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CONTENTS

ORIENTATION TO THE MODULE vii

SECTION A: 1

Learning unit 1: The nature of science and science learning 2

1.1 INTRODUCTION 2
1.2 SCIENTIFIC LITERACY 3
1.3 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE 3
1.4 LEARNING SCIENCE THROUGH INQUIRY 4
1.5 SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS 5
1.6 HOW CONCEPTS DEVELOP 8
1.7 CONCEPTUAL CHANGE IN THE LEARNING OF SCIENCE 9
1.7.1 Using the concept “cloud” as an example 13
1.7.2 Scientific understanding of water liquid and water vapour 14
1.8 LANGUAGE AND THE LEARNING OF SCIENCE 14
1.8.1 Learning science in a first additional language 15
1.8.2 The role of working memory in learning the language of science 17
1.9 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 20
1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 21
1.11 CONCLUSION 21

Learning unit 2: Components of science learning 22

2.1 INTRODUCTION 22
2.2 YOUNG LEARNERS’ THINKING PROCESSES IN SCIENCE 23
2.2.1 Questions lead to learners thinking about science 26
2.2.2 Teachers’ knowledge and attitude influence learners’ thinking about science 27
2.3 BIG CONCEPTS OR BIG IDEAS 28
2.3.1 Conservation 28
2.3.2 Cause and effect 30
2.3.3 Place 31
2.3.4 Change 32
2.3.5 Adaptation 32
2.3.6 Relationships and interdependence 33
2.3.7 Diversity and individuality 33
2.4 SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE 34
2.5 HABITS OF MIND 37
2.6 HABITS OF BODY 38
2.7 SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS 40
2.7.1 Science process skill: observing 40

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2.7.2 Science process skill: comparing 41
2.7.3 Science process skill: classifying 41
2.7.4 Science process skill: measuring 42
2.7.5 Science process skill: communicating 43
2.7.6 Science process skills: gathering and organising information 44
2.7.7 Science process skills: inferring and predicting 44
2.7.8 Science process skill: forming hypotheses 45
2.7.9 Science process skill: separating variables 46
2.8 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 47
2.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 48
2.10 CONCLUSION 49

Learning unit 3: Planning for science teaching and assessment 50

3.1 INTRODUCTION 50
3.2 DEVELOPING LEARNING USING THE CURRICULUM AS THE STARTING POINT 51
3.3 APPROACHES TO TEACHING SCIENCE TO YOUNG LEARNERS 54
3.3.1 Developing a theme based on inquiry 55
3.3.2 A cultural-historical perspective of IBSE theme planning 66
3.3.3 Integration of language, creativity, mathematics and technology in IBSE theme
planning 68
3.4 DAILY LESSON PLANNING FOR INQUIRY-BASED THEME PLANNING 72
3.5 ASSESSMENT FOR SCIENCE LEARNING 72
3.5.1 Informal assessment of ability to apply process skills (“doing science”) 73
3.5.2 Informal assessment of understanding of scientific concepts (“communicating science”) 73
3.5.3 Informal assessment of understanding of the nature of science 74
3.6 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 75
3.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 76
3.8 CONCLUSION 77
ADDENDUM A: T EMPLATE FOR A SEVEN-PHASE INQUIRY-BASED THEME PLAN 78
LIST OF REFERENCES: SECTION A 82

SECTION B: 85

Learning unit 4: The problem-solving nature of technology education 86

4.1 INTRODUCTION 86
4.2 TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CURRICULUM 87
4.2.1 What is technology? 88
4.3 TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY 90
4.4 THE PROBLEM-SOLVING NATURE OF TECHNOLOGY 91
4.5 THE DESIGN PROCESS AS TAUGHT IN TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION 93
4.6 CREATIVITY AND THE DESIGN PROCESS 97
4.7 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING 99
4.8 CONTENT AREAS FOR TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION 100
4.8.1 Technological processing 100
4.8.2 Systems and control 101
4.8.3 Structures 101

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4.9 LANGUAGE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION 105

4.10 MATHEMATICS AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION 105
4.11 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 106
4.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 106
4.13 CONCLUSION 107

Learning unit 5: Digital technology 108

5.1 INTRODUCTION 108
5.2 THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (4IR) 109
5.3 DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL CHILDHOOD 111
5.4 DIGITAL LITERACY AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 113
5.5 DIGITAL RESOURCES FOR THE FOUNDATION PHASE 115
5.6 TPACK 115
5.7 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 118
5.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 118
5.9 CONCLUSION 118

Learning unit 6: Planning for technology teaching and assessment 119

6.1 INTRODUCTION 119
6.2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLANNING DESIGN ACTIVITIES 120
6.3 DEVELOPING A THEME USING DESIGN PROCESS ACTIVITIES 127
6.3.1 Investigations during the design process 131
6.3.2 Drawing freehand sketches during the design process 133
6.4 DEVELOPING YOUR OWN THEME PLAN OF DESIGN PROCESS ACTIVITIES 136
6.4.1 Skills developed during the making stage 139
6.4.2 Integration during the making stage 139
6.5 ASSESSMENT IN TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION 140
6.5.1 Assessment of the problem identification stage 142
6.5.2 Assessment of the investigation stage 144
6.5.3 Assessment of the design by drawing stage 144
6.5.4 Assessment of the making stage skills 145
6.6 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 149
6.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 150
6.8 CONCLUSION 150
ADDENDUM 6.1: WHAT IS A DHOW? 151
ADDENDUM 6.2: CLASSICATION OF SAILBOATS 152
ADDENDUM 6.3: PULLEYS AND PULLEY SYSTEMS 153
ADDENDUM 6.4: PULLEY ACTIVITIES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN 154
ADDENDUM 6.5: T HEME PLANNING TEMPLATE FOR TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION 155
ADDENDUM 6.6: A  SSESSMENT PLAN FOR TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION 156
LIST OF REFERENCES: SECTION B 157

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(vi)
ORIENTATION TO THE MODULE

Dear Student

It is our great pleasure to welcome you to the module in Life Skills: Science and Technology
Teaching in the Foundation Phase. To make sure that you share our enthusiasm about
this field of study, we urge you to read this overview thoroughly. Refer back to it as often
as you need to since it will make studying this module more meaningful and easier to
understand.

Studying the theoretical concepts and the material covered in this module will enable
you to construct the necessary knowledge and to develop the skills that form part of a
basic understanding of science and technology in the early grades. The field of science
and technology for young children is dynamic, and new understanding of this field is
continually developed by researchers. The learning content and the activities contained
in this study guide will provide you with opportunities to explore the latest developments
in this field and help you to engage with the field of science and technology education
for young learners as it is practised today.

We trust that you will enjoy your studies in this module and that you will be greatly
inspired to be a passionate teacher who is part of the noble profession of teaching in
the early grades.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE

The purpose of this module is for you to develop an understanding of a few relevant
concepts relating to science and technology and how a teacher is engaged in developing
an emergent understanding of scientific concepts, as well as science and technology
process skills in children through integrated science inquiry and technology education
activities.

LINK TO OTHER COURSES OR MODULES

The module is linked to the Teaching Practice (TPF3704) module. You will be expected
to apply the knowledge constructed and the skills developed during this module in the
teaching-practice component of this programme.

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THE OUTCOMES AND ASSOCIATED ASSESSMENT CRITERIA FOR
THE MODULE
Learning outcome one: Reflect on the different scientific concepts, science process skills
and technology process skills and formulate strategies to promote the development of
these skills among foundation phase learners.

Evidence shows that

• scientific concepts and science process skills are identified and interpreted in science
investigations
• technology process skills are identified and interpreted in design activities of the
technological problem-solving approach
• appropriate examples are cited to demonstrate an understanding of concepts and
process skills relating to science and technology
• scientific investigative skills are explained to show how they affect the way in which
the nature of science and scientific literacy are understood
• scenarios are used to identify, interpret and analyse children’s thinking processes in
science

Learning outcome two: Analyse the different teaching approaches used in the teaching
of science and technology and indicate the suitability of the approaches to specific
contexts of schooling.

Evidence shows that

• comparisons are made by analysing and interpreting the different teaching approaches,
such as inquiry, technological problem-solving, integration of mathematics, language
and creativity, and a cultural-historical perspective
• suitable contexts are identified for the application of these approaches
• the strengths and the limitations of each approach are identified and ways in which the
approaches can be used successfully in a foundation phase classroom are suggested
• examples are used to cite the use of approaches appropriate for the learning context

Learning outcome three: Plan an appropriate methodology of teaching and learning

based on teaching theories related to science and technology.

Evidence shows that

• different teaching approaches to the development of scientific literacy and technological

literacy are described
• theme plans are developed on the basis of how content and context are interpreted
• an understanding of teaching science and technology through integration is
demonstrated through theme planning
• assessment in science and technology is planned

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Learning outcome four: Explain own understanding of the nature of science, scientific
literacy and technological literacy.

Evidence shows that

• problem-based scenarios in the environment and society are analysed and evaluated
to demonstrate the development of scientific literacy
• problem-based scenarios are analysed and evaluated as a basis for planning appropriate
solutions
• appropriate problem-solving strategies are applied to relevant examples given
• ideas and opinions about the nature of science, scientific literacy and technological
literacy are communicated by means of appropriate academic and professional
discourse

OUTLINE OF THE MODULE

This module consists of two sections. Section A focuses on science education and has a
total of three learning units (units one to three). Section B focuses on technology education
and has a total of three learning units (units four to six). Learning unit one is an introduction
to science. The unit provides an overview of the nature of science and how it influences
the teaching of science to young learners. Learning unit two presents the theoretical
background to science teaching. Learning unit three prepares students for planning
how to teach science and assess science learning. Learning unit four introduces
technology education as a problem-solving activity that is organised according to the
technological processes. Learning unit five focuses on information technology. Learning
unit six focuses on planning technology learning and assessment with reference to the
technological processes. The mind map below provides an overview of the content of
the module in Life Skills: Science and Technology Teaching in the Foundation Phase.

MIND MAP: SECTION A (SCIENCE EDUCATION)

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MIND MAP: SECTION B (TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION)

GUIDELINES ON PLANNING AND MANAGING YOUR TIME

There are 24 hours,
1 440 minutes and
86 400 seconds in a day,
yet there never seems to be enough time to get everything done!

Does this sound familiar? Balancing studies, work, family life and extracurricular activities
is a challenge that requires you to manage ever-increasing and competing demands. You
therefore need to draw up a schedule that suits your individual needs and circumstances.
You should consult the assessment plans (which you can access by clicking on Learning
Units), the e-tutor guidelines and the due dates for assignments (which you can find by
clicking on Schedule) to draw up a schedule.

THE APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THIS MODULE

Learning in a distance education context is different from the face-to-face classrooms
to which you may be accustomed. We therefore offer the following suggestions on how
you can approach the study material to enhance your performance and ultimately your
success in this module:

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1. The content Tutorial Letter 101 and the study guide will direct you on how
to approach your studies and to apply your mind. To be able
to complete the activities and the assignments for this module,
to achieve the learning outcomes and to be successful in the
examination, you require a deep understanding of the content
presented in the study guide. In order to develop a deep
understanding of the learning content, you are expected, firstly,
to accept responsibility for your own studies and, secondly,
to understand that learning is not the same as memorisation.
Learning requires an intense, active process of interrogation and
a questioning mind. You will be expected to provide evidence
that you understand and can apply what you have learnt, not
just to remember it.

2. The activities You will engage with different types of activities in this study
guide, namely,
• doing self-reflection on work covered
• completing assessment questions
• doing self-evaluation
• contributing to discussion forums
• designing science and technology lesson plans
• planning for the assessment of science and
technology education
We consider your completion of the activities in the study guide
and the assignments as crucial to your successful completion
of this module.

3. The The assignments for this course/module will be given to you in

assignments Tutorial Letter 101. Completing the assignments is a crucial part of
achieving the learning outcomes. By completing the assignments
you will get a feel for the type of questions you can expect in the
examination and obtain first-hand feedback from the lecturer.
The assignment questions will provide an opportunity for you
to apply the theory in authentic contexts, that is to say, as case
studies or practical situations in your workplace. Assessment
criteria will be provided with each assignment so that you will
know how you are going to be assessed.

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4. The self- At the end of each section you will find a list of possible
assessment assessment questions based on the work done in that section.
questions We advise you to work through these questions diligently since
they provide extremely useful opportunities to prepare yourself
for possible examination questions. Self-assessment plays a very
important role in the achievement of learning outcomes and
you should therefore complete the self-assessment activities
in the study guide. You will find most of the answers to these
questions in the learning material covered in the study guide.
It is our belief that you should not have any surprises in the
examination. Consequently, it is in your own best interest to
work through the self-assessment questions.

5. Assessment Assessment in this module is both summative and formative.

in this The summative assessment comprises the end-of-year/semester
module examination and the assignments. The mark(s) of the compulsory
assignment(s) will be added to your examination mark to calculate
your total mark. Assessment takes place against transparent
assessment criteria that are directly linked to the outcomes of
the module. Tutorial Letter 101 provides further details regarding
the assessment and examination requirements for this course/
module.

6. The module Take the time to browse through the module site to familiarise
site yourself with the demands of the module and to see the “big
picture”. The FAQs option (on the navigation bar of the module
site) is a valuable resource and could be a useful starting point.
Assess the demands, opportunities and challenges of your
personal circumstances and determine how you can fit them
in with the assignment due dates and the other relevant learning
activities that you are expected to complete and submit. It is a
good idea to enter the dates of all assessment activities in your
personal diary immediately.

7. A personal Decide on strategies for planning ahead and then compile a

study personal study timetable. We recommend being disciplined in
timetable keeping to your schedule. Perhaps you could start by doing some
preliminary reading and sourcing the recommended material.
The amount of information presented on the module site and
the number of assignments that have to be completed may seem
overwhelming at first, but you should confront this challenge
head-on.

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8. A systematic To help you approach your studies with more confidence, you
approach to may find it helpful to start by browsing through the module
your studies site and acquainting yourself with the learning outcomes, the
assessment criteria, the additional resources, the prescribed
book and the learning units. The learning units are designed
to present information in manageable “chunks” with a view to
helping you achieve the learning outcomes systematically. Work
your way systematically through the various learning activities,
reflective questions and assignments. Make sure that you meet
all the requirements for the learning activities. Use the learning
outcomes, the assessment criteria, the supporting material and
the learning activities.

9. Contacting Do not hesitate to contact your lecturers if you experience any

your difficulties with any aspect of the module. You can contact them
lecturers by e-mail, telephone or the Discussions option. Their contact
details are available on the module site, so they are just a click
away.

10. Contacting You should make regular contact with your peers (via the different
your peers forums accessible under Discussions). You must engage with
fellow students to clarify and broaden your understanding of
challenging concepts and themes. You will find that participating
in discussions and interacting with others in your field will
enable you to apply many practical ideas in the workplace. Most
students also find these discussions (directed by lecturers or
initiated by fellow students) extremely useful when they prepare
their assignments.

11. The e-tutor An e-tutor will be allocated to you. You should communicate
with your e-tutor on a regular basis to inform him/her of any
assistance and support you need. The e-tutor can, for example,
clarify sections of the work with which you may be experiencing
difficulties and provide support regarding activities and tasks
contained in the study material. You must visit the module site
on a regular basis. It is also your responsibility to ensure that you
post feedback on the discussion forum as and when required.

12. myUnisa This module has a site on the myUnisa online portal. It is
important that you visit the module site regularly because
important announcements will be posted there. There is a
Schedule function on the module site, which will remind you
of assignment dates, examination dates and so forth. Further,
you can download all the official study material, including tutorial
letters, from the module site.

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OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
Open educational resources (OER) are educational materials of any kind that are in the
public domain or that have been released under an open licence. Anyone can legally
and freely copy, use, adapt and reshare these open materials. OER range from textbooks
to curricula, syllabi, lecture notes, assignments, tests, projects, audio recordings, videos
and animation (http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/access-
to-knowledge/open-educational-resources/what-are-open-educational-resources-oers/
– accessed on 20 June 2017).

There are many OER available on the internet. The onus is on you to search for OER and
to broaden your knowledge of OER in the field of science and technology for young
learners. An OER we highly recommend is Teacher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, or
TESSA. TESSA is a collaborative network of African scholars, resources and programmes
that aims to help individuals to improve their practice as teachers or teacher educators.
TESSA is contextualised to the African continent. TESSA provides free, quality resources
that support teacher education curricula and that can help teachers or teacher educators
to plan lessons that engage, involve and inspire learners (http://www.tessafrica.net/ –
accessed on 20 June 2017).

Below is a screen shot of the homepage of TESSA’s website.

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NOTIONAL HOURS
Notional hours are defined in terms of the amount of time it takes the average student
to achieve set learning outcomes (SAQA 1998). It is estimated that a student on average
takes 10 hours to complete 1 credit of learning. Since this module comprises 12 credits,
you should devote a minimum of 120 notional hours to it.

Recommended/estimated notional hours to be spent on this module

Learning unit Notional hours

SECTION A

Unit one: The nature of science and science learning 20 hours

Unit two: Components of science learning 20 hours

Unit three: Planning for science teaching and assessment 30 hours

SECTION B

Unit four: The problem-solving nature of technology education 25 hours

Unit five: Digital technology 15 hours

Unit six: Planning for technology teaching and assessment 30 hours

CLOSING REMARKS
It is truly a pleasure having you as a student and we would like to take this opportunity
to wish you every success with your studies.

Best wishes

Your lecturers at the Department of Early Childhood Education

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SECTION A
Section A focuses on the teaching and learning of science for the development
of scientific literacy.

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Learning unit 1
The nature of science and science learning

Learning unit one focuses on the nature of science and how science learning happens
for the development of scientific literacy.

