent tiles have the same color. For example, consider Wang tiles

With copies of the given four tiles we can properly tile a 5 5 square. . .

A C D B C

D B C A C

C A C D B

C D B C A

B C A C D

. . . and since the colors on the borders match this square can be repeated to form a valid periodic tiling of the plane.

The tiling problem of Wang tiles is the decision problem to determine if a given nite set of Wang tiles admits a valid tiling of the plane. Theorem (R.Berger 1966): The tiling problem of Wang tiles is undecidable.

Note: Wang tiles are abstract tiles, but one can eective transform them into equivalent concrete shapes (e.g. polygons with rational coordinates). For example, we can make each Wang tile into a unit square tile whose left and upper edges have a bump and the right and lower edge has a dent. The shape of the bump/dent depends on the color of the edge. Each color has a unique shape associated with it (and dierent shapes are used for horizontal and vertical colors).

Another note: In his proof Berger constructed an aperiodic tile set. This is a tile set that tiles the plane, but it does not admit any periodic tiling. This refuted a conjecture by Hao Wang that all tile sets that admit a tiling admit also a periodic one.

Another note: In his proof Berger constructed an aperiodic tile set. This is a tile set that tiles the plane, but it does not admit any periodic tiling. This refuted a conjecture by Hao Wang that all tile sets that admit a tiling admit also a periodic one. If Wangs conjecture had been true then the tiling problem would be decidable: One could try all possible tilings of larger and larger rectangles until either (a) a rectangle is found that can not be tiled (so no tiling of the plane exists), or (b) a tiling of a rectangle is found such that the colors at left and right sides match and the colors of the top and bottom sides match each other (so a periodic tiling exists). Only aperiodic tile sets fail to reach either (a) or (b). . .

Immortality of piecewise ane maps

Consider a system of nitely many pairs (Ui , fi ) where Ui are disjoint unit squares of the plane with integer corners, fi are ane transformations with rational coecients. Square Ui is understood as the domain where fi may be applied.

The system determines a function f : D R2 whose domain is D=

i

Ui

and f (x) = fi (x) for all x Ui .

The orbit of x D is the iteration of f starting at point x. The iteration can be continued as long as the point remains in the domain D.

The orbit of x D is the iteration of f starting at point x. The iteration can be continued as long as the point remains in the domain D.

The orbit of x D is the iteration of f starting at point x. The iteration can be continued as long as the point remains in the domain D.

The orbit of x D is the iteration of f starting at point x. The iteration can be continued as long as the point remains in the domain D.

But if the point goes outside of the domain, the system halts. If the iteration always halts, regardless of the starting point x, the system is mortal. Otherwise it is immortal: there is an immortal point x D from which a non-halting orbit begins.

Immortality problem: Is a given system of ane maps immortal? Proposition: The immortality problem is undecidable. To prove the undecidability one can use a standard technique for transforming Turing machines into two-dimensional piecewise ane transformations.

Turing machine conguration

q
is encoded as the pair (x, y) R2 where the digits of x and y (in some suitably large base B) express the contents of the left and right halves of the tape: x = ef.ghi . . . y = qd.cba . . . The integer parts of x and y determine the next move of the machine, that is, the next move depends on the integer unit square containing point (x, y).

d ex

q r
A left move of the Turing machine requires that the digits of x and y are shifted one position to the right and left, respectively. Adding suitable (integer) constants takes care of changes in the state q and the current tape symbol e. x = ef.ghi . . . x = dx.f ghi . . . y = qd.cba . . . y = rc.ba . . . This is an ane transformation whose matrix is
1 B

0 B 0 .

d ex

q r
Analogously, a right move is simulated by an ane transformation whose matrix is B 0 . 1 0 B Additional changes in the integer parts transformation: x = ef.ghi . . . y = qd.cba . . . complete the x y = = f g.hi . . . rx.dcba . . .

A given Turing machine is converted in this way into a system of unit squares Ui and corresponding ane transformations fi . Then iterations of the Turing machine on arbitrary congurations correspond to iterations of the ane maps.

A given Turing machine is converted in this way into a system of unit squares Ui and corresponding ane transformations fi . Then iterations of the Turing machine on arbitrary congurations correspond to iterations of the ane maps. In particular, the system of ane maps has an immortal point if and only if the Turing machine has an immortal conguration, that is, a conguration that leads to a non-halting computation in the Turing machine. But we have the following result: Theorem (Hooper 1966): It is undecidable if a given Turing machine has any immortal congurations.