Learning outcomes

After you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to
• analyse problem-based scenarios in the environment and society to demonstrate
the development of scientific literacy
• communicate ideas and opinions about the nature of science and scientific literacy
by means of appropriate academic and professional discourse
• identify and interpret scientific concepts in science investigations
• cite appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of scientific concepts
• identify, interpret and analyse children’s thinking processes in relation to science

Key concepts

y scientific literacy
y nature of science (NOS)
y scientific concepts
y conceptual change in the learning of science
y learning science as a language

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this learning unit is to develop your understanding of the nature of
science and science learning, which underpin the notion that an understanding of science
is developed through inquiry. Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is proposed as the learning
approach that must be followed to enable learners in the foundation phase to develop
scientific literacy and an understanding of the nature of science.

In order to learn science, learners must learn scientific concepts and science process skills
and develop positive attitudes towards science. What are scientific concepts and how are
they learnt? This question is answered by introducing you to the theory of conceptual
change as it pertains to the learning of science. This theory provides a philosophical
explanation of how scientific ideas or concepts are represented in the human brain.
Language plays an important role in the development of this kind of representation.

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1.2 SCIENTIFIC LITERACY

The Natural Science Learning Area curriculum of South Africa is aimed at promoting
learners’ scientific literacy (South Africa 2002:22). Scientific literacy refers to four interrelated
features, that is, an individual’s

• scientific knowledge and use of that knowledge to identify questions, to acquire new
knowledge, to explain scientific phenomena and to draw evidence-based conclusions
about science-related issues
• understanding of the characteristic features of science as a form of human knowledge
and inquiry
• awareness of how science and technology shape people’s material, intellectual and
cultural environments
• willingness to engage in science-related issues and with the ideas of science as a
constructive, concerned and reflective citizen (OECD 2006:40)

Scientific literacy influences people’s decisions about personal and societal problems.
If, for example, you had to decide whether a nuclear power station should be built in
your province, what would you say about it and what would you base your argument
on? How would you react if a landfill was to be built near your home? The overall aim of
the science curriculum is to develop learners’ scientific literacy. This aim may be broken
down into components so that an achievable curriculum and programme can be planned.
In order to promote the aim of scientific literacy, three components are distinguished:
scientific knowledge/concepts, scientific process skills and scientific attitudes (Bosman
2009). So, the aim of section A of this module is for you to achieve an understanding of
the three components of scientific literacy.

1.3 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

What is your understanding of science and its importance in your life or the lives of the
people in your community? What do you think is the role of science in your life, if any?
What do you think scientists do and look like?

Activity 1.1: Your view of scientists

Draw a picture of what you think a scientist looks like.

Did you draw a cartoon-like character who wears a white lab coat and spectacles and
who has lots of wild hair? Many children have this idea of what a scientist looks like (Fleer,
Jane & Hardy 2007). Your ideas and learners’ ideas about science will affect how you teach
science and how they learn science. If your idea of scientists is that they are of a specific
gender, cultural group, race or age, then you can subconsciously pass those ideas on to
the learners you teach, thereby excluding all those people who do not fit that stereotype.

There are two main views that people hold about the nature of science. The more
traditional view held by teachers is that science is a subject that has rules, laws and

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theories that need to be learnt. The more modern view is that science is the study of
natural phenomena, as well as a way of trying to understand the world and a way of
thinking and acting. Only if you view science as a way of doing rather than an “object”
to study (Charlesworth & Lind 2013) will you be motivated to teach science as a form of
inquiry and not just as a subject that involves the study of facts. It is through learners’
inquiry that they develop an understanding of the NOS and become scientifically literate.

How can you use teaching approaches to develop the scientific literacy of children who
are curious about their world, who ask questions and who are not afraid of science? You
could, for example, teach science through inquiry. There are other ways, such as teaching
science in an integrated way using an approach known as STEAM (science, technology,
engineering, arts and mathematics), teaching science by means of indigenous knowledge
systems (IKS) or teaching science through play. In this study guide, the focus is mainly on
teaching science through inquiry.

The practice of science is understood to have the following nature:

• Scientific knowledge is tentative (subject to change), empirically based (based on and/

or derived from observations of the natural world), subjective (theory-laden), partly
the product of human inference, imagination and creativity (involves the invention
of explanation), and socially and culturally embedded.
• There is a distinction between observations and inferences and between the functions
of and relationships between scientific theories and laws (Abd-El-Khalick & Lederman
2000).

In addition,

• there are various methods of investigation

• current knowledge guides investigations
• assumptions are involved in formulating and conducting scientific inquiries
• there are limitations to data collection and analysis in addressing research questions
• alternative explanations and models are developed from the same data
• there are reasons behind the use of controls and variables in experiments
• there are differences between data and evidence
• logically consistent arguments connect evidence and explanations
• communication plays a role in the development and acceptance of scientific information
(Lederman, Lederman & Antink 2013)

The integration of explicit, reflective instruction about the NOS and scientific inquiry in
science topics promotes the development of scientific literacy (Lederman et al 2013).

1.4 LEARNING SCIENCE THROUGH INQUIRY

Too many teachers approach science as if it is a body of knowledge that anyone can
simply memorise. However, there is a wealth of scientific knowledge and more is being
generated every moment, and we don’t know which facts will be the most important in
learners’ lives. What we do know is that everyone will always be faced with new problems
that they will attempt to solve. Those people that are best at solving problems will be

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the most successful. Attitudes and thinking in science are the same as those attitudes
and thinking that enable people to solve everyday problems (Charlesworth & Lind 2013).

The development of thinking (reasoning) and open-mindedness makes the exploration

of science enjoyable and supports the lifelong learning of science. The inquiry-based
approach develops scientific thinking. Science through inquiry serves five functions:

• It promotes the development of scientific concepts.

• It develops an understanding of “how we know” science.
• It develops an understanding of the nature of science.
• It develops skills of independent inquiry about the natural world.

Inquiry as a teaching approach

• is opposite to expository approaches (like the transmission approach, which exposes

information)
• is constructivist in nature (i.e., learning is the result of ongoing changes in our mental
framework as we attempt to make meaning of our experiences)
• encourages active learning in children
• develops an attitude of curiosity; curiosity is to look at something from a new perspective
and to question what is being observed

Learners need to be encouraged to question, to wonder, to ask “why?” and to be cautious

about accepting things at face value. The inquiry approach, based on asking questions,
observation and learners’ own explanations, encourage learners to explore new situations
in an objective and open-minded way.

In learning unit two you will find an explanation of the science process skills. These are
skills that are developed through inquiry. They allow us to think and work like scientists.
If learners use these process skills, they will develop a view of science, not as a body of
knowledge, but as a process of learning about the world. Through learning about the world,
learners will start to develop an understanding of the world through their understanding
of scientific concepts. In the next section you should start developing an understanding
of the difference between a scenario where children learn science as facts and a scenario
where children learn science by developing an understanding of concepts.

1.5 SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS

Before we can discuss how scientific concepts develop in foundation phase learners,
we should know what a concept is. Concepts are representations in the brain (Carey
2009; Carey, Zaitchik & Bascandziev 2015). To be precise, a concept is “something” that
is constructed in our brains. (Refer back to the module on learning theories and review
the constructivist theory of learning, in particular).

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 Activity 1.2: How learning happens in the brain

Write down how you think learning happens in the brain.

Click on the following link on the module site on myUnisa to watch a video that explains
how the brain “works”: https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/
brain-architecture/
How has your understanding of how learning happens in the brain changed now that you
have watched the video? What in the video changed your idea about learning? Why? How?

If you are still very uncertain, then that is fine. The idea of how activity in the brain can
lead to learning is complex and confusing. For now, it is important that you know that
connections that are made in the brain lead to learning. In this section we hope to improve
your understanding of how thinking and talking about scientific concepts lead to people
learning and understanding these concepts.

Concepts are the basic units of knowledge (Charlesworth & Lind 2013) and allow people
to organise and categorise information. The ability to organise and categorise information
plays an important role in the process by which scientific concepts are developed in the
brain. There are various ideas about what concepts are exactly and different authors
describe them differently (Margolis & Laurence 2006). For our purposes, we will use the
explanation given by Lieto (2014).

There are different types of concepts that build different bodies of knowledge and that
may contain different kinds of representations of information (or different connections in
the brain) associated with the same concept. Figure 1.1 (adapted from Lieto 2014) shows
how a concept, X, could be made up of different components (or representations), namely,
prototypical, exemplar and theoretical components.

Figure 1.1: Three components of a concept (Lieto 2014)

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Therefore, on the basis of this explanation, learning takes place when children build up
a representation (or connections) in their brain that is based on examples of a concept.
By thinking about (or reasoning about) these examples, they develop a theory about the
concept. We will now use the concept “bird” to illustrate how this works.

When children learn what birds are and compare them with reptiles (by comparing and
contrasting), they use their experience that there is an example of a bird (or a prototype
of a bird), which could be, for example, a chicken. They will also know from a young
age that there are other birds such as pigeons, doves and hawks, as examples of birds.
With these examples in their minds, they build a theory of what birds are. They begin to
develop a theory of what birds are by comparing all these examples. Children will then
understand that birds have two legs, two wings and feathers and can fly. Children must
build up a theory of connected concepts such as the theory of a bird. Refer to figure 1.2
for a diagram of the three components of the concept “bird”.

Figure 1.2: Components of the concept “bird”

These connections (of ideas about birds, for example) are not made if learners are taught
to memorise facts. Facts are remembered for a period of time but cannot be used to
solve problems. One example of problem-solving with respect to the topic of birds is
when children are given a worksheet and asked to name the animals on the worksheet
and to decide if they are birds or not. Children will use their concept of a bird to solve the
problem (or classification worksheet) and may rely on their knowledge of examples of
birds. However, what they really should do is to organise the animals into groups according
to their theory of birds. Therefore, they should ask such questions as: is it an animal that
has two legs, two wings, feathers, claws and a beak, and can it fly?

Activity 1.3: Classification of birds

Why is a penguin, which swims and does not fly, not a fish? (This question will be challenging
if you do not have a theory of fish in your mind). Have a look online and learn a little
more about penguins. What kind of outer covering and appendages (legs and arms) do
penguins have? Are they egg-layers or are their young born alive? There are reptiles that
can fly, too. They are called flying dragons (or draco lizards).

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 You can find information about draco lizards by following this link on the module site on
myUnisa: https://www.animalbliss.com/flying-dragon-draco-lizard/
Study the photos of these flying lizards and give reasons why they are not flying birds.

We hope that you observed and compared penguins and draco lizards and then classified
them as birds, fish or reptiles while you did activity 1.3. We hope that you asked yourself
questions and explained, in your own words, why each animal is a bird, a reptile or a fish.
In this way you will have developed your own theories of fish, birds and reptiles. This is
exactly what you need to get learners to do. Helping learners develop their own theories
is a crucial component of the concepts they will form.

For scientific concepts to develop in children, teachers must:

• know how children understand the concepts that are taught; teachers need to ask
questions that will allow children to explain their understanding at the beginning –
this is often described as preknowledge, but later you will learn that it is better to call
children’s understanding “naïve theory” or “preconception”
• ask good questions that lead to observation, comparison, classification and the making
of predictions and inferences (known as process skills)
• allow children to explain; by explaining, children use the new words that they have
learnt and they develop their theory of a scientific concept, for example, their theory
of birds
• allow children to communicate their understanding of scientific concepts through
different forms of communication, such as poetry, art and role-play (to name only a few)

Activity 1.4: Communication of understanding through poetry

Write a poem about birds.

Reflect on your poem. Did your poem include your scientific understanding of what
birds are? Even though poems can be pure fantasy, there will be some thinking based
on scientific understanding of what you are writing about, in this case, birds.

1.6 HOW CONCEPTS DEVELOP

From birth, we develop a certain understanding of the world around us – how the world
works. This is our own scientific understanding of the world. Developmental psychologists
such as Piaget explained how concept development happens in stages that he called
the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational stages
(Charlesworth & Lind 2013). Young learners have ideas about how the world works –
from seeing what happens when they interact with the world and from the people
around them (cultural knowledge). Their understanding is called naïve because it is not
always very scientific (or true). Learners bring this understanding of their world (and
of scientific concepts) to the classroom where teachers will want to develop a more

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scientific understanding of concepts. It is important that teachers know what learners’

understanding of a scientific concept is before they teach about it.

One example of how children have naïve concepts about scientific phenomena is the
water cycle. Using clouds as an example, young learners may think that clouds are like
cotton wool (Sackes, Flevares & Trundle 2010). It is difficult for young learners to understand
that clouds are made up of tiny water droplets. If you need to teach the water cycle, in
particular, that rain (which is water) comes from clouds, you must know what learners
understand about clouds and how they came to have that understanding. On the basis
of your understanding of young learners’ understanding about clouds, you will plan and
present inquiry-based learning activities to develop their understanding of the water cycle
from a naïve understanding to a more scientific understanding. Scientific development
occurs through changing learners’ naïve understanding to a more scientific understanding.
The Lieto (2014) diagram can be used to explain this aspect (figure 1.3).

1.7 CONCEPTUAL CHANGE IN THE LEARNING OF SCIENCE

There are several ideas about how conceptual change happens in the brain. Time does
not allow us to discuss all the views about conceptual change, so we will mostly refer
to the process of conceptual change according to Carey’s (2009) description of it. Carey
(2009) says conceptual change happens through many “bootstrapping” activities.

To understand what bootstrapping is, you should have an understanding of the word. The
word booting was used some years back to refer to the process of starting a computer.
In computer talk, a bootstrap is a program that allows a sequence of programs to load in
order to initiate the operating system of a computer. In other words, a bootstrap is a small
amount of information (or coding) that a computer needs to load the bigger programs
such as word-processing programs (i.e., their coding or information) it needs in order to
run. The computer cannot load the big programs from the beginning; it needs to start
with a small amount of coding. Think back on the video about the links that are made in
the brain when learning takes place. Learning does not take place from the beginning
with all the information that is received. We hope that you will later see that this is how
learners learn science. They cannot learn all the facts at once; they need to start with
small amounts of information that get linked together in scientific concepts (or scientific
theories).

There is another explanation for the term “bootstrapping”. There is an English expression,
“to pull yourself up by your bootstraps”, which refers to the imagined feat of lifting oneself
off the ground by pulling on one’s bootstraps. Imagine how you would lift your feet by
pulling on your shoelaces (or bootstraps). In your imagination, you cannot lift your feet
by yourself, but you have to pull on your bootlaces to get to the next step. It is hard work
and almost impossible. This saying is supposed to demonstrate that getting out of a
difficult situation by one’s own efforts is hard work. Using the word “bootstrapping” to
refer to conceptual change tells us that learners learn bits of information slowly, through
hard work. (The video you watched in activity 1.2 shows how connections are made in
the brain; it takes time for strong connections to be made).

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Figure 1.3: Conceptual change in respect of concepts relating to the water cycle

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Bootstrapping as a model for conceptual change can be described as having the following
characteristics:

• Relations among components of concepts are learnt directly, in terms of each other.
For example, to understand the scientific meaning of the concept “cloud”, you must
understand “water”, “water vapour”, “water liquid”, “temperature” and “pressure”. (Do
you know all these words? If not, you should stop and first look up their meaning).
• The components of a concept are at first not understood scientifically. For example,
it is not possible for younger learners to understand that liquid water can evaporate
and form water vapour and then condense to form liquid water when the temperature
and pressure are perfect for the formation of clouds.
• The components of a concept are introduced to learners as “words” and learners
should use them in their explanations and communications, even though they are not
scientifically understood. These “words” are known as placeholders because they hold
the place for the development of scientific understanding of the concept. Using our
example of clouds, learners are taught the words water vapour, liquid water, evaporate
and condense, and they use them during explanation and communication activities,
even though foundation phase learners will not understand the words scientifically.
It is only in using the words that scientific meaning can start to be made.
• Modelling processes are used to form a foundation for developing a clearer scientific
understanding of placeholder words. There are many modelling processes and we will
only refer to analogy and inductive inference here. These modelling processes combine
separate components of a concept.
− An analogy is a comparison between one thing and another, typically for the
purpose of explanation or clarification.
• Refer to how activities in the inquiry-based learning approach become
examples (or analogies) for a scientific concept, with particular reference to
how a more scientific understanding can be developed by an activity such
as “cloud in a bottle” (explained later).
− Inductive inferences are made when a person goes beyond available evidence
to form a conclusion (like a hypothesis). (You should read the notes on process
skills, particularly the discussion of inferences in learning unit two).
• Induction can be broken down into three stages. The first stage is to understand
an observation or stated information. The second is to form a hypothesis that
attempts to describe the information in relation to one’s general knowledge.
The resulting conclusion goes beyond the initial information, in that one’s
general knowledge is incorporated in the result. The third step is to evaluate
the validity of the conclusion that was reached.
• Therefore, teachers must ask questions during the inquiry process so that
learners’ observations are linked to their existing knowledge, which is most
likely to be a naïve understanding of the scientific concept under discussion.
By explaining their observations, using the new scientific words (placeholder
words), learners will start developing an understanding of the scientific
concept.
Refer to figure 1.4 for a diagrammatic explanation of how bootstrapping connects
concepts in many steps until there is a change from a naïve theory of a concept to a
scientific theory of a concept.

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Figure 1.4: Conceptual change – connections are made in the brain, leading to scientific
concepts being formed

In the light of the explanation of bootstrapping as a process during which a naïve, childlike
understanding of a concept, where the components of the concept are not connected,
changes into a scientific theory, you as the foundation phase teacher need to know how
to develop activities that will start the long and slow process of conceptual change.
You must know the following:
• What is learners’ understanding of a scientific idea at the beginning of a science activity/
topic (which the CAPS curriculum calls “beginning knowledge”)?
• What scientific concept do you want to teach? What is the new scientific “knowledge”
or scientific understanding in respect of that concept? What is the word that will act

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as a placeholder – a basic concept word that may not be understood scientifically, but
can be used to explain observations and thereby develop learners’ understanding of
the scientific concept?
• How you are going to develop a new scientific understanding of the concept from
learners’ naïve understanding of it? How are you going to use “bootstrapping”? How
are you going to plan the science activities – what modelling activities, analogies or
examples are you going to use in the inquiry-based lesson?

1.7.1 Using the concept “cloud” as an example

By now you should understand that scientific concepts or placeholder words should be
taught by means of inquiry-based activities that act as examples of what happens in the
world or what happens scientifically. It is important that learners talk and communicate
about their observations so that they can develop a better understanding of scientific
words (or scientific concepts).

Activity 1.5: Cloud in a bottle

There are many online videos on the activity that is commonly called “cloud in a bottle”.
You can start by watching the following videos or reading through the notes found on
the module site on myUnisa:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wagrbfKV5bE
https://www.stevespanglerscience.com/lab/experiments/cloud-in-a-bottle-experiment/

What you should learn from this activity is that although we can see clouds up in the sky, we
cannot always see the tiny water molecules (also called water vapour) that they are made
up of. In order to see them in the form of a cloud, they have to be packed tightly together.
When you pump pressure into the bottle, the water molecules are compressed together,
which is an important step in cloud formation because it increases the temperature.
In order to form a cloud, the pressure must be released from the bottle so that the air
temperature can fall suddenly. This allows the water molecules to condense and to form
tiny water droplets, which are what clouds are made out of.

By watching the cloud-in-the-bottle demonstration and reading the explanations on

cloud formation, your own scientific understanding of clouds will have developed. Your
theory of a cloud will have changed to a more scientific understanding (refer to figures
1.3 and 1.4). The cloud-in-a-bottle activity and its explanation serve as an analogy (or an
example of, or a comparison between what happens in the bottle and what happens in
real life) for a cloud. If this activity is done as an inquiry activity with young learners, they
will need to confront their pre-understanding or naïve theory that clouds are like cotton
wool because they will see a liquid being formed into a cloud. In the explanation stage
during and after the cloud-in-a-bottle activity, you as the teacher, as well as the learners,
will have to use words like liquid, gas, water vapour, water liquid, pressure and temperature.
These words are the placeholder words. They are used to enable the learners to develop
a scientific understanding of how clouds form by reasoning or thinking about what they
see, even though they will not have a scientific understanding of the difference between
liquid water and water vapour.

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1.7.2 Scientific understanding of water liquid and water vapour
You might have realised that to understand fully what a cloud is, you should know the
difference between water liquid and water vapour.

Activity 1.6: The difference between water liquid and water vapour

To ensure you understand the difference between liquid water and water vapour, we
would like you to go to the module site on myUnisa and to watch a few videos on this
topic. Here is one of these videos, but there are many others you can find yourself:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuE1LePDZ4Y
To get a good scientific understanding of water, you have to know that water is made
up of very small particles of atoms and molecules. If you like, you can watch a few videos
about atoms and molecules. You will find links to these videos on the module site on
myUnisa. Here is one of these videos:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ogPNZ_MXksM
What we are trying to show is that we can talk about water and water vapour and not
have a complete scientific understanding of these terms; we can use the words while our
scientific understanding of them is developing.

We hope that you have seen the importance of language in the learning of science. You
should have noticed that without learning the vocabulary of science or the words that
explain scientific concepts (placeholder words), children cannot develop an understanding
of scientific concepts. If learners do not have words to explain their observations and
thinking, then conceptual change from a naïve understanding of concepts to a more
scientific understanding of concepts cannot happen. We discuss this aspect further in
the following section. To learn more about conceptual development in learners, read the
chapter in Sousa (2017) that is listed in section 1.9.

1.8 LANGUAGE AND THE LEARNING OF SCIENCE

Language plays an important role in the learning of scientific concepts. Hands-on science
activities aid in the development of language and reading. Reading is developed because
a learner who can discriminate (see differences) between objects will be better able to
discriminate (or see differences) between letters – and therefore read words. If a learner
cannot read a word, then comprehension of what is read is not possible.

Also, reading about the world when one doesn’t have experience of the world is a problem
for comprehension. Hands-on activities done through inquiry-based learning aid learners’
language development and understanding of science.

If, for example, learners read a story about the wind but have no experience of wind, then
the story may not make sense to them. As a teacher, you can find several science activities
about “wind” for young children on the internet. If you do these inquiry-based learning
activities with learners, they will not only develop an understanding of what they have
read but also an understanding of the scientific concept “wind”.

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Activity 1.7: Find a story about the wind

Write down five words or ideas in the story that you think learners will not understand.
Find a science activity about the wind for young learners. Write down words from the
science activity that you also found in the story.
How do you think the science activity will develop the learners’ vocabulary and
reading comprehension of the story?
What questions will you ask the learners to ensure that they understand the story about
the wind?

We hope that by doing an activity based on a topic in a story (e.g., wind) you have seen how
you can use a story to introduce a scientific concept and that, through good questioning,
you will be able to make learners curious about what scientific words mean. A scientific
inquiry into a concept (e.g., wind) gives learners a chance to explain their observations and
to make inferences about what they observe. Learning about scientific concepts happens
through language. The words that are used in explanations may not be well understood
scientifically because connections (in the brain) between components of scientific concepts
have not been made yet. However, while the words are used in explanations, a more
scientific understanding of them is developed. This clearer understanding of the words
develops better comprehension when the words are read. As Vygotsky (1978) argued,
by learning “the word”, one takes the first step to forming the concept.
Language activities for science learning are guided by teacher questioning (Yoon &
Onchwari 2006). Good questions can lead to
• improved comprehension, particularly of novel words such as those that are found
in the learning of science
• an improved ability to question and explain what is observed in scientific inquiries
• improved predictions, which support scientific experimentation (Jonassen & Ionas 2008)

Learners who are taught by teachers who use good questioning are curious about their
world, continue to ask questions, and probe and interrogate information by providing
explanations and reasons to make their thinking explicit and by using analogies to
talk about concepts (Gillies, Nichols, Burgh & Haynes 2013). You can read more about
questioning in Stacey (2018a), which is listed as an additional resource and available
through a link on myUnisa.

1.8.1 Learning science in a first additional language

In this section we would like you to consider three scenarios. Refer to figure 1.5 for a
diagrammatic representation of the scenarios. The first scenario is where learners are
taught in their home language, which is English. The second scenario is where learners are
taught scientific words in English but English is not their first language. The third scenario
is where learners are taught science in their home language, which is not English, in the
foundation phase and then taught science in English from the intermediate phase. These
three scenarios are currently (2019) the case in some schools in South Africa. Although
we will not give you solutions to the challenges, it is important that you understand
the implications of the language that is used when scientific concepts are taught in a
multilingual society.

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Figure 1.5: Language scenarios in South African foundation phase classrooms

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With regard to language and the learning of scientific concepts, we would like to introduce
you to the idea of working memory, although you may have been introduced to this idea
in your studies on cognitive development.

1.8.2 The role of working memory in learning the language of science

Thinking or reasoning is controlled in the brain by an area that has executive function
(EF). This area in the brain controls three main aspects of thinking, namely,

• recall of information from long-term memory into working memory

• inhibition (or stopping) of ideas that are not suitable for the thinking of the moment
• (set) shifting between ideas

The three processes of EF are shown in figure 1.6 (based on Mareschal 2016).

Figure 1.6: The processes of executive function in science learning

Figure 1.6 shows the importance of the processes of EF and, in particular, working memory
in conceptual change in learners. Limitations in working memory capacity impair learners’
ability to extract information and to learn the skills that lay the foundation for later effective
functioning in mathematics, science, language studies and interpersonal interactions
(Cockcroft 2015). Evidence links performance in working memory tasks to vocabulary
acquisition, early academic success in reading, mathematics and comprehension1.

The NOS requires that learners start a scientific inquiry from an understanding of concepts.
Young learners already have an understanding of concepts based on their interaction
with the world and the people around them, which is stored in their long-term memory.
Their understanding is based on the way in which concepts are connected in the brain.

1 Revise the role of the phonological loop in working memory. You should have studied this
loop in the language education modules

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Connected scientific concepts in the brain can be called a theory (Lieto 2014). Learning
involves searching for possible theories for a question raised by a learner. (Remember,
children are curious; they naturally ask questions). To try to answer a question, a learner
will start with the theory of a concept represented in his/her brain (long-term memory).
The learner uses this theory to explain an answer but may find that this understanding
does not work. In order to find a workable explanation, the leaner must change or
update his/her theory about the concept. This requires that the learner explore a range
of possible explanations before settling on the most likely one – and comparing them
to the evidence from the scientific inquiry (called causal reasoning). Causal reasoning
underpins all higher order activities, such as conceptual understanding, problem-solving,
the making of predictions, the drawing of inferences and the explanation of phenomena
(Jonassen & Ionas 2008:287).
Inquiry-based learning also lends itself to exploration, which results in causal reasoning
and the development of more accurate intuitive theories (Gopnik et al 2004; Gopnik &
Wellman 2012). Refer to figures 1.1–1.4 and make sure that you understand how naïve
ideas (or intuitive theories) change into scientific theories (or more accurate intuitive
theories). The connections between components of a concept (Lieto 2014) are made
through causal reasoning during activities based on inquiry. The following example of an
inquiry-based activity on heat insulation illustrates some of the ideas about conceptual
change discussed above.

Activity 1.8: Learning about heat insulation

There are many good activities on heat insulation for children on the following webpage
– the link can be found on the module site on myUnisa: http://beyondpenguins.ehe.
osu.edu/issue/keeping-warm/lessons-and-activities-about-heat-and-insulation
First focus on a specific heat insulation activity that can be found at this link on myUnisa:
https://www.uen.org/lessonplan/view/2460
The following illustration can be used to understand the inquiry-based activity:

Predict what you think the temperature readings will be on the first and second
thermometers that are covered with gloves that are made of a material that do not allow
heat to escape. (The temperature reading is 25⁰ C on the thermometer that is not covered
with a glove). Explain your prediction. Do the activity, if possible. You should learn that
the thermometer in the first glove has the same temperature as the thermometer that
is not in a glove. It is only in the glove in which there is a hand that the temperature will

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be higher than the outside temperature. Was your prediction correct? If so, then your
scientific understanding of gloves as insulators of heat produced by the body is good. If
not, then you have a naïve understanding of insulators.
For now, look at some misconceptions that children have about heat at the following
website link, which can be found on myUnisa: http://beyondpenguins.ehe. osu.edu/issue/
keeping-warm/common-misconceptions-about-heat-and-insulation

We hope you were able to do the activity so that your own theory of heat insulation will
become more scientific. To develop a more scientific theory of heat insulation, you will
need to use your EF (in your brain). This process is illustrated in figure 1.7:

Figure 1.7: The executive function and the inhibition of a misconception about heat
insulation

People’s (and, by implication, children’s) EF has three mechanisms, which will work something
like this in the glove activity:

• Children will recall from their long-term memory into their working memory, their
understanding that gloves make their hands warm when it is cold outside. This is a
misconception since gloves do not make our hands warm but keep the heat that comes
from our bodies. (Do you know how hot our bodies are?) They will predict that the
temperature reading on the thermometer in the first glove will be higher (or warmer)
than that of the thermometer that is not in a glove because of this misconception.
• After the activity, children have to explain why the temperature reading on the
thermometer in the first glove was not higher (warmer) than the reading on the
thermometer that was outside a glove. They have to inhibit (or stop) their previous
(mis)understanding of how heat insulators work, which they learnt through many
years of experience of wearing gloves when it is cold outside.
• Their previous (mis)understanding is still present in their thinking, in the connections
in their brains. To develop new connections, they will move between their previous
understanding and the new understanding until the new understanding has formed
strong connections (in their brains). The new connections take a long time to develop.

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If you find this notion of conceptual change new and challenging, you may want to read
the book by Medina (2014), which is listed as an additional resource in section 1.9 and
available from the Unisa Library as an e-resource.
We hope you have seen how predictions and explanations, using language, form the basis
of executive functioning (and working memory). This brings us back to the language of
learning, particularly if it is not learners’ home language (refer to figure 1.5).

Activity 1.9: Teaching science in an additional language

You were introduced to TESSA under “Open educational resources”.

Find the following internet link to TESSA on the myUnisa module site and visit TESSA’s
pages on teaching an additional language: http://www.open.edu/ openlearncreate/mod/
oucontent/view.php?id=80632

Language plays a very important role in learning in the foundation phase. How has
your thinking about teaching science changed? Have you made a connection between
teaching language and teaching science? How would you describe that connection? Can
you describe the connection between learning science and learning scientific words in a
language that is not one’s first language? In learning unit two you will see that if a person’s
brain is focused on language skills such as pronouncing or reading words, then the brain
does not focus on making sense or meaning of the words and scientific concepts become
difficult to develop. There are a few online videos about learning a new language – and
science is a new language. Watch this video through the link on myUnisa and take note
of how important it is for learners to “talk” about science: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=GLAMS7OloEM
You can also read the book by Sousa (2011) about how English is learnt as a first additional
language. The book is listed as an additional resource in section 1.9 and is available as an
e-resource from the Unisa Library.

1.9 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Resources that you should read in addition to the study guide are as follows:
• Resources that are available from the Unisa Library :
Medina, JJ. 2014. Brain rules. Seattle, WA: Pear Press.
Sousa, DA. 2011. How the ELL brain learns. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sousa, DA. 2017. How the brain learns. 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
• Resources that are available through links on the module site on myUnisa:
Sousa, DA. 2017. How the brain processes information, in How the brain learns, by DA
Sousa. 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin:43–46.
Stacey, S. 2018a. An environment that promotes curiosity and questioning for both children
and teachers, in Inquiry-based early learning environments: creating, supporting, and
collaborating, by S Stacey. Saint Paul, MN: Redleaf Press:51–68.
Stacey, S. 2018b. Environments that make children’s and teacher’s thinking visible:
documentation as a support for inquiry, in Inquiry-based early learning environments:
creating, supporting, and collaborating, by S Stacey. Saint Paul, MN: Redleaf Press:69–85.

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1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.1 Explain in your own words
a) what is meant by scientific literacy
b) how the South African curriculum has been organised to develop it
1.2 Explain in your own words what is meant by
a) the nature of science
b) how a teacher’s understanding of the nature of science will direct his/her
teaching of science
1.3 In your view, how can inquiry-based learning activities contribute to the development
of learners’ understanding of the nature of science? Give a relevant example from
your own experience.
1.4 Explain the role of teacher questioning and learner predictions and explanations
in an inquiry-based lesson, with specific reference to conceptual change in the
learning of science.
1.5 Describe the three components of scientific concepts, according to Lieto (2014).
1.6 Discuss how the learning of scientific concepts takes place, according to
a) Carey (2009)
b) Gopnik and Wellman (2012)
c) Mareschal (2016)

1.11 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to the theoretical underpinnings of science education
for young learners in the foundation phase. To develop your understanding of what science
is, you were introduced to the idea of the nature of science, scientific literacy and the
teaching approach based on inquiry. If children engage in reasoning and confront their
naïve understanding of concepts in the course of inquiry-based learning, conceptual
change will take place. Since conceptual change in respect of the learning of science,
which involves a shift from a naïve to a scientific understanding of concepts, is a long
and slow process, it is recommended that the process start in the foundation phase (or
even at preschool level).

The following unit will provide you with ideas about developing your science content
knowledge for the purpose of teaching science to young learners. You will be introduced
to the idea of “big concepts”. Big concepts are used to organise science knowledge
and to focus the planning of science activities that are presented to facilitate learning.
The science curriculum guides teachers’ choice of science activities. Learners’ science
knowledge can be developed through a number of teaching approaches, which are also
described in the next unit.

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Learning unit 2
Components of science learning

Learning unit two focuses on the components of science teaching that are necessary for
the foundation phase.

Learning outcomes

After you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to
• identify scientific concepts and science process skills in science investigations
• cite appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of scientific concepts
and science process skills
• explain how scientific investigative skills affect children’s understanding of the nature
of science and scientific literacy
• use scenarios to identify, interpret and analyse children’s thinking processes in the
learning of science

Key concepts

y science process skills

y science investigations
y scientific concepts
y science knowledge strands
y big ideas
y habits of mind
y habits of body

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous learning unit you were introduced to what science is, in other words, its
nature. You learnt that young learners develop their ideas about the nature of science
through developing scientific literacy. In this unit you will be introduced to the components
of science that are taught in the foundation phase to facilitate the development of learners’
scientific literacy.

While you study this unit you will develop science content knowledge that is necessary for
teaching science in the foundation phase. You will obtain most of this content knowledge
yourself from magazines, newspapers, libraries and the internet.

The science topics that must be taught are stated in the curriculum documents. The
topics are typically categorised into one of the science knowledge strands. Using the
ideas of McLachlan, Fleer and Edwards (2013), we take the position that curricula guide

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our teaching about the world. The beginning knowledge section of the Curriculum and
assessment policy statement (CAPS): Life Skills for the foundation phase (South Africa 2011)
and the National curriculum statement (NCS): Natural Sciences (South Africa 2002) are the
curricula that guide teachers on what and how to teach science to young children. (These
documents will be abbreviated as CAPS: Life Skills for the foundation phase and NCS: Natural
Sciences from here on). Refer to figure 2.1 to get an idea of the influence of these curricula
on the content discussed.

Figure 2.1: Influence of the curricula of NCS: Natural Sciences and CAPS: Life Skills for the foundation
phase on the discussion of principles underlying science teaching in the foundation phase

The following sections are meant to develop your understanding of science learning in
young foundation phase learners.