A given Turing machine is converted in this way into a system of unit squares Ui and corresponding ane transformations fi . Then iterations of the Turing machine on arbitrary congurations correspond to iterations of the ane maps. In particular, the system of ane maps has an immortal point if and only if the Turing machine has an immortal conguration, that is, a conguration that leads to a non-halting computation in the Turing machine. But we have the following result: Theorem (Hooper 1966): It is undecidable if a given Turing machine has any immortal congurations. (Interesting historical note: Hooper and Berger were both students of Hao Wang, at the same time. Their results are of same avor but the proofs are independent.)

Immortality problem: Is a given system of ane maps immortal? Proposition: The immortality problem is undecidable. The proposition now follows from Hoopers theorem.

Next we reduce the immortality problem to the tiling problem. The idea is the same as in my earlier construction of 14 aperiodic Wang tiles: In that construction the tiles simulated the piecewise linear 1 function f : [ 1 , 2] [ 2 , 2] where 2 2x, if x 1, and f (x) = 2 x, if x > 1.
3

Iterations of f are non-periodic, from which aperiodicity of the corresponding tile set follows.

Next we reduce the immortality problem to the tiling problem. The idea is the same as in my earlier construction of 14 aperiodic Wang tiles: In that construction the tiles simulated the piecewise linear 1 function f : [ 1 , 2] [ 2 , 2] where 2 2x, if x 1, and f (x) = 2 x, if x > 1.
3

Iterations of f are non-periodic, from which aperiodicity of the corresponding tile set follows. That construction is now generalized from linear maps to ane maps, and from R to R2 , (or Rd for any d).

The colors in our Wang tiles are elements of R2 . Let f : R2 R2 be an ane function. We say that tile

n w s
computes function f if f (n) + w = s + e. (The input n comes from north, and f (n) is computed. A carry in w from the west is added, and the result is split between the output s to the south and the carry out e to the east.)

Suppose we have a correctly tiled horizontal segment of length n where all tiles compute the same f .
Average = n w Average = s e

It easily follows that f (n) + 1 1 w = s + e, n n

where n and s are the averages of the top and the bottom labels.

Suppose we have a correctly tiled horizontal segment of length n where all tiles compute the same f .
Average = n w Average = s e

It easily follows that 1 1 w = s + e, n n where n and s are the averages of the top and the bottom labels. f (n) + As the segment is made longer, the eect of the carry in and out labels w and e vanish. In the limit, if we have an innite row of tiles, the average of the input labels (if it exists!) is mapped by f to the average of the output labels.

Consider a system of ane maps fi and unit squares Ui . For each i we construct a set Ti of Wang tiles that compute function fi , and whose top edge labels n are in Ui . An additional label i on the vertical edges makes sure that tiles of dierent sets Ti and Tj cannot be mixed on any horizontal row of tiles. Let T = Ti .
i

If T admits a valid tiling then the system of ane maps has an immortal point: Consider any horizontal row in a valid tiling. The top labels belong to a compact and convex set Ui . Hence there is x Ui that is the limit of the top label averages over a sequence of segments of increasing length.

If T admits a valid tiling then the system of ane maps has an immortal point: Consider any horizontal row in a valid tiling. The top labels belong to a compact and convex set Ui . Hence there is x Ui that is the limit of the top label averages over a sequence of segments of increasing length. Then fi (x) is the limit of the bottom label averages over the same sequence of segments.

If T admits a valid tiling then the system of ane maps has an immortal point: Consider any horizontal row in a valid tiling. The top labels belong to a compact and convex set Ui . Hence there is x Ui that is the limit of the top label averages over a sequence of segments of increasing length. Then fi (x) is the limit of the bottom label averages over the same sequence of segments. But the bottom labels of a row are the same as the top labels of the next row below, so fi (x) is the limit of the top label averages of the next row.

If T admits a valid tiling then the system of ane maps has an immortal point: Consider any horizontal row in a valid tiling. The top labels belong to a compact and convex set Ui . Hence there is x Ui that is the limit of the top label averages over a sequence of segments of increasing length. Then fi (x) is the limit of the bottom label averages over the same sequence of segments. But the bottom labels of a row are the same as the top labels of the next row below, so fi (x) is the limit of the top label averages of the next row. The reasoning is repeated for the next row, and for all rows below.

If T admits a valid tiling then the system of ane maps has an immortal point: Consider any horizontal row in a valid tiling. The top labels belong to a compact and convex set Ui . Hence there is x Ui that is the limit of the top label averages over a sequence of segments of increasing length. Then fi (x) is the limit of the bottom label averages over the same sequence of segments. But the bottom labels of a row are the same as the top labels of the next row below, so fi (x) is the limit of the top label averages of the next row. The reasoning is repeated for the next row, and for all rows below. We see that x starts an innite orbit of the ane maps, so it is immortal.

We still have to detail how to choose the tiles so that also the converse is true: any immortal orbit of the ane maps corresponds to a valid tiling. Consider a unit square U = [n, n + 1] [m, m + 1] where n, m Z. Elements of Cor(U ) = {(n, m), (n, m + 1), (n + 1, m), (n + 1, m + 1)} are the corners of U .

For any x R2 and k Z denote Ak (x) = kx where the oor is taken for each coordinate separately: (x, y) = ( x , y ). Denote Bk (x) = Ak (x) Ak1 (x) = kx (k 1)x . It easily follows that if x U then Bk (x) Cor(U ).

For any x R2 and k Z denote Ak (x) = kx where the oor is taken for each coordinate separately: (x, y) = ( x , y ). Denote Bk (x) = Ak (x) Ak1 (x) = kx (k 1)x . It easily follows that if x U then Bk (x) Cor(U ). Vector x will be represented as the two-way innite sequence . . . B2 (x), B1 (x), B0 (x), B1 (x), B2 (x), . . . of corners. It is the balanced (or sturmian) representation of x.

Ak (x) = Bk (x) =

kx , Ak (x) Ak1 (x) = kx (k 1)x .

The tile set corresponding to a rational ane map fi (x) = M x + b and its domain square Ui consists of all tiles Bk (x) fi (Ak1 (x)) Ak1 (fi (x)) +(k 1)b Bk (fi (x)) where k Z and x Ui . fi (Ak (x)) Ak (fi (x)) +k b

Ak (x) = Bk (x) = fi (x) =

kx , Ak (x) Ak1 (x) = kx (k 1)x , M x + b. Bk (x)

fi (Ak1 (x)) Ak1 (fi (x)) +(k 1)b Bk (fi (x))

fi (Ak (x)) Ak (fi (x)) +k b

(1) For xed x Ui the tiles for consecutive k Z match so that a horizontal row can be formed whose top and bottom labels read the balanced representations of x and fi (x), respectively.

Ak (x) = Bk (x) = fi (x) =

kx , Ak (x) Ak1 (x) = kx (k 1)x , M x + b. Bk (x)

fi (Ak1 (x)) Ak1 (fi (x)) +(k 1)b Bk (fi (x))

fi (Ak (x)) Ak (fi (x)) +k b

(2) A direct calculation shows that the tile computes function fi , that is, fi (n) + w = s + e.

Ak (x) = Bk (x) = fi (x) =

kx , Ak (x) Ak1 (x) = kx (k 1)x , M x + b. Bk (x)

fi (Ak1 (x)) Ak1 (fi (x)) +(k 1)b Bk (fi (x))

fi (Ak (x)) Ak (fi (x)) +k b

(3) Because fi is rational, there are only nitely many such tiles (even though there are innitely many k Z and x Ui ). The tiles can be eectively constructed.

If there is an innite orbit then a tiling exists where the labels of the horizontal rows read the balanced representations of the points of the orbit:

Balanced representation of x Balanced representation of f(x)

If there is an innite orbit then a tiling exists where the labels of the horizontal rows read the balanced representations of the points of the orbit:

Balanced representation of x

Balanced representation of f2 (x)

If there is an innite orbit then a tiling exists where the labels of the horizontal rows read the balanced representations of the points of the orbit:

Balanced representation of x

Balanced representation of f 3(x)

If there is an innite orbit then a tiling exists where the labels of the horizontal rows read the balanced representations of the points of the orbit:

Balanced representation of x

Balanced representation of f 4(x)

Conclusion: the tile set we constructed admits a tiling of the plane if and only if the system of ane maps is immortal. Undecidability of the tiling problem follows from the undecidability of the immortality problem.

The hyperbolic plane

The technique works well also in the hyperbolic plane. Hyperbolic plane is a plane where Euclids fth axiom does not hold: For any point P and a line L that does not contain P there are more than one lines through P that do not intersect L.

The hyperbolic plane

The technique works well also in the hyperbolic plane. Hyperbolic plane is a plane where Euclids fth axiom does not hold: For any point P and a line L that does not contain P there are more than one lines through P that do not intersect L. To display hyperbolic geometry on the screen (=Euclidean plane) we use the half-plane projection. The hyperbolic plane is represented as the Euclidean half plane. The division line is the horizon. Hyperbolic points are points in the open Euclidean half plane, and hyperbolic lines are semi-circles whose centers are on the horizon (and half-lines that are perpendicular to the horizon.)

The role of the Euclidean Wang square tile will be played by a hyperbolic pentagon.