2.2 YOUNG LEARNERS’ THINKING PROCESSES IN SCIENCE

In learning unit one you were introduced to how scientific concepts develop in the brains
of young learners when they engage in learning activities, which leads to the development
of their scientific literacy. The notion of conceptual development in the learning of science
in young learners will form the basis of our further discussion of what must be taught
and how science should be taught.

The Information Processing Model (according to Sousa 2017) will be used to explain the
teaching approaches, principles and concepts that apply to foundation phase science
in South African schools. Refer to figure 2.2 for a diagram of the Information Processing
Model. The model shows that information from the environment is registered in a learner’s
immediate memory and then passed on to his/her working memory for processing
(thinking, reasoning and problem-solving). If the learner attaches sense and meaning to
the learning, the information is likely to be stored for later use (thinking, reasoning and

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problem-solving). Teachers must therefore ensure that they present science activities
that develop sense and meaning making. Lastly, but very importantly, the learner’s self-
concept will determine how much attention he/she gives the new information. Later we
will explain that one way of motivating learners to become active in their own learning is to
allow them to ask questions about a topic and then to find the answers to their questions.

Figure 2.2: Information Processing Model (Sousa 2017)

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Activity 2.1: Revision of working memory, conceptual change and causal

reasoning

Refer back to learning unit one and write a short paragraph about

• the role of working memory in reading about science in English if it is an additional

language
• the linking of concepts during causal reasoning
• bootstrapping of concepts into revised scientific theories

You will remember that working memory is important in reading. If too much working
memory is used for the actual reading, then too little working memory is available to
“move” (or encode) the information into long-term memory (or storage). Encoding requires
causal reasoning to make the links between concepts so that a “theory” of a concept can be
developed. During causal reasoning, naïve theories develop into more scientific theories.

A further consideration in the explanation of the underlying principles of science learning

in the foundation phase is the role of habits of body, habits of mind, process skills and big
concepts in science thinking and learning (refer to figure 2.3). We will be referring to these
roles as we discuss the components of science teaching in the foundation phase.

Figure 2.3: Factors that influence science thinking and learning

In discussing the components of teaching science in the foundation phase, we will be

referring to the example of how foundation phase learners learn about insects and how
teachers should ensure learners have access to the relevant information and use it to
develop a scientific meaning of the concept “insects”.

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2.2.1 Questions lead to learners thinking about science
As indicated in learning unit one, a teacher has to know how young learners think. Teachers
ask questions to determine what learners think.

Activity 2.2: Foundation phase learners’ prior knowledge of insects

What do you think learners know about insects before they enter school? How do you
think they learnt what they know?

Young learners will probably know about insects that they have seen flying around in
their gardens. They may have parents or guardians who talk to them about and show
them the wonder of nature and the world around them. They may have been stung by
a bee or a wasp. Their guardians might have told them to be careful when they drink
cooldrink from a can because bees are attracted to sugary solutions. They may have seen
ants carrying crumbs. They may have seen cockroaches in their homes. Their parents
may have described them as being “as busy as a bee”. They may have seen the film about
Maya the Bee or their guardians may have read them stories about insects. There are
many ways in which children learn about the world. (Refer to the Information Processing
Model – figure 2.2.) As a teacher you should first find out what learners know about the
world. Let as many learners as possible tell you what they know. Remember that children
bring with them their own cultural knowledge, stories and ideas that may be unique to
their specific culture.

You may want to read up on how culture influences learning. An e-resource on this topic
is available on the myUnisa site of this module. The author is Cole (2017). (A full source
reference is provided in section 2.8).

It is a good idea to draw a concept map of what learners know before you start teaching a
new topic. A concept map is a line diagram of connected ideas. You will find information
about concept maps in the additional resources.

You should also ask learners what they would like to know about the topic, for example,
what they wonder (think) about insects or what they would like to know about insects.
These wonderings or questions should be put on a “wonder wall”. The wonderings or
questions are the questions that the learners want answered and will motivate them to
learn. When you teach the topic you should see how many of these questions can be
answered. At the end of the topic you should draw another concept map to see how the
learners’ understanding of the topic has changed through your teaching. Also go back
to the “wonder wall” and see if some of the questions have been answered.

Watch this video about wonder walls: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= 5x9KJljnQD8

Also, read the book about wonder walls by Gamwell and Daly (2018). A link to this source
is available on myUnisa. (A full source reference is provided in section 2.8.)

Another important consideration in science teaching is: what is your knowledge and
understanding as a teacher who will be teaching a science topic?

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2.2.2 Teachers’ knowledge and attitude influence learners’ thinking

about science
Teachers should always show an interest in learning about science. Their own attitude
towards science will influence their learners’ attitude towards learning science.

Activity 2.3: Teachers’ knowledge about scientific concepts

List the characteristics of insects that you know. Can you name at least five insects?
Watch the next video on insects and compare the information provided in the video
with the characteristics you listed (write notes about insects that you can use as exam
questions.): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rKQfJFAHW8Q
Name five small animals that are not insects. Why are they not insects?

Insects such as bees, wasps, butterflies, ants and cockroaches all have six legs; they may or
may not have wings but they all have an exoskeleton. They do not have lungs to breathe
but have a network of tiny tubes; these tubes are called tracheae. They have compound
eyes. Insects are different from other small animals such as spiders and worms. Spiders
only have two body parts, have simple eyes and have eight legs. Worms have many body
parts, many leg-like bristles and simple eyes. In science, we group or classify all living
organisms into larger and larger groups of similarity. In our example we could classify
the animals we listed as invertebrates because all of them have an exoskeleton instead
of an inner skeleton of bones or cartilage. We can then break this big group into smaller
groups, for example, spiders, insects and worms. Each of these groups can be separated
into smaller groups. We could, for example, divide the insects into those that have wings
and those that do not. Figure 2.4 shows this classification in a flow chart.

Figure 2.4: Simple classification of some invertebrates

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If you think that you have a very limited understanding of insects, you may want to look
for books on insects in your local library. Alternatively, refer to the additional resources
at the end of this unit for a book that you can get from the Unisa library.

The topic “insects” can be taught using several big ideas of science. These big ideas are
also known as big concepts. Refer to figure 2.3, which shows big concepts as one of
the factors that influence the development of scientific thinking in young learners. The
following sections describe the big concepts in the South African curriculum.

2.3 BIG CONCEPTS OR BIG IDEAS

Concepts are the building blocks of knowledge. They allow people to organise and categorise
information and can be applied to the solution of new problems in everyday experience.
We discussed concepts and the development of concepts in unit one. You should revise
the unit often until you develop a good understanding of what a concept is, otherwise you
could develop the habit of teaching science as facts rather than starting young learners on
the path of developing concepts in the learning of science. Teaching for conceptual change
means that learners are given the opportunity to make observations, to ask questions about
their observations and to find answers to these questions by communicating their ideas. You
should refer to the Information Processing Model (figure 2.2) at all times to remind yourself
how children learn.

If you had to do research on big concepts (or big ideas), you would find that different authors
list them in slightly different ways. We have decided to focus on the big concepts that are listed
in the document CAPS: Life Skills for the foundation phase (South Africa 2011:8). They are listed
as social science concepts, but they are in fact big concepts because they organise thinking
in all “subjects”, namely, History, Geography, Science, Technology and Mathematics. The big
concepts are as follows: conservation, cause and effect, place, adaptation, relationships and
interdependence, diversity and individuality, and change.

Big concepts are not taught as topics on their own but are the ideas that link several topics.
The following is a presentation of the meaning of each of these big concepts.

2.3.1 Conservation
According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, conservation is the careful preservation
and protection of something. In this context, we refer to the planned management of a
natural resource to prevent its exploitation, destruction or neglect. An example of such
conservation is water conservation, that is, when humans store water in dams and tanks,
do not waste water in their homes and industry, and do not pollute water to the extent that
it is unfit for drinking by humans and animals or unfit for water animals, for example, fish
to live in. There are many examples of conservation of specific resources such as wildlife
conservation, which is when humans find ways to keep wildlife safe. Think about nature
reserves and conservation efforts that we hear about in the news such as the efforts to
conserve rhinos and elephants.

Africa has many living organisms that are unique to the continent, not only elephants,
rhinos, giraffe, zebras and wildebeests. Plants in the Cape Fynbos area such as certain

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species of protea are under threat of extinction. You may know that the protea is South
Africa’s national flower. The Cape Floral Kingdom is unique to South Africa and plants
found there are not found anywhere else in the world. Unfortunately, South Africa’s natural
wildlife and plant life are under threat due to a growing human population, increasing
demands for land and housing, and other factors.

People’s attitudes towards wildlife conservation areas such as nature reserves are changing.
In September 1984, 61% of the Gallup survey in the United States showed that people
put the environment first over the economy. In March 2011, the percentage of people
favouring the environment was only 36% (www.gallup.com/poll/1615/environment.aspx).
Since 1985 there has been a change in the experience that children have with nature due
to urbanisation, less outdoor play and the dominance of computers and video games in
their daily lives. Children are becoming less engaged with nature and less knowledgeable
about it.

A study revealed that children could recognise hundreds of corporate logos, such as
Coca-Cola, Nike, Adidas and Cadbury, but fewer than 10 names of plants. Even children’s
books have shown a decrease in stories about the environment and wild animals since
1938 (Kareiva & Marvier 2012). A lack of nature experiences, either in books or during play,
impairs children’s development of a love for natural environments and wildlife. Nature
experiences influence children’s responses and actions in relation to environmental issues
and their motivation to conserve their country’s wildlife heritage, to use less electricity,
to recycle materials and not to pollute water, among other conservation efforts.

You can learn more about the role of play in learning by reading the chapter written by
Fleer (2015). A link to the relevant source is available on the module site on myUnisa. (A
full source reference is provided in section 2.8).

Responding to and acting on environmental issues will depend on a person’s scientific

literacy. Therefore, teachers should develop learners’ scientific literacy by developing
ideas relating to conservation in topics they teach, for example, living organisms like
wild animals, plants and the environment. We often forget about small animals, such
as insects and earthworms, and the role they play in our world. Many kinds of fruit, for
example, cannot form from flowers if the flowers are not pollinated by bees and other
insects. Earthworms are important to aerate and nourish soil. People should therefore
be careful when they spray insecticides because these substances not only kill harmful
insects like mosquitoes but also beneficial insects such as bees.

Activity 2.4: Conservation

Read the article that can be found at this link on the module site on myUnisa: https://
www.edreams.com/blog/animals-in-africa-from-a-to-z/
List the animals that are unique to Africa. Which animal do you find the most interesting?
Why? List the animals that were new to you. Do you think you can develop an interesting
lesson about one of these unique animals for foundation phase learners? Are there cultural
stories about any of these animals? What can we learn from the cultural stories about
these animals? Why do you think these animals should be conserved?

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Our country’s wildlife heritage, like its cultural heritage, should be preserved. Our continent,
Africa, is different from other continents with respect to the environment and living
organisms that are found here. Our cultural stories are often about our unique wildlife.
Stories about wildlife can be used as a starting point to generate interest in a topic about
living organisms. There are websites that focus on African stories about animals. You can
read a story about elephant and tortoise at this link: http://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/
saft/sft31.htm
We thought this would be a good story to read to young learners about wild animals. You
could add some information about how elephants are hunted for their tusks. If elephants
are not protected, they may be lost forever and the children of the following generations
will not know them. A part of Africa’s cultural and wildlife heritage will therefore be lost.
The second big concept that we will examine is cause and effect.

2.3.2 Cause and effect

A cause is an event or an action that causes something else to happen while an effect is an
event or an action that happened as a result of another event or action. Causal reasoning
encodes concepts from working memory to long-term memory during sense making
(refer to figure 2.2). Learners reason about the effect of an action and about the possible
causes of the action (effect).

Cause and effect can and should be taught across many topics, including healthy eating.
If we eat too much or too much of the wrong type of food and we are inactive, we could
become obese. If we eat too many sugar-based foods, we are at a higher risk of becoming
diabetic. Other examples are that if we spray insecticides, we could kill bees, in which case
the bee population could decrease, fruit may not be produced on trees and less fruit will
ultimately be produced for humans and other animals such as birds. Can you see how
the big concept of conservation links very well with the big concept of cause and effect?
This, then, leads us to the idea of food chains and food webs.

Activity 2.5: Food chains as an example of cause and effect

Read the information on cause and effect and how to teach it during a reading lesson
at this link on the module site on myUnisa: https://www.brighthubeducation.com/
lesson-plans-grades-3-5/43463-teaching-cause-and-effect/
What did you learn from reading this information?
Now watch the video on food chains that can be found at this link on myUnisa: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=hLq2datPo5M
While you watch the video on food chains, make sure you learn the definitions of producer,
consumer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer, apex consumer,
decomposer, herbivore, carnivore, solar energy, photosynthesis, food chain and food web.
Now think what the effect would be if the number of grasshoppers in the food chain
increased (cause). What would the effect be if the number of grasshoppers decreased
(cause)? Why do you think so?

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Food chains and food webs demonstrate how energy is moved through a natural
ecosystem. Sometimes, conditions in the environment cause an imbalance. For example,
Africa sometimes has outbreaks of grasshoppers. The effect of this is that the grasshoppers
eat all the grass and crops. As a result, the availability of food for animals is reduced, and
humans lose their crops and animals. On the other hand, if the number of grasshoppers
(and other insects) decreases, then there is less food for small insectivorous birds and
they will die, and the other animals that feed on these birds will also be affected.
We have been referring to Africa in our discussions. Let us look at the big concept of
place in more detail.

2.3.3 Place
We are all citizens of the world, then of our continent, our country, our town and our
suburb. We need to understand our place. We need to understand what impact we have
on the place where we live and the world as a whole.

Reflect on your place in the world and the impact you have on the place where you live
and work and the world as a whole.

Activity 2.6: Describe your place

Tell us about where you live and the challenges that people and other living organisms,
including plants and animals, face there. How do you think the problems can be solved?
Are you part of the solution or the problem?

We like to think that we try to solve problems in the place we find ourselves and that we
do not add to the problems confronting our world. We do this in very small ways. For
example, at our place of work there is a problem that we often have paper that is wasted
when the photocopier does not print properly. This paper can be thrown in a dustbin and
taken to the city’s dumpsite. However, we considered the environmental impacts and
decided to have the waste paper collected by an unemployed mother, who then takes
the paper to a recycling company. This solution not only helps the woman’s family but
also the environment. Work is created in the recycling industry for this mother and if we
recycle paper, then fewer plantations are destroyed or need to be planted. Many paper
manufacturers plant exotic trees to make pulp for paper and other products. If fewer
of these exotic trees are planted, less water is removed from the soil, and land could be
made available for food production. Do you have a similar story of how you, through
your actions, have changed the impact of waste on the environment? Have you thought
about starting or participating in a plastic recycling project or any other kind of recycling?
Reduce, re-use, repair, recycle! This slogan should become part of who we are and where
we live and work. How can the waste materials generated by the way we live be reduced,
re-used, repaired or recycled?
As we become greater consumers of materials such as paper, plastic, metals in cell phones
and so no, we need to take care that the place we live in does not become polluted and
consequently unfit for human habitation (not fit to live in). We as the human race need
to take action to bring about positive changes in the places where we live and work.

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2.3.4 Change
The world is forever changing. Think about the kind of world your grandparents and
parents lived in. What did they do for entertainment? What did they buy? Where did they
live? Do you think they lived closer to the natural environment? Now compare that to the
way you live. We are sure you will agree that times have changed. Now think about the
learners you are going to teach. We do not know how the world will change for these
learners or how the world is currently changing for them. There are many changes that
people experience all the time. What are learners’ experiences about changes in their
bodies, the place where they live or the social circumstances they find themselves in?

Do the following activity about change in the natural environment.

Activity 2.7: The hungry caterpillar

Watch the video that you will find at this link on the module site on myUnisa: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=75NQK-Sm1YY
List the ideas or concepts (mathematics and science) that are developed in this story.

The story about the hungry caterpillar is a good example of how teachers can illustrate
the concept of change. The caterpillar changes by hatching from an egg and then, by
eating a lot, getting bigger and then eventually changing into a pupa and a butterfly. The
scientific concepts are that some insects undergo a complete metamorphosis and that
there are stages in the life cycle of insects such as moths or butterflies. Did you notice
the sequence of numbers and the idea of getting bigger (length, mass and volume)?

2.3.5 Adaptation
Activity 2.8: Adaptation of the peppered moth

Read the article on the well-known example of how a species of moth adapted to changes
in its environment at this link on myUnisa: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/
new-evidence-peppered-moths-changed-color-sync-industrial-revolution-180959282/
What was the original colouring of peppered moths? What is the most predominant colour
of peppered moths now? What caused the change in the colouring of peppered moths?

Continuous change necessitates continuous adaptation, or else living organisms will not
survive. Adaptation is a process of change by which living organisms or species becomes
better suited to their environment. There are many examples of how animal species have
survived changes in their environment. You can search the internet or other sources such
as children’s science books for examples.

Before the Industrial Revolution in Britain, peppered moths were light grey in colour.
During industrialisation, coal was burnt in factories and smoke left the smokestacks. This
smoke formed soot on the surfaces of buildings, trees and buildings, and trees became
greyer. More of the darker moths survived because they were not visible to their predators

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when they rested on buildings and trees. There is evidence that the genetics of the moths
have changed. Peppered moths are now darker and more adapted to an environment
where coal is burnt.

You can read about a South African animal, the meerkat, that adapted to protect its family.
Two or three individuals of a family stand on their hind legs and keep watch for predators
while the rest of the family feed. The article can be found at this link on myUnisa: https://
www.sanbi.org/animal-of-the-week/meerkat/

The meerkat example can also be used to explain relationships and interdependence. There
are relationships between the individuals of a meerkat family, and they are dependent
on one another for their safety.