The pentagons can tile a horizontal row.

Beneath each pentagon ts two identical pentagons. The pentagons are all congruent (=isometric copies of each other), but the projection makes objects close to the horizon seem smaller.

Innitely many horizontal rows ll the lower part of the half plane.

Similarily the upper part can be lled. We see that the pentagons tile the hyperbolic plane (in an uncountable number of dierent ways, in fact.)

On the hyperbolic plane Wang tiles are pentagons with colored edges. Such pentagons may be placed adjacent if the edge colors match. A given set of pentagons tiles the hyperbolic plane if a tiling exists where the color constraint is everywhere satised.

The two sample tiles admit a tiling.

The hyperbolic tiling problem asks whether a given nite collection of colored pentagons admits a valid tiling. Theorem. The tiling problem of the hyperbolic plane is undecidable. Note that the hyperbolic Wang tiles can be transformed into equivalent shapes exactly as in the Euclidean case: by introducing dierent bumps and dents for dierent colors. So the undecidability holds for the tiling problem using hyperbolic polygons.

We say that pentagon

w l r

computes the ane transformation f : R2 R2 if l+r f (n) + w = + e. 2 (Dierence to Euclidean Wang tiles: The output is now divided between l and r.)

Average = n w Average = s
In a horizontal segment of length n where all tiles compute the same f holds 1 1 f (n) + w = s + e, n n where n and s are the averages of the top and the bottom labels. As the segment is made longer, the eect of the carry in and out labels w and e vanish.

For a given system of ane maps fi and unit squares Ui we construct for each i a set Ti of pentagons that compute function fi , and whose top edge labels n are in Ui . It follows, exactly as in the Euclidean case, that if a valid tiling of the hyperbolic plane with such pentagons exists then from the labels of horizontal rows one obtains an innite orbit in the system of ane maps.

We still have to detail how to choose the tiles so that the converse is also true: if an immortal point exists then its orbit provides a valid tiling. The tile set corresponding to a rational ane map fi (x) = M x + b and its domain square Ui consists of all tiles Bk (x) fi (Ak1 (x)) 1 A2(k1) (fi (x)) 2 +(k 1)b B2k1 (fi (x)) B2k (fi (x)) where k Z and x Ui . fi (Ak (x)) 1 A2k (fi (x)) 2 +k b

Ak (x) = Bk (x) = fi (x) =

kx , Ak (x) Ak1 (x) = kx (k 1)x , M x + b. Bk (x)

fi (Ak1 (x)) 1 A2(k1) (fi (x)) 2 +(k 1)b B2k1 (fi (x)) B2k (fi (x))

fi (Ak (x)) 1 A2k (fi (x)) 2 +k b

(1) For xed x Ui the tiles for consecutive k Z match so that a horizontal row can be formed whose top and bottom labels read the balanced representations of x and fi (x), respectively.

Ak (x) = Bk (x) = fi (x) =

kx , Ak (x) Ak1 (x) = kx (k 1)x , M x + b. Bk (x)

fi (Ak1 (x)) 1 A2(k1) (fi (x)) 2 +(k 1)b B2k1 (fi (x)) B2k (fi (x))

fi (Ak (x)) 1 A2k (fi (x)) 2 +k b

(2) A direct calculation shows that the tile computes function fi : fi (n) + w = l+r + e. 2

Ak (x) = Bk (x) = fi (x) =

kx , Ak (x) Ak1 (x) = kx (k 1)x , M x + b. Bk (x)

fi (Ak1 (x)) 1 A2(k1) (fi (x)) 2 +(k 1)b B2k1 (fi (x)) B2k (fi (x))

fi (Ak (x)) 1 A2k (fi (x)) 2 +k b

(3) There are only nitely many such tiles (when fi is rational), and they can be eectively constructed.

The tiles constructed admit a valid tiling i the system of ane maps has an immortal point:

Balanced representation of x

Balanced representation of f(x)

The tiles constructed admit a valid tiling i the system of ane maps has an immortal point:

Balanced representation of x

Balanced representation of f 2 (x)

The tiles constructed admit a valid tiling i the system of ane maps has an immortal point:

Balanced representation of x

Balanced representation of f 3 (x)

The tiles constructed admit a valid tiling i the system of ane maps has an immortal point:

Balanced representation of x

Balanced representation of f (x)

Conclusion
A new proof for the undecidability of the tiling problem was presented. The proof was based on a reduction where one constructed tiles such that valid tilings are forced to simulate iterations of a system of ane transformations. The construction works well also in other set-ups. In particular, we showed that the tiling problem in the hyperbolic plane is undecidable.