2.3.6 Relationships and interdependence

Children need to develop a sense of their place in society and how we are all in some
form of relationship, such as a teacher–learner, a parent–child, a worker–boss or a doctor–
patient relationship. Learning about relationships in the animal kingdom can develop the
idea of relationships and how we depend on one another.

Activity 2.9: Relationships and interdependence in a termite nest

Read an article about termites at this link on myUnisa: https://news. nationalgeographic.com/

news/2014/07/140731-termites-mounds-insects-entomology-science/
Take note of how these very small animals in the Namib Desert can build large mounds.
Also take note of the scientist’s perseverance in studying termites. How many years has
this scientist been observing and studying these insects? (Have you ever seen large
termite mounds? Are they a feature of the region you live in? Have you ever wondered
about how they are built?)

The article gives an example of how living organisms, in this case, termites work together
and function interdependently, and of how a scientist studies a phenomenon, in this case,
how termites build their mounds. The scientist, spurred by curiosity about how termites are
able to build such large structures, spent many years studying them. He constantly asked
more questions and then found answers through observation and other scientific skills.

2.3.7 Diversity and individuality

The Life Skills curriculum suggests that foundation phase learners should learn about
diversity and individuality by thinking about how they are the same as their classmates
and how they are different from one another. They are the same in that they are human
beings with particular body structures such as two arms and two legs, unless they have
disabilities or are differently abled. They differ in their personalities and the shape of their
eyes, eye colour and other physical traits. They all have their own unique fingerprints,
DNA and blood type. Even though they are all different, they are all human.

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Plants and other animals are diverse in their structures and behaviours. This is known as
biodiversity. The importance of biodiversity is explained at the following link that you
will find on the module site on myUnisa: https://kids.kiddle.co/ Biodiversity

Having learnt about biodiversity, how can you develop the idea of biodiversity for young
learners?

You may, for example, live in an area where there are many plantations of one species
of trees planted specifically to make paper and where there is a wildlife reserve that
has been set aside to protect the diversity of African plants and animals. You could take
learners on a specially organised trip to the wildlife reserve where they could learn about
the different parts of the reserve, which may be regarded as ecosystems. You could also
ensure that there are different kinds of plants (trees, shrubs and ground cover) in the
school garden that will attract different insects, birds, lizards and other animals so that
learners can learn about the natural environment.

Activity 2.10: Biodiversity and ecosystems

Watch a video about biodiversity at this link on myUnisa: https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=iR2AyybowPc
Are there places near where you live that are set aside to conserve biodiversity? What
are these places? Can you include these areas in your science teaching? How could you
create greater biodiversity in your school garden?

We have now completed the discussion on the big concepts that are used to link topics to
the main ideas of science learning. The scientific literacy of learners is developed through
the development of these big concepts. We will now turn our attention to the scientific
knowledge teachers use when they develop the big concepts.

2.4 SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Scientific knowledge and concepts are classified or grouped into content areas, also called
knowledge strands in the curriculum documents. The four science content strands of the
South African curriculum are life and living, energy and change, matter and materials, and
planet Earth and beyond. The CAPS: Life Skills for the foundation phase document (South
Africa 2011) describes the content areas as:

• life and living – living organisms, for example, animals and plants, and the environment
• planet Earth and beyond – soil, water, air, stars and planets
• energy and change – forces, movement and energy
• matter and materials – the nature of materials

Each content area focuses on scientific facts, concepts, principles, theories and models
that are important for learners to know, understand and use. Foundation phase teachers
should know their learners and the level at which they can understand scientific concepts.
An example of such a concept is photosynthesis. Foundation phase teachers could use
the word photosynthesis and expect learners to know that it is a process that happens

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in green plants, in which radiant energy from the sun is changed into chemical energy
in the plants. Teachers would not expect foundation phase learners to know about the
different stages of the chemical processes of photosynthesis. However, according to the
principles of bootstrapping (discussed in unit one), teachers can and should introduce
the big word photosynthesis to learners so that they have a word onto which they can
“strap” or “tie” their later meaning making. Without the word photosynthesis, there will
be no meaning making of the process of photosynthesis. Making meaning of words and
ideas, specifically scientific concepts, happens in the brain, as shown in the Information
Processing Model (refer to figure 2.2).

A further consideration in respect of content areas is the classification of content strands

according to big ideas that come from the study of young children. (Remember, there are
many classifications of big ideas, and this is another one). Young children have conceptual
understanding that can be considered intuitive understanding. This intuitive understanding
develops from the understanding they develop on the basis of their senses (refer to
the Information Processing Model, which is depicted in figure 2.2). Children’s intuitive
understanding is often unscientific; it is these ideas that are changed during formal
schooling, when conceptual change (discussed in unit one) is taken into account in the
teaching of science. Table 2.1 shows the link between the topics taught in the foundation
phase (from the CAPS: Life Skills for the foundation phase document), the content strands
of the curriculum, children’s intuitive understanding and the big concepts (known as the
social science concepts in the Life Skills curriculum), which we discussed earlier.

After you have studied table 2.1, you should be able to complete the following activity:

Activity 2.11: Big ideas and the topic “metamorphosis of insects”

Study table 2.1 and explain why the topic “insects and insect metamorphosis” was placed
in the row that describes intuitive chemistry (“how does it change?”) and the big concepts
cause and effect and adaptation?
You may need to read a little more about insect metamorphosis or watch some more
videos to answer this question.

The topic “insects and insect metamorphosis” can be placed in the science content strand
called life and living, but in this case it has been grouped with intuitive chemistry where
the focus is on the question “how does it change?” As you have seen, the big concepts
are concepts that can be used to organise many topics, depending on the focus placed
on a topic. In this case, the thinking was that metamorphosis lends itself to thinking about
how things change. Insects such as butterflies that undergo a complete metamorphosis
are adapted to survive in unfavourable conditions in the egg form. A caterpillar is adapted
to feed, as can be seen in the story about the hungry caterpillar. A pupa is adapted to
rest and to transform into a butterfly. A butterfly is adapted for reproduction. You could
argue similarly in respect of cause and effect.

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Table 2.1: Relationship between curriculum topics, knowledge strands, intuitive
knowledge and social science big ideas
Curriculum topics Content Intuitive Social science
strand knowledge key concepts

What you need to teach Classification The main idea Big concepts used
from the curriculum of science that ties the new as organisers
topics knowledge of across topics
learners to their
understanding of
the world

Transport Energy and How does it Cause and effect

Solar systems change move? –
How do I move? intuitive physics

Soil Matter and How does Cause and effect;

Air and the atmosphere materials it change? adaptation
Water cycle and phases – intuitive
of water chemistry
Plants and their life cycle
Insects and insect
metamorphosis
Recycling

Me and my body Life and How do I fit? – Relationships

I am special living intuitive biology and
How I am the same as my interdependence;
friends place
Senses
Healthy living
How I grow and change
How animals grow and
change

Solar system Planet Earth Where do I fit? – Conservation;

Food chains and beyond intuitive ecology relationships and
Different kinds of animals interdependence
How I interact with the
environment

We have described how two types of big concepts, namely, the social science big concepts
of the CAPS Life Skills curriculum and big concepts based on young learners’ intuitive
understanding should be considered in respect of the learning of scientific concepts.
Study figure 2.3 again and you will notice that other considerations are habits of mind,
habits of body and science process skills.

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2.5 HABITS OF MIND

Habits of mind are the 16 characteristics of good problem-solvers. From the Information
Processing Model (figure 2.2) we know that information from the environment is registered
in a learner’s immediate memory and then transferred to the working memory for
processing. If the learner attaches sense and meaning to learning, it is likely to be stored
for use in problem-solving. The Habits of Mind Model refers to characteristics that good
problem-solvers exhibit when they solve problems for which there are no immediate
and obvious solutions. If we strive for an education system that aims to develop learners’
problem-solving skills, it makes sense to include learning activities that develop these
characteristics. These characteristics are listed in no specific order in table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Habits of mind of good problem-solvers

persisting managing listening with thinking flexibly
impulsivity empathy

thinking about striving for questioning and applying past

thinking accuracy posing problems knowledge to
new situations

thinking and gathering data creating, imaging responding with

communicating through the and innovating wonderment and
with clarity and senses awe
precision

taking responsible finding humour thinking remaining open

risks independently to continuous
learning

You might have to look up the meaning of some of these words or phrases. Make sure
you understand each of the 16 habits of the mind of good problem-solvers. These habits
of mind are relevant not only for developing problem-solving activities for learners but
also for developing higher-order thinking and creativity (Sousa 2017). Do you remember
Bloom’s taxonomy? If not, go online and revise higher-order thinking.

Further, there are habits of mind according to which young learners are specifically
described as visualisers, experimenters, describers, representers, inventors and conjecturers
and as having the ability to reason with invariance (Van Niekerk 2018). These descriptions
of children’s habits of mind are used in learning unit three to describe the development
of learning activities for science and in the second part of the study guide to discuss the
development of learning activities in respect of technology education.

The challenge for teachers of foundation phase learners is to find ways in which to develop
these characteristics in young learners through science process skills in order to develop
their scientific literacy.

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 Activity 2.12: Habits of mind

Watch the following videos to ensure that you understand what habits of mind are:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Pu4SKzTlH8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rl-1k28klFQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oc63s2MTqqY
This website also provides information on habits of mind:
https://habitsofmind.org/

Habits of body, along with habits of mind, will support children’s learning of science.
Habits of body are discussed in the following section.

2.6 HABITS OF BODY

Study the Information Processing Model (figure 2.2). You will see that during the phase
of working memory, the EF controls thinking and problem-solving. Up to this point, we
have only discussed thinking (cognitive structures) and have not considered what role
physical movement or the connection between physical movement and thinking plays
in science learning.

In this section we explore the role of gross motor and sensorimotor activities, which
involve the use of senses and movement. Gross motor (physical) skills are those skills
that require whole-body movement and involve the use of the large muscles of the body
when a person performs everyday functions, such as standing, walking, sitting upright
at a desk and getting dressed (e.g. the ability to stand on one leg to put one’s leg into
a pants leg without falling over). They also include eye–hand coordination skills such as
ball skills as well as riding a bike and swimming. Gross motor abilities influence children’s
fine motor skills (e.g., writing, drawing and cutting) (https://childdevelopment.com.au/
areas-of-concern/gross-motor-skills/).

There is a relationship between motor coordination and executive functioning in preschool

children (Oberer, Gashaj & Roebers 2017). Executive functioning is a person’s ability to
hold information in his/her thoughts while using the information to think, to make sense
and to solve problems. Through the processes of EF in a person’s brain, thoughts are
stored in the long-term memory for concept development and are later retrieved. The
development of gross motor skills, sensorimotor experiences and cognitive functioning
through movement increases a learner’s understanding of mathematics, science, language,
arts and social science concepts (Krog 2016; Sherry & Draper 2013) but inequities and
deficits remain evident, despite progressive policy and widespread effort by a range of
role players in the non-governmental sector. ECD in SA requires far more attention if these
are to be rectified, and school readiness is a particular area of concern. Previous research
indicates that gross motor skills may positively impact on school readiness outcomes in
disadvantaged SA children. This paper outlines school readiness deficits in disadvantaged
SA children and presents an argument for using gross motor skill interventions to address
these. This argument can hopefully form the basis for future gross motor skill interventions

38
aimed at improving school readiness among disadvantaged children in a range of settings.
Insight gained from the situation in SA may serve to assist those in other countries facing
similar challenges with ECD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c; Draper, Achmat, Forbes &
Lambert 2012).

Connected to this understanding of how movement is linked to cognitive development

in the brain is the idea of proprioception. Proprioception is a sense or perception, usually
at a subconscious level (in the brain), of the movements and position of the body and
especially its limbs, independent of vision. This sense is gained primarily from input
from sensory nerve terminals in muscles, tendons and joints, combined with input from
the vestibular apparatus (in the ear) (https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/
Prioperception). It is thought that a person’s ability to know where his/her body is in space
through the linking of sensory information from the environment may be the channel of
conceptual learning (Van Niekerk 2019).

Watch this video on proprioception: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ health-

and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/somatosensation-topic/ v/
proprioception-kinesthesia

Refer to the Information Processing Model (figure 2.2) and note the role of sensory
information in information processing. It is through thinking and doing that science is
learnt. The idea of proprioception is explored further in learning unit three in respect of
the development of science activities and in section B in relation to the development of
technology education activities.

Young learners learn science not only in formal settings such as classroom activities but
also through play. During play, children move their bodies and explore their environment.
They therefore get practice in coordinating movements and processing the resulting
sensory input. It is through play that children develop their gross motor skills, fine motor
skills, eye–hand coordination and visual-perceptual skills. Teachers should be aware of
the importance of certain play activities and later learning and should provide young
learners space, opportunities to play and objects to play with (Sherry & Draper 2013)but
inequities and deficits remain evident, despite progressive policy and widespread effort
by a range of role players in the non-governmental sector. ECD in SA requires far more
attention if these are to be rectified, and school readiness is a particular area of concern.
Previous research indicates that gross motor skills may positively impact on school
readiness outcomes in disadvantaged SA children. This paper outlines school readiness
deficits in disadvantaged SA children and presents an argument for using gross motor
skill interventions to address these. This argument can hopefully form the basis for future
gross motor skill interventions aimed at improving school readiness among disadvantaged
children in a range of settings. Insight gained from the situation in SA may serve to assist
those in other countries facing similar challenges with ECD. (PsycINFO Database Record).

You may want to read the chapter written by Cavada-Hrepich (2019) regarding learning
through play. A link to the relevant source is available on the module site on myUnisa.
(A full source reference is provided in section 2.8).

39
 Activity 2.13: Movement and learning

Watch the video at this link on myUnisa. Write down the gross and fine motor skills you
observe in the video and how the activities of Bert and Ernie may result in learning: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5K46roUvsk
More links to videos on scientific investigations, such as the following one, are provided
on myUnisa: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BeLT-O8Mz2M

Bert jumps, which is a gross motor activity since it requires the use of the large muscles of his
body. Ernie sits at a table, which also requires gross muscles. Ernie makes observations and
writes in his science journal. Writing is a fine motor skill. While he is writing in the journal,
the observations he makes through his sense of sight are changed into thinking. He uses
his EF to change his observations into language to write. Concepts are developing in his
brain. Ernie is not thinking all the time about how he holds his pen; he has a subconscious
sense of his pen in space (proprioception), which allows him to think about science rather
than the writing activity.

You may want to read the chapter written by Kuczala (2018) regarding movement and
learning. A link to the relevant source is available on the module site on myUnisa. (A full
source reference is provided in section 2.8.)

The video about Ernie who makes observations serves as an introduction to science
process skills.

2.7 SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

When learners investigate the world around them, they are inquiring about the world. The
process of inquiry involves observing, comparing, classifying, measuring, experimenting
and communicating (South Africa 2011). Using the process skills enables learners to apply
concepts, to enlarge/extend current concepts and to develop new concepts. Process skills
allow learners to process new information through concrete experiences.

2.7.1 Science process skill: observing

We receive information about the world around us through our senses (sight, sound,
smell, touch and taste). Observation is the most fundamental process skill for the study
of science since even sophisticated scientific investigations require observation. Learners
must examine size, shape, colour, texture and so on. Teacher questions will help to ensure
that learners don’t just see but observe. When learners, for example, look at fish in a fish
tank, they will see the fish, but will they observe what is happening in the tank? Teachers
should ask questions like “which fish is always at the bottom?”, which would lead to a
different kind of seeing; it could lead to learners making guesses about why that is so
(cause and effect).

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The diagram of the Information Processing Model (figure 2.2) shows that observing the
world through our senses is the first step in learning (or processing information). The
observations we make are stored in our immediate memory for a short time. When we think
about our observations in order to make sense of them, to reason and to problem-solve,
we engage our working memory. In the example of a fish that stays near the bottom of
a fish tank, we may think that it is there because it feeds on scraps of food that are found
in the sand at the bottom of the tank, or the temperature might be different there. We
use our observations to think about and to make sense of the situation.

2.7.2 Science process skill: comparing

The action of comparing sharpens our observation and is the first step towards classifying
an object or a phenomenon. Teachers should ask questions to encourage learners
to find likenesses (similarities) and differences between objects. They should start by
getting learners to tell them the characteristics of each object. Thereafter they should
get learners to see the similarities. Similarities are how we develop a mental picture of
a specific concept. In studying fruit, for example, it is not useful for learning to only be
able to name all the fruit learners know, what colours and shapes they are and so forth.
Teachers need to cut fruit into pieces and show that all fruit have seeds. Teachers should
show learners fruit trees (perhaps in a school garden) so that they can learn that fruit
grow on trees and develop from flowers if the ovules are fertilised after pollination has
occurred. (In this way they will develop all three types of concepts suggested by Lieto
(2014), which are described in learning unit one).

Observing objects or phenomena and thinking about differences is also important for
the development of concepts. In the example of fruit, teachers should also show learners
vegetables. They should cut up potatoes and point out that there are no seeds. They
could dig up a potato plant and show that potatoes develop from roots and not flowers.
In this way the next process skill, namely, classifying can be developed.

2.7.3 Science process skill: classifying

Scientists make sense of the natural world through the process of classification. Classification
in science learning begins when children sort and group real objects. In order to group
objects, children need to compare and develop subsets. A subset is a group of objects
that have a common characteristic unique to that group. Children initially group objects
using one characteristic only, but later they group objects according to two or more
characteristics, for example, red fruit (red apple) and orange fruit (orange). Later, red
fruit can be separated into fruit with one seed or many seeds (red plum and red apple)
and orange fruit with one seed or many seeds (one seed: apricot, peach and mango and
many seeds: orange). Can you draw a line diagram to show the classification of these
different kinds of fruit? Figure 2.5 is an example of how such a diagram could be drawn.
(Please note that this is not a very scientific way of classifying fruit but it is sufficient for our
purpose). The development of classification skills is very important for the development
of scientific concepts since children have to observe, compare and make decisions about
what an object is by using the characteristics that they observe and know, bringing this
information together. The different kinds of fruit mentioned are all fruit because they

41
have seeds (it does not matter how many) and they developed from flowers. It is very
important that teachers expose learners to and engage them in inquiry activities, that is,
activities where they ask questions about objects. These inquiry activities may be used to
develop learners’ ability to use the skill of classification and their knowledge of the relevant
scientific concepts. Refer to the three processes of EF in figure 1.6 and take note that the
learning activities chosen by teachers play an important role in conceptual change. Take
note: the activities that are selected and the kinds of questions that teachers ask are very
important factors in ensuring learners develop the skill of classification. (Refer to learning
unit three for more information about questioning).

Figure 2.5: Example of the classification of fruit on the basis of two criteria

Go to the following link for information about classification in science, particularly the
classification of materials: http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/ oucontent/view.
php?id=80667

2.7.4 Science process skill: measuring

Measuring is the skill of quantifying observations. It is a way of explaining the world
mathematically. At first, children learn the difference between short and long, for example.
Later, they have to learn that short and long are relative terms, for example, we can think
of short and tall giraffes and short and tall bean plants. For a more accurate description,
teachers have to say how long (the property of length) something is. They have to give
a number along with a unit. In your mathematics modules you will learn how young
children first learn to measure with informal units such as the number of finger spaces,
hand spaces or feet spaces. Towards the end of the foundation phase, learners will use
formal measurements such as metres and centimetres.

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Foundation phase learners have to measure length, volume/capacity, mass, time and
temperature (with or without formal units). These are concepts that are not easily
understood, and it is through their measurement in inquiry-based learning that learners
will develop these concepts better.

Go to the following link for information about how to teach measurement and data handling:
http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/ view.php?id=81683&section=2

2.7.5 Science process skill: communicating

Communicating is the skill of describing what is observed. Communication can happen orally,
in written form or by means of pictures, maps, graphs or tables. During communication,
information is collected, arranged and presented in a way that helps others understand its
meaning. Teachers question learners to allow them to communicate their understanding
through oral or written reports, drawings and even creative writing such as poems and
dramas. One of the 16 habits of mind is thinking and communicating with clarity and
precision. Good problem-solvers are able to use their understanding of a situation and
to communicate their thinking clearly.

Activity 2.14: Basic process skills

Using insects as an example, explain how you would develop the basic process skills of
observing, comparing, classifying, measuring and communicating.

Insects can be observed in the wild, and it is very beneficial for children to watch nature
for the sake of just wondering about nature. One of the 16 habits of mind is “responding
with wonderment and awe”. There is often not enough time to let learners simply look
at natural phenomena. It may be easier to create artificial environments for animals such
as ant farms (refer to, for example, https://www.nature-gifts.com/shop/ant-farms/). An
ant farm allows learners to observe ants and to answer questions posed by the teacher
or their own questions for a wonder wall (described previously). Asking questions or
posing problems is a habit of mind and is the start of the inquiry process (refer to learning
unit three). Another way for learners to learn about insects is to show them plastic toy
collections of insects, spiders and worms (refer to, for example, http://www.crazystore.
co.za/ products/general-toys/novelty-animals). This would allow learners to compare and
classify different insects and to compare insects with other small animals such as spiders
and worms. An important aspect of measurement is estimation. Learners can estimate
the size of the ants in an ant farm and consider which measurement unit, that is, mm, cm
or m would be the best one to use. Teachers could discuss if plastic toy insects are bigger
or smaller than the real insects, and by how much (learning about scale or ratio). Learners
should communicate their observations, comparisons and classifications in some way, for
example, writing down what they learnt in science journals. They can also communicate
by means of diagrams and concept maps.

Refer to learning unit three about how communication is ensured during inquiry-based
lessons.

43
The following two process skills that will be discussed are known as intermediate process
skills.

2.7.6 Science process skills: gathering and organising information

Gathering information and organising information represent at least 3 of the 16 habits of
mind. When one gathers data, one should strive for accuracy not only in collecting the
data but also in communicating it. This process skill integrates well with the mathematics
curriculum, specifically the sections on measurement and data handling. Teachers should
teach young learners how to record their findings in tables and graphs. Teachers should
consider the cognitive development of foundation phase learners when they teach them
to draw graphs and should follow conceptual steps when they teach bar graphs. Your
mathematics modules should contain further details in this regard.

2.7.7 Science process skills: inferring and predicting

The ability to take a risk and to make a prediction is necessary for understanding cause
and effect. We have already seen that causal reasoning is important for conceptual
change, that is, a shift away from naïve scientific ideas to more scientific understanding.
To predict is to guess the future. Prediction also leads to “seeing” a pattern. If, for example,
you pick up one brick, it will be heavy. If you pick up two bricks, it will be twice as heavy
as one brick. Three bricks will be three times as heavy as one brick and so on. The ability
to recognise patterns is important for reading and numeracy.

An inference is arrived at indirectly (observations are arrived at directly). When you

make an inference, you actually guess “backwards”. If, for example, you go to the doctor
because you have a high temperature and red spots (observations), the doctor will make
an inference that the cause of your high temperature is the measles virus. The doctor does
not see the virus but guesses backwards to what caused the observations. Inferences give
observations meaning. Study the photo below and answer the questions in the activity
that follows:

Figure 2.6: A bird’s nest in the snow

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Activity 2.15: Predictions and inferences

Study the photo of the bird’s nest in a tree that has no leaves and is surrounded by snow
(figure 2.6).
Answer these questions:
• What do you see? Are you familiar with such a scene? What can you tell us about
the picture?
• What would it be like to be inside the scene of the picture?
• What do you think will happen to the snow?
• Do you think there is anything in the nest?
• What will happen in the nest?

You see a bird’s nest in the snow. You see a tree with dry, leafless branches. These are the
observations you are making. You may or may not have experienced snow. You should
consider such aspects when you use situations that learners are not familiar with. You
have probably seen weather forecasts on television and seen how temperatures drop
when it snows. So, from observing the snow in the picture, you might guess that it would
be cold if you were standing in the picture. This is an inference. (If you could measure
the temperature in the picture, that would be an observation.) There is probably not an
egg in the nest because birds lay eggs in the spring and not in winter – again, this is an
inference. You will have observed that it has snowed and so you think it is winter. You
may think that if this nest is photographed in warmer weather, the snow will have melted
and there may be an egg in the nest. Because you are guessing the future, you are now
making a prediction.

More sophisticated and abstract process skills are forming hypotheses and separating
or controlling variables. Not all scientific investigations have hypotheses and control
variables. Some investigations, for example, studies of planets, rely on observations only.
Other investigations, called experiments, must have a hypothesis, which is tested, and
variables, which are controlled. (Knowing this is one of the criteria for understanding the
nature of science – refer to learning unit one.) Foundation phase learners can be given
opportunities to do experiments with hypothesis testing and controlling of variables
since children need repeated experiences of these skills.

2.7.8 Science process skill: forming hypotheses

For an investigation to be called an experiment, it must have a hypothesis, and variables
must be controlled. A hypothesis is a statement of a relationship between two variables.
Consider the following example: as you increase the number of bricks that you pick up,
the weight of what you pick up will get greater and greater. You can form a hypothesis
of this relationship, which is: “As I increase the number of bricks, the weight of the bricks
will increase.” In an experiment, this hypothesis would be tested. The scientific question
that will be relevant in this case is: does the weight of the bricks increase as you increase
the number of bricks?

45
2.7.9 Science process skill: separating variables
Variables are controlled to give a fair test. In a simple experiment, only one variable can
be tested at a time. In the example of bricks, you cannot increase the number of bricks
one by one and, at the same time, change the size of the bricks.

There are three kinds of variables, namely, independent, dependent and fixed variables:
• Independent variables are those variables that are changed in an experiment.
• Dependent variables are variables that depend on the independent variables.
• Fixed variables are variables that must stay the same to ensure a fair test.

Return to the example of bricks. The number of bricks is changed/increased (independent

variable). You are measuring the weight of the bricks (dependent variable), which depends
on the number of bricks. The fixed variables are that the bricks must be the same size
and made of the same material. You cannot compare cement bricks with clay bricks; the
size and the material of the bricks must be fixed. On the basis of this understanding of
hypotheses and variables, complete the following activity.

Activity 2.16: Name the variables in an insect experiment

Watch the videos that can be found at these links on myUnisa to ensure you understand
the difference between independent and dependent variables:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0jTMDtX4WY https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=nqj0rJEf3Ew
Read through the next experiment and answer the questions that follow.
Insect experiment
https://lifestyle.howstuffworks.com/crafts/animal-crafts/insect-experiments2.htm
(accessed on 6 February 2019)
In this experiment you will be testing the effects of temperature on insects.
Method
Step 1: Use a bug net to capture an insect.
Step 2: Place the insect in a tall, clear plastic cup. Place a thermometer in the cup and
cover the cup with mesh.
Step 3: Record the temperature and observe the activity of the insect.
Step 4: Put the cup in the refrigerator until it is 10 degrees Celsius cooler than the first
temperature. Observe the behaviour of the insect. Has it changed?
Step 5: Repeat the entire process at a temperature 10 degrees cooler.
Step 6: Put the insect (still in the cup) back into its home environment.
Step 7: Remove the plastic lid. Observe how long it takes the insect to leave the cup.
What happened?
Answer these questions:
• What is the scientific question in the above experiment?
• Write your hypothesis for the experiment.
• Name the independent variable.
• Name the dependent variable.

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The scientific question should read something like this: “What is the effect of changing
temperature on the behaviour of insects?” The hypothesis could be as follows: “With
decreasing temperature there is decreased movement in an insect.” You might base this
hypothesis on what you know about the effect of decreasing temperature on animals such
as lizards. In the experiment, the temperature is changed, so, changing temperatures is the
independent variable. You observe the behaviour of the insect (there is no measurement
in this case, but the data is your observations on behaviour); the insect’s behaviour is
the dependent variable. You have to understand the difference between dependent and
independent variables and be able to apply variables in questions about experiments.
If you still find it difficult to distinguish between the different variables, watch the
abovementioned videos again and try to answer the questions again.
Before you start answering the self-assessment questions as part of your revision of unit
two, watch two videos on activities for teaching children about insects, which can found
through these links on myUnisa:
https://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/lesson/lesson192.shtml
https://learning-center.homesciencetools.com/article/bugs-insects-science-lesson/

2.8 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Resources that you should read in addition to the study guide are as follows:
• Resources that are available from the Unisa Library:
Gamwell, P & Daly, J. 2018. The wonder wall: leading creative schools and organizations in
an age of complexity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. ISBN: 1506357377, 9781506357379
Picker, M, Griffiths, C & Weaving, A. 2004. Field guide to insects of South Africa. Cape Town:
Penguin. ISBN: 9781770070615
• Resources that are available through links on the module site on myUnisa:
Cavada-Hrepich, P. 2019. Transitioning from play to learning: playfulness as a resource in
children’s transition, in Children’s transitions in everyday life and institutions, edited by
M Hedegaard & M Fleer. London: Bloomsbury.
Cole, M. 2017. Putting culture in the middle, in Introduction to Vygotsky, edited by H Daniels.
London: Routledge:73–99.
Fleer, M. 2015. Imagination and its contributions to learning in science, in A cultural-historical
study of children learning science: foregrounding affective imagination in play-based
settings, by M Fleer & N Pramling. Dordrecht: Springer:39–58.
Gamwell, P. 2018. Condition #1: storytelling and listening, in The wonder wall: leading
creative schools and organizations in an age of complexity, by P Gamwell & J Daly.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin:71–88.
Kuczala, M. 2018. Part 1. Take your position: becoming a kinesthetic educator, in Ready,
set, go!: the kinesthetic classroom 2.0, by MS Kucala & T Lengel. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin:1–52.
South Africa. Department of Basic Education. 2011. Curriculum and assessment policy
statement (CAPS): Life Skills for the foundation phase. Pretoria: Department of Basic
Education.
South Africa. Department of Education. 2002. National curriculum statement: Natural
Sciences. Pretoria: Department of Education.

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2.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Use the following questions to revise the information dealt with in this unit. These questions
can also be used in your discussion forums.
Before you try to answer the following questions about water and solutions, study the
information about liquids at this link on myUnisa: http://www.open.edu/ openlearncreate/
mod/oucontent/view.php?id=80667&section=3
2.1 What do you think learners know about water and solutions before they enter
school? How do you think they learnt what they know?
2.2 What do you know about water and solutions? Search for a few online videos and
other sources, such as books and magazines, about water and solutions and study
them. Compare the knowledge you obtained from these sources with what you
knew previously.
2.3 Why is it important to discuss water conservation with children?
2.4 Can you describe an example of cause and effect, using water as a topic?
2.5 Using place as a big idea,
2.5.1 where would you find water in the form of ice, liquid and water vapour?
2.5.2 describe the situation in respect of water security in the place where you live
– where do you get your water from, in what kind of condition is the water
and why is it in that condition?
2.6 What changes can water undergo? What are the phases of water? What can cause
the colour of water to change?
2.7 Water is an environment where many animals, specifically fish, live. How have fish
adapted to the kind of water they live in, for example, what is the difference between
fish that live in the ocean and those that live in fresh water?
2.8 Find some information about fish that protect their eggs or young (relationships
and interdependence).
2.9 In what respects are all types of fish the same? How are some fish different, for
example, how are sharks different from bony fish? Are dolphins fish? Why or why
not?
2.10 Study table 2.1 and specifically consider the relationship between curriculum topics,
knowledge strands, intuitive knowledge and social science big concepts in respect
of the topic “water cycle and phases of water”. Explain why you think the topic has
been placed with these specific big concepts.
2.11 Using water as an example, explain how you would develop the basic process skills
of observing, comparing, classifying, measuring and communicating in a foundation
phase class.
2.12 Read the experiment below and watch the video about the experiment at this link
on myUnisa: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0nNvsB_fOw

Scientific question: which substance dissolves in water – salt or pepper?

1. Fill two glasses with equal amounts of water. The water in the two glasses must be
the same temperature.

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2. Add one teaspoon of salt to the first glass and a teaspoon of pepper to the second
glass.
3. Stir each glass for 30 seconds.
4. Observe which of the substances has dissolved in the water.

Answer these questions:

2.12.1 Write a hypothesis for the experiment.
2.12.2 Name the independent variable.
2.12.3 Name the dependent variable.
2.12.4 What variables were controlled in this experiment?

2.10 CONCLUSION
While you studied this unit, you developed science content knowledge, particularly
about insects, for teaching in the foundation phase. Since it is not possible to deal with
all science content in a single module, you need to develop curiosity about the world
around you. Furthermore, your science content knowledge is likely to increase as you
develop learning activities for your foundation phase classes.

In this unit you were introduced to “big concepts” as organisers of science knowledge
that facilitate understanding across topics. Process skills in the learning of science were
explained, and you were shown how these skills are developed in scientific investigations.
You learnt that the science topics that must be taught are found in specific curriculum
documents and the topics are typically categorised into one of the knowledge strands
of science.

The following unit sets out how the teaching of science and the assessment of learners are
planned and carried out. The theoretical aspects of the first two units underpin the “how
to” of planning science activities for science learning and assessing learners to determine
their understanding of science content and their ability to apply the science process skills.

In learning unit three we will show you how to develop lesson plans – specifically inquiry-
based theme plans that integrate language, mathematics, creative arts and technology
– and assessment activities aimed at building learners’ conceptual knowledge in relation
to science (as discussed in learning unit one).

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Learning unit 3
Planning for science teaching and assessment

In learning unit two we discussed the underlying considerations for planning science
activities. In this unit we will show you how to plan science activities based on themes
that are derived from the relevant curricula.

Learning outcomes

On completion of this learning unit, you should be able to

• analyse and compare the different teaching approaches such as inquiry, integration
of mathematics, language and creativity, and a cultural-historical perspective
• identify suitable contexts for the application of these approaches
• suggest ways in which these approaches can be used successfully in a foundation
phase classroom
• use examples to cite the use of approaches appropriate for the learning context
• compile reports in which you demonstrate the ability to design your own practice
based on known teaching theories
• develop theme plans according to your interpretation of learning theories
• demonstrate an understanding of the integration of science and technology through
theme planning
• apply your understanding of the assessment of science learning in the foundation
phase

Key concepts

y theme planning
y lesson planning
y inquiry-based learning
y cultural-historical perspective
y integrated learning
y assessment of learning
y assessment of understanding of science content
y assessment of process skills
y assessment of understanding of the nature of science

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this learning unit is to introduce you to a few approaches to teaching science
to young learners. You will be expected to analyse the different teaching approaches
for their suitability to teach for scientific literacy. While you will be introduced to several
teaching approaches, you will only be shown how to plan for teaching and learning
based on inquiry.

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The theoretical aspects of the first two learning units underpin the “how to” of planning
science activities and assessing learners to determine their knowledge and understanding
of science content, their science process skills and their understanding of the nature of
science (refer to figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Focus of assessment in the teaching of science: process skills, conceptual
understanding and understanding of the nature of science

In the following sections we will discuss how to plan science teaching in relation to a
theme based on a topic found in the applicable curriculum.

3.2 DEVELOPING LEARNING USING THE CURRICULUM AS THE

STARTING POINT
The two curricula that focus on how science must be taught and what must be taught
are NCS: Natural Sciences (South Africa 2002) and CAPS: Life Skills for the foundation phase
(South Africa 2011). Refer to section 2.1 for a short description of the two documents. In
this unit we focus on how the NCS: Natural Sciences document describes the learning
activities applicable to scientific investigations. This document refers to learning activities
as assessment standards in the first and only learning outcome for the foundation phase.
After you have studied these assessment standards, you should be able to describe how
they compare with the stages of inquiry-based learning. The assessment standards are
listed in table 3.1.

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 Activity 3.1: Assessment standards applicable to scientific investigations in the
South African curriculum

At the end of unit two you were given self-assessment questions about water and solutions.
You were expected to find information about the topic and to apply it to the self-study
questions. Refer to CAPS: Life Skills for the foundation phase (South Africa 2011), with
specific reference to grade R, and note that there is a topic about dissolving substances
in water. Review your notes on water and solutions and think about activities that grade
R learners could do in respect of the “water solutions” topic for each of the assessment
standards.

According to the grade R CAPS curriculum, learners have to learn about the topic of
dissolving substances in water. In a teacher-centred lesson, a teacher might demonstrate
how different substances such as sugar and salt dissolve in water, how sand does not
dissolve in water and, instead, sinks to the bottom of the beaker and how oil does not
dissolve in water but floats on top of the liquid. However, the CAPS curriculum requires
teachers to teach inquiry process skills – these skills cannot be taught in teacher-centred
lessons. It requires learners to be involved in lessons. The assessment standards in NCS:
Natural Sciences describe at what level learners in each grade should be able to perform
a scientific investigation.

In respect of the example of water and solutions, learners in grade R should

• contribute towards planning an investigation when the teacher asks the class if they
think substances such as sugar, salt, sand and oil will dissolve in water
• be given an opportunity to tell the teacher what they know about substances that
dissolve and don’t dissolve in water
• be given an opportunity to ask questions about what will be done and what they are
curious about (remember the “wonder wall” described in learning unit two)
• be allowed to carry out the investigation themselves (possibly in groups) by following
simple instructions on how to mix the different substances with water
• be allowed to explain what is being done by using a few of the science words in the
topic, for example, dissolve (keeping in mind that scientific understanding only develops
if a word is known – refer to the discussion of bootstrapping in learning unit one)

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Table 3.1: Assessment standards for foundation phase science learning (South Africa
2002)
Learning outcome 1: scientific investigations
The learner will be able to act confidently on curiosity about natural phenomena, and to
investigate relationships and solve problems in scientific, technological and environmental
contexts.
Assessment We know this We know this We know this when We know this
standards when the grade when the grade 1 the grade 2 learner: when the grade 3
R learner: learner: learner:
Plans Contributes Plans an Plans an Uses materials
towards planning investigation investigation as a selected by the
an investigative independently: group: group in order
activity: • Displays •
Discusses and to communicate
• Asks and self-reliant plans with the group’s plan:
answers planning to others. • Lays out the
questions find out about •
Negotiates joint materials the
about the things which understanding of group intends
investigation, are found to who does what. to use.
using “show be curious. •
Decides on what • Tells who
and tell” or • Uses pictures, materials or will use the
stories to say drawings models will materials, and
what action is or other be used to the purpose.
planned. markings communicate
of choice to the plan.
explain what
is going to be
done.
Does Follows simple Independently Participates in Participates
instructions with participates planned activity constructively in
assistance. in planned independently or as the activity with
Explains what is activities; carries part of a group: understanding of
being done or out instructions • Plays a role in its purpose:
played. independently
and shows or tells
a group and • Explains the
carries out purpose of the
what is being instructions activity.
done. independently. • Answers the
• Explains what questions,
is being done, “Why are you
and answers the doing this?”,
question, “What “How are you
are you trying to trying to find
find out?” that out?” and
“Is your plan
working?”
• Agrees or
disagrees with
other opinions,
giving reasons.

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 Learning outcome 1: scientific investigations
The learner will be able to act confidently on curiosity about natural phenomena, and to
investigate relationships and solve problems in scientific, technological and environmental
contexts.
Assessment We know this We know this We know this when We know this
standards when the grade when the grade 1 the grade 2 learner: when the grade 3
R learner: learner: learner:
Reviews Thinks and talks Thinks about Shows and explains Explains and
about what has what has been what was intended reflects on what
been done. done and says and how it was action was
Uses simple what has been done: intended and
words, pictures found individually
or with assistance.
• Explains own whether it was
possible to carry
or other items contribution
with assistance to “Shows and tells” to the out the plan:
explain what has what was done, investigation. • Reviews how
been done. using own ideas
and objects to
• Uses several actions of
different ways members in
explain what to communi­ the group
aroused curiosity. cate own ideas. contributed
• Is curious to the
about what purpose.
might have • Reviews what
happened if is needed
the situation to do better
was changed next time.
in some way. • Uses a
number of
different
ways of
presenting
information.
• Reflects
on what
other topics
might be
investigated.

3.3 APPROACHES TO TEACHING SCIENCE TO YOUNG

LEARNERS
In this section we will describe a few approaches to teaching science to young learners,
particularly with respect to young learners’ development of process skills, conceptual
change in young learners and young learners’ ideas about the nature of science. It is
recommended that you revise the discussion on the nature of science (learning unit one)
and the descriptions of the process skills that help to develop learners’ understanding of
the nature of science (learning unit two).

Our main focus will be on how to plan a theme based on inquiry. The cultural-historical
perspective and the integrated approach will be discussed afterwards.

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3.3.1 Developing a theme based on inquiry

Inquiry-based science education (IBSE) is regarded as an inspiring way of teaching science
because it focuses on learners’ interests and stimulates active learning by enabling learners
to conduct their own investigations. IBSE has a positive influence on learners’ motivation
to learn science. IBSE allows learners to develop an understanding of scientific concepts,
inquiry process skills and the nature of science. Open IBSE specifically allows learners to
conduct self-designed, interest-guided inquiry to answer their own questions. In open
IBSE, teachers fulfil the role of facilitators, supporting and supervising their learners during
learning activities.

Four domains of scientific understanding that should be addressed during open IBSE are
the conceptual, NOS, social and procedural domains:

1. Conceptual domain: Learners need conceptual knowledge regarding the topic under
investigation in order to perform inquiry processes.
2. Nature of science domain: Learners need to think about what scientific knowledge
is and how it is developed by scientists.
3. Social domain: Learners need to be given an opportunity to talk to their groups
about their own understanding of the topic being investigated.
4. Procedural domain: Learners need to develop the process skills during an inquiry as
well as the skill of using scientific knowledge.

The four domains reflect aspects of science that should be addressed when the phases
of inquiry-based science learning are planned. There are different ways of planning the
phases of an inquiry-based cycle of learning. You may come across a five-phase cycle
but we will focus on the seven-phase cycle described by Van Uum, Verhoeff and Peeters
(2016). Refer to table 3.2, which explains each phase of the seven-phase cycle in respect
of open IBSE.

Activity 3.2: Linking the seven-phase inquiry-based learning cycle to the South
African curriculum

Study the seven-phase inquiry-based cycle of learning, as depicted in table 3.2, and
then compare it with the assessment standards applicable to learning outcome 1 referred
to in table 3.1. Link the seven phases to specific assessment standards. For clarity of
explanation, use the assessment standards for grade 3 only. Once you have made these
links, decide whether you think the South African curriculum allows for open IBSE.

We will discuss the linkages between the seven-phase inquiry-based learning cycle and
the assessment standards of the South African curriculum using a diagram. From figure
3.2 it appears that elements of six of the seven phases of the inquiry-based cycle (given
in table 3.2) are described in the South African curriculum (indicated in table 3.1 and
figure 3.2). Even so, there are details missing, which would allow for the development of
the four domains of scientific understanding as described by Van Uum et al (2016). If the
four domains of scientific understanding, namely, conceptual understanding, nature of
science, procedural knowledge and the social domain are missing in a theme plan, it is less
likely that scientific literacy will develop. Study table 3.2 on the seven-phase inquiry-based

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cycle of learning and focus on how the four domains develop in each phase. Because
of the missing elements in the assessment standards, we think that the South African
curriculum does not foster true open IBSE. Nevertheless, it gives guidelines to the kinds
of learner activities teachers should develop.

You may want to read more about inquiry-based learning and the role of the teacher
during inquiry activities. Follow the links to the chapters written by Ketelhut and Tutwiler
(2018) and Kidman and Casinader (2017) on the module site. (Full source references are
provided in section 3.6).

Table 3.2: Seven-phase inquiry-based learning cycle (based on Van Uum et al 2016)
Phase Description of phase Domain
focus

1. Introduction The goal of this phase is to confront learners with NOS

a problem connected to a real-world situation
to excite their curiosity and to increase their
understanding of the NOS.

2. Exploration The goal of this phase is to connect the real- Conceptual

world situation to learners’ prior knowledge of
the topic under investigation. The teacher can
show videos about the real-world situation. The
learners can do a reading assignment about the
situation. The teacher can ask learners questions
about their understanding of the situation. The
teacher can then develop a concept map to give
the learners an opportunity to show their initial
understanding of the situation. The learners can
give ideas about what else they would like to
know about the real-world situation, perhaps on a
wonder wall.

3. Designing an This phase focuses on formulating research NOS

investigation questions, composing a research plan and Procedural
constructing or collecting instruments for
measurement. The teacher should explain Social
the criteria of a proper investigation. The
learners should work in groups to design their
investigations. The groups may have different
investigations.

4. C
 onducting This phase focuses on data collection. The teacher Procedural
the helps the learners to make correct measurements
investigation and to take notes (data handling). The teacher
should engage the learners in explaining and
reflecting on their investigative procedures.

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Phase Description of phase Domain

focus

5. Conclusion The learners must connect the data to their NOS

research questions and realise that the results Procedural
(observations and measurements) they obtained
and their opinions are different. They should
be asked to explain their opinions, thereby
elucidating their reflections on their research

6. Presentation/ After the learners/groups have carried out Social

communication their investigations and drawn conclusions, Procedural
they must communicate their results to others
Conceptual
in a clear and comprehensible way by means
of presentations, posters, videos or creative
dramas. The teacher’s role here is to facilitate
the learners’ reflection on the results and how
best to present them. The learners can carry
out self- or peer assessment. The teacher can
assess the presentations, too – see later notes.
(The learners can make their own notes in their
science journals, but that would remove the social
element of this phase).

7. D
 eepening/ During this phase, the learners reflect on Social
broadening the inquiry process, which deepens their Procedural
understanding of the topic. The teacher should
return to the concept map and either make a new Conceptual
map to reflect the learners’ new understanding NOS
or make notes on the first concept map. The class
should return to the wonder wall and reflect
on which questions they wondered about have
been answered and which they would still like
to inquire into. These reflections should lead to a
new cycle of open IBSE.

After you have studied the seven phases of the open IBSE model in table 3.2, you should
study figure 3.2, which sets out the seven phases next to the assessment standards given
in NCS: Natural Sciences (South Africa 2002), where relevant. Do you agree with us that
the South African curriculum for science learning in the foundation phase does not lend
itself to true open IBSE?

57
Figure 3.2: Links between the seven-phase inquiry-based learning cycle and the South
African curriculum

Now let us try to develop a theme plan according to the seven-phase inquiry-based
learning cycle in respect of open IBSE.

Activity 3.3: Developing a theme plan according to the seven-phase inquiry-

based learning cycle

Using the blank theme plan template in addendum A, develop a theme plan on the topic
“water and solutions” according to the seven-phase inquiry-based cycle of learning. You
will notice that there is a column for questions. Questions are used for two reasons, that
is, encouraging learners to think about specific ideas and doing assessment (which will
be discussed later in the unit).
Follow this link (which you will find on myUnisa) to get a few ideas: http://www.open.edu/
openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=80667& section=1.7
Have a look specifically for science teaching ideas about water. Once you have an
idea, complete the seven phase inquiry theme plan.

When you start working on the blank template, the process will feel complicated and
tedious. Theme planning is not easy in the beginning. You will need to refer to table 3.2
for an explanation of each phase. You have to develop learner and teacher activities for
each phase. Throughout theme planning you will ask yourself, “Is this the best way to do
this?” As a novice teacher you must try your best to develop and improve a theme plan
year after year. So, don’t give up.

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We have worked out a theme plan on the topic “water and solutions”. It contains questions
that the teacher will ask during each phase. The theme plan also describes teacher and
learner activities. Study the theme plan in table 3.3 after you have tried designing your
own plan.

Table 3.3: Seven-phase inquiry-based theme plan on the topic “water and solutions”
(based on Van Uum et al 2016)
Topic Making water safe to drink

Grade 1

Term 2

Dates

Curriculum page/s p 31, CAPS: Life Skills

Big idea Adaptation (refer to learning unit two)

Phase 1: introduction (domain focus: NOS)

Teacher outcome: 1) r ead a story that introduces the learners to humans’ need
The teacher will for fresh drinking water since humans are not adapted to
drinking salty water
Learner objective: 1) listen to the story and answer questions about the story
The learners will
Resource A story of a family who is stranded on an island and does
not have fresh water to drink
Integration Language (listening and comprehension of a story)
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based on the
domain and the big idea
The teacher reads a The learners 1) H
 ow can water be dirty and unfit
story about a family listen to the story for drinking? (muddy, too salty or
that gets lost at sea and answer the carries disease)
and finds an island questions that the
2) Describe where you will find
that only has one teachers asks.
muddy water, salty water or water
pond of dirty water. that carries disease/contaminated
water in your environment.
3) D
 o you know how we can
clean water and make it safe for
drinking?

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Phase 2: exploration (domain focus: conceptual)

Teacher outcomes: 1) lead a class discussion on what has been

The teacher will learnt from the video about animals
adapted to living in salty water
2) write scientific words on flashcards/the
board, making sure that the learners can
recognise them
Learner objectives: 1) w
 atch the video and develop the idea of
The learners will adaptation
2) recognise scientific words written on
flashcards/the board
Resource Video on sharks, which are adapted to living
in salty water
Integration Language (new scientific words = vocabulary);
social sciences = adaptation
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based
on the domain and the
big idea
The teacher asks prior knowledge The learners What else do you know
questions and then draws a concept say what they about water that is
map on a large poster and pastes understand muddy? Do you know of
the poster on the wall. The teacher about living in any animals that can live
then focuses on how some animals salty water and in muddy water, and salty
such as sharks are adapted to living how certain water? These animals are
in salty water by showing a video. animals are adapted to living in salty
The teacher focuses the learners’ adapted to living water. Can we drink muddy
attention on the problem, which in salty water. water, or salty water? Let
is that humans are not adapted Thereafter they us focus on salty water
to drinking salty water. How can watch the video only. Are humans adapted
humans get drinking water from on sharks, which to drinking salty water? No
salty water? The teacher writes are adapted to – we need to know how to
scientific words such as hot, salty living in salty make salty water drinkable.
water and drinking water that come water. They then
up during the discussion on add ideas to the
the board. The teacher brings concept map.
new words such as salt solution,
evaporate, heat, water vapour and
liquid water into the discussion. The
learners will need these words to
describe their investigations and
findings.

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Phase 3: designing an investigation (domain focus: NOS, procedural, social)

Teacher outcome: 1) f acilitate group discussions to ensure that groups

The teacher will write a research question, a research plan and a
resource list
Learner objective: 1) w
 ork in groups to develop a research question, a
The learners will research plan and a resource list
Resources paper, pencils, learners’ science journals
Integration language – speaking, listening
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions
based on the domain
and the big idea
The teacher facilitates group Following the group How can we make
discussions about what discussions, the learners fresh water from salty
the learners would like to answer questions about water? How should we
know about making salty what they would like to investigate the problem
water drinkable (research know. These questions, of making drinking water
questions). The teacher lets which are based on the from salty water? In your
the groups design plans learners’ curiosity, are groups, discuss how you
to find answers to their recorded on a wonder will find ways to make
questions (research plans) wall. The learners drinking water from salty
and to write resource lists. then develop plans to water.
The teacher ensures that the answer their questions.
scientific investigations are All learners in a group
doable. The teacher explains write these plans in their
the criteria of a proper science journals.
investigation.

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Phase 4: conducting the investigation (domain focus: procedural)

Teacher outcomes: 1) f acilitate the groups’ data collection and their

The teacher will reflection on their scientific inquiries
2) encourage the learners to use the new scientific
words in their inquiries
Learner objectives: 1) c arry out the scientific inquiries and collect data,
The learners will possibly by means of measurement
2) record data
Resources Each group will need resources for its inquiry;
collection and recording of data
Integration Mathematics: measurement and data handling
Teacher activity Learner Possible questions based on the
activity domain and the big idea
This phase focuses on data The learners Remind me, what is the question
collection. The teacher conduct their you want to investigate? How are
helps the learners to make investigations you going to do your investigation?
correct measurements and collect What do you think will happen
and to take notes (data data by (predict) (assumptions)? What do
handling). The teacher observing the you observe? Show me how you
explains, practises and measurements. measure. Show me your table of
reflects on the learners’ The learners results. Think about why you made
procedures. The teacher record data in these observations (infer). (Inference
ensures that the learners tables. is based on the underlying scientific
use the new scientific concepts). What word do we use for
words while they discuss water that leaves the surface of a
what they are doing. liquid? (The use of scientific words
allows conceptual change to occur
in the learning of science).

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Phase 5: conclusion (domain focus: NOS, procedural)

Teacher outcomes: 1) f acilitate groups’ reflection on the data they

The teacher will collected and their drawing of conclusions
on the basis of that data
2) encourage learners to use the new scientific
words during communication
Learner objective: 1) d
 raw conclusions in relation to their research
The learners will questions from the data collected
Resources Data collected during investigations, paper,
pencils, science journals
Integration Mathematics (data handling) and language
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based
on the domain and the
big idea
While facilitating the group The learners What did you observe/
investigations, the teacher asks compare their measure? These are the
the learners to think about results with their results of your investigation.
whether the data they collected predictions or What did you think you
answers the questions they asked assumptions. The would observe/measure?
for the investigations and if the learners explain Do your results show that
data is what they expected to their results to the your guess about what
find. The learners must realise teacher and their would happen was correct?
that results (observations and group mates. Is there another way of
measurements) are different from saying “water disappears”?
assumptions. The teacher ensures
that the correct scientific words are
used.

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Phase 6: presentation/communication (domain focus: social, procedural, conceptual)

Teacher outcomes: 1) h
 ave the groups design and present posters that
The teacher will depict the scientific inquiries they carried out and the
conclusions they made
2) facilitate the use of the new scientific words
Learner objectives: 1) in their groups, design and present posters that
The learners will depict the scientific inquiries they carried out and the
conclusions they made
2) use the new scientific words
Resources Poster paper, markers, stationery such as rulers and glue
Integration Language: presentation skills
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions
based on the domain
and the big idea
The teacher lets The learners work together Do you think this is the
the groups design in their groups to develop best way to show your
posters and plan their their poster presentations. results? How else could
presentations. The The learners use the self- you show the class
teacher reflects on the assessment checklist given what you did? Maybe a
groups’ results and how by the teacher to assess drawing? Or a photo? Do
best to present them. The their scientific investigations. you think this was the
teacher develops a group The learners draw diagrams best way to answer your
assessment checklist for in their science journals to question? Do you think
group assessment. The explain the new scientific there are other questions
that you could have
teacher lets each group words they have learnt (e.g.,
asked?
present its poster to the solution, evaporate, heat,
whole class. water vapour, liquid water).

Phase 7: deepening/broadening of understanding (domain focus: social, procedural,

conceptual, NOS)

Teacher outcomes: 1) f acilitate the completion of the concept

The teacher will map by adding new ideas given by the
learners
2) facilitate the addition of new questions to
the wonder wall
3) f acilitate a class discussion on advice for
the family stranded on an island on how
to turn salty water into drinking water
4) d iscuss with the learners why they think
humans are not adapted to drinking salty
water

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Learner objective: 1) a dd their ideas to the concept map and

The learners will the wonder wall and give advice on how
the family stranded on an island could
turn salty water into drinking water
Resources Concept map, wonder wall
Integration Language
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions
based on the domain
and the big idea
The teacher brings the class back The learners must What have you learnt
to the original concept map and add their new about drinking water
asks what else they now know thinking to the and how to make salty
about how salty water can be made concept map. The water drinkable that
drinkable. These ideas are then learners must add is not on this concept
added to the concept map. The new wonderings to map? Which of your
teacher goes back to the wonder the wonder wall. questions have you
wall and asks the learners if their The learners answered? Are there
questions have been answered and must make the any new questions you
what other questions they now connections would like to add to
the wonder wall? What
have. The teacher asks the learners between clean
advice would you give
if they can now give advice to the drinking water and
the family in the story
family in the story about how to adaptation.
about how to make
make salty water drinkable. Can salty water drinkable?
the learners say why it is important Why do you think the
to drink water that is not salty? people in the story
(Humans are not adapted to must not drink the salty
drinking salty water). (It would be water?
correct for teachers to develop
a new IBSE cycle at this point.
Unfortunately, the curriculum does
not allow them to develop this kind
of learning further).

When you study our theme plan, look at how the big idea of adaptation and the four
domains of scientific understanding, namely, conceptual change, the social domain,
process skills and the NOS (to develop scientific literacy, according to Lederman et al (2013)
– refer to learning unit one) were weaved through the theme. You should think of these
five aspects as threads that run through all the activities, especially the teacher questions.
Figure 3.3 illustrates how the five aspects run through an inquiry-based theme plan.

Theme planning is a very personal experience and no theme plan is ever completely
wrong (or right!). You have to show creativity in bringing scientific inquiry into the topics
of the curriculum. It is a good idea to form small groups of teachers in the same grade
(possibly from different schools) and to have each group develop a theme plan. The
groups can swop theme plans and together reflect on how to improve each plan. These
kinds of groups are called communities of practice.

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You may want to do some extra reading. Two books on inquiry-based learning are listed
in section 3.6 (additional resources). Many theme plans for science education for young
learners are available online. You may need to adjust them slightly to suit your context,
though.

Figure 3.3: Five threads that run through all seven stages of the inquiry-based model
for open IBSE

3.3.2 A cultural-historical perspective of IBSE theme planning

Teachers develop science activities and themes with certain objectives in mind. The
main objective of science activities is to develop scientific literacy in learners. That does
not mean that teachers will be able to motivate learners to learn from science activities.
Teachers should realise that learners see an activity from their own perspective (also
known as motive orientation). Teachers should develop an understanding of every learner’s
social situation of development and how this interacts with the demands of what has
to be done in an activity. Only then will teachers be able to facilitate learning through
an activity because they will understand the learners and be able to interact with them
within their zone of proximal development (Hedegaard 2012).

The cultural-historical perspective of learning is quite complex. What follows is a short

explanation of how it works in a science class (adapted from Hedegaard 2012).

In a science class, learners will acquire scientific literacy (the culture of science – skills and
values) through their motivation to take part in a science activity. Through their actions,
the learners influence not only what happens during the science activity but also their
own learning of science. The science class is a social setting in which the learners’ personal

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motives and competence are realised when their activities meet the requirements of
science learning.

Different learners in the same class who are doing the same activity can experience
different social situations. A learner’s experience and activities are dependent on how
she/he understands the requirements of a science activity and her/his ability to reflect
and generalise these requirements. This is dependent on the learner’s motives and
the demands of the situation. Every learner in the same activity setting has a different
understanding of the activity setting and has different motives.

Tensions and conflicts between demands in an activity setting and learners’ intentions and
motives may lead to learning and development. Learners not only meet the demands of
the activity, the teacher and classmates (or group mates) but also put demands on others in
their everyday activity settings. Their activities reflect how they integrate these demands.
Learners of different ages put different demands on their classmates and teachers.

You may need to read this explanation a few times before you fully understand what the
cultural-historical perspective entails. If you are interested in reading additional resources
on this topic, then look online for the two books that are listed in section 3.6. Next, we will
specifically describe how the cultural-historical perspective develops learners’ conceptual
understanding, process skills and ideas about the nature of science (refer to table 3.4).

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Table 3.4: The cultural-historical approach and how it develops learners’ conceptual
understanding, process skills and ideas about the nature of science
Teacher approach Conceptual Process Nature of
understanding skills and science and
of scientific the different the different
concepts approaches approaches

Teachers understand Teachers Process skills Learners carry

that learners come to consider are used out a scientific
the science class with concept during the investigation
an understanding of development solving of a into a
scientific concepts based as happening real-world real-world
on their social, cultural and within a group problem problem in
historical contexts. through through a groups, which
engagement scientific develops their
Teachers consider the understanding
social engagements between investigation.
group of scientific
that will provide the concepts.
appropriate contexts for members.
This approach
learning to take place (e.g., aligns well
group work). with the nature
Teachers develop learning of science.
activities based on real-
world contexts (or real-
world problems) that are
meaningful for learners.
Teachers allow learners
to communicate their
understanding to them and
their groups.

3.3.3 Integration of language, creativity, mathematics and technology in

IBSE theme planning
When teachers plan science activities for a theme plan, they should be aware of how
language, creativity, mathematics and technology can be integrated in the activities.

Developing learners’ ability to communicate their understanding of science through language

Charlesworth and Lind (2013) observe that young learners communicate their understanding
of science better when there is “action plus talk” about science (i.e., when they “do” science
rather than learn about science). These authors add that communication can happen
through talking, writing, drawing, construction, drama, painting and puppets.

A foundation phase teacher once read a story that had a picture of a child sitting on a
cloud. She asked the class, “Can you really sit on a cloud?” There was much debate in

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the class, until one learner said, “No, I don’t think you can really sit on a cloud. I have
flown in an aeroplane and you can fly though it [a cloud].” A lot of science was discussed
and communicated during that lesson because the teacher asked the right question.

Young learners should have a science journal (or a notebook) with either blank pages only
(grade 1) or a combination of blank pages and lined pages (grades 2 and 3) in which they
can write or draw their science-related ideas as they develop (Wollman-Bonilla 2000). Klein
(2000) refers to this as “writing to learn”. Learners can communicate their understanding
through diagrams, concept maps and creative activities such as writing stories, songs
and poems. Learners could write the script of a drama before performing it (based on
their understanding of a scientific concept, of course). You can read more about writing
activities for learners in Stacey (2018b), which is listed in section 3.6 (additional resources)
and available through a link on the module site on myUnisa.

Activity 3.4: Developing learners’ communication about science

Read the blog on getting learners to write about their science-related ideas at this link on
myUnisa: https://blogs.edweek.org/teachers/classroom_qa_with_ larry_ferlazzo/2018/04/
response_how_to_weave_writing_throughout_science_ lessons.html
Now write a few sentences about how ice melts.

This is our understanding of how ice melts: we know that ice melts when we take it
out the freezer because it is warmer outside the freezer. Ice forms water when it melts.
We know that ice is frozen water. What is your understanding? How did you write your
understanding of how ice melts?

Instead of writing words, we can communicate by drawing concept maps. Concept maps
can be used to explain a concept without using sentences.

Drawing concept maps

At the beginning and end of teaching a theme based on science, teachers want to know
what learners know about the concepts taught. At the end they want to know how much
learners have learnt about the concepts, that is, how much their ideas about the concepts
changed. Learners can draw concept maps in their science journals to show how much
they have learnt. Drawing concept maps is a much better way of learning about scientific
concepts than writing notes from the board!

Watch the videos in activity 3.5 and then make your own concept map.

Activity 3.5: Concept maps in science teaching for young learners

Mind maps are similar to concept maps. We use the word concept map because the focus
of teaching should be on concepts and concept development (or conceptual change).
Watch two videos on how to create a concept map through these links on myUnisa:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pjaVq3vah1E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZJj6DwCqSU

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 First draw a concept map on your understanding of solids. Watch the following video
and then make changes to your concept map:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4OR6MneDn0
Once you have updated your concept map, think about what else you would like to know
about solids. (This is a wonder wall question.)

Our initial concept map on solids is depicted in figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: First concept map about solids

The video shows that ice melts when you put salt onto it because the particles of salt
break the bonds between the ice particles, thereby freeing up the ice particles to form
liquid water. We tried to show our new understanding of solids in a second concept map
(refer to figure 3.5).

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Figure 3.5: Second concept map, after the investigation

Once you had updated your concept map, you may have wondered if saltwater freezes
like fresh water and if different concentrations of saltwater freeze differently. You may
have seen on television that in cold countries where the roads are covered with snow
or ice during winter, salt is thrown on the roads because it causes the snow to turn into
water, which can wash away.

Later on in the study guide you should take note of how learners’ communication is used
as evidence for assessment in respect of science learning.

Integration of creative art activities into a theme plan

Art activities fit well into a seven-phase inquiry-based theme plan, specifically phase 6
(communication) and phase 7 (broadening of ideas). Children can use art to demonstrate
their understanding of a natural (scientific) phenomenon such as rain.

Fox and Schirrmacher (2014) state that one cannot paint or draw what one does not
know or understand. It is therefore quite fitting for learners to first inquire into a natural
phenomenon before they make painting or drawings about it. So, for example, learners
should understand what water and the water cycle are before they are asked to draw or
paint a rainy-day scene.

The same applies to music and drama. If children sing about a natural phenomenon such
as rain, they should understand what they are singing about. Singing can be part of the
introduction phase (phase 1). Alternatively, learners can write their own songs or poems,
which would fit in well with communication (phase 6) and broadening of ideas (phase
7). Dramas and role plays (developed by the learners themselves or the teacher) can be
used during phases 6 and 7, too.

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Integration of technology education into a theme plan
The same principle described above applies to how design and technology should be
integrated into an inquiry-based theme plan. One cannot design or build something that
one does not understand. In section B of this study guide you should make sure that you
understand how important the stage known as “investigation” is in the design process.
The investigation stage can be replaced with a science inquiry activity. Once the inquiry
is complete, learners can be given a problem to solve. In our example of a theme plan,
learners could be asked to develop a water filtration system for the people in the story
who are stranded on an island and do not have clean water to drink2. You will learn more
about design and technology activities in the second part of the study guide.

Integration of mathematics into an inquiry-based theme plan

Did you notice in the inquiry-based theme plan that we designed that mathematics can
be integrated in certain phases of the inquiry? This is because one of the process skills
(discussed in learning unit two) is measurement. Measurement is about describing the
world (which is the aim of science) with numbers. Young learners first learn to measure
with informal units, after which they start using formal units (Charlesworth & Lind 2013).
These measurements are communicated through tables and graphs.

3.4 DAILY LESSON PLANNING FOR INQUIRY-BASED THEME

PLANNING
Although we will not plan a specific lesson within a theme, you will be required to develop
a science lesson during your teaching practice activities. You will need to develop a
theme plan as well as a daily lesson plan. If you look at the template for an inquiry-based
theme plan, you will notice that most of the daily lesson plan components, for example,
outcomes, objectives, teacher activity, learner activity, resources, teaching approach and
integration are already included in the theme plan.

In the following section we will describe how to assess foundation phase learners in
respect of an inquiry-based theme.

3.5 ASSESSMENT FOR SCIENCE LEARNING

Assessment takes us back to the curriculum where we started this unit. The curriculum
guides teachers on what to teach and how to teach it. It lists what learners should know
and be able to do. It therefore guides the assessment that teachers carry out. Review
figure 3.1 to get a better understanding of how the curriculum and assessment are linked.

In the foundation phase, teachers assess science informally for learning instead of assessing
learning. Teachers who assess for learning will know what their learners understand (or
can do), what they partly understand (or can do) and what they do not understand (or

2 The integration of art, science, technology and mathematics is known as STEAM

integration (STEAM = science, technology, engineering, art (and) mathematics).

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cannot do). Assessment should support learning rather than judge achievement (Harrison
2015). Assessment for learning (AfL) is a tool used by teachers to reflect on their own
teaching, revealing what should be done and how it should be done to improve learners’
understanding and process skills in relation to science. Assessment happens informally
throughout learning activities. In this case, assessment happens through questioning,
concept maps and learner communication when learners talk, write in science journals
and engage in art and drama activities.

Read more about AfL by following the links to Keeley (2016) and Wiliam and Leahy (2017a;
2017b) on the module site in myUnisa.

Refer to figure 3.6, which provides a framework for assessment for science learning in
the foundation phase. It shows how learner communication of process skills, conceptual
understanding and the NOS provides evidence that learners’ scientific literacy is developing.

3.5.1 Informal assessment of ability to apply process skills (“doing

science”)
You should by now be able to name and describe the science process skills. The curriculum
(South Africa 2011) requires that learners perform these skills during a scientific investigation
(South Africa 2002). The process skills support the assessment standards for scientific
investigations in the foundation phase, which are plans, does and reviews (refer to table
3.1). It is therefore necessary that teachers assess learners’ ability to apply the process
skills. Refer to figure 3.6 for examples of assessment activities that teachers should use to
assess for learning. These activities are: inferring from observations, tabulating differences
and similarities, developing simple classification systems, making measurements and
recording measurements. In a seven-phase cycle of learning in an open IBSE theme plan
there will be opportunities for learners to do these activities.

Learners’ ability to perform these tasks will provide teaching moments (Charlesworth
& Lind 2013). A teacher must informally check on learners’ progress while facilitating a
scientific investigation. If the teacher notices that some learners cannot do the activity,
she/he can help those learners. If the teacher observes that most of the learners are not
able to do the activity, then she/he may have to teach the whole class how to perform
and communicate the relevant process skill.

3.5.2 Informal assessment of understanding of scientific concepts

(“communicating science”)
To assess learners’ understanding of scientific concepts, teachers should know which
concepts were evident in a specific scientific inquiry. Was the scientific inquiry about
water freezing, solutions or evaporation, for example? Review learning unit one to refresh
your memory on the important role that the learning of scientific words, even though
they look difficult, plays in the long journey of conceptual change in the learning of
science, where learners move from an everyday understanding of ideas or phenomena
to a more scientific understanding. As a novice foundation phase teacher, you will
soon learn how many scientific words you can introduce at a time. Once learners have

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investigated a scientific concept through the inquiry theme, they should communicate
their understanding by drawing diagrams or concept maps, writing poems, acting out role
plays and dramas and making presentations. Painting and drawing creatively are other
activities by which learners can communicate their understanding of a concept. Refer to
figure 3.6 and notice that it is important that learners not only communicate facts but
also reason using scientific ideas.

You can read about the development of creativity in young learners by following the
link to Fox (2015) on the module site on myUnisa. Moreover, you can read up on writing
about science by following the links to the e-resources Bloetner (2014) and Stroud and
Baines (2019). (Full references are provided in section 3.6).

3.5.3 Informal assessment of understanding of the nature of science

Lederman et al (2013) argue that children’s scientific literacy develops when they learn
about the nature of science. There are nine criteria relating to the NOS. It is argued that
teachers should bring learners’ attention to these criteria by means of an inquiry theme.
Teachers should ask questions throughout an inquiry that will develop learners’ thinking
about the NOS. These questions serve as assessment for learning. Teachers should use
such questions as a guide to understanding how learners’ ideas of the NOS are developing.
Learners’ ideas of the NOS will not develop fully in primary school, yet it is teachers’
responsibility to start learners’ thinking and reasoning about the NOS.

Figure 3.6: Framework of assessment for science learning in the foundation phase

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3.6 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Resources that you should read in addition to the study guide are as follows:

• Resources that are available from the Unisa Library:

Stacey, S. 2019. Inquiry-based early learning environments: creating, supporting, and
collaborating. Saint Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Watt, J & Colyer, J. 2014. IQ: a practical guide to inquiry-based learning. Don Mills, Ontario:
Oxford University Press. ISBN: 13:9780199009343
Hedegaard, M. 2017. The significance of demands and motives across practices in children’s
learning and development: an analysis of learning in home and school, in Introduction
to Vygotsky, edited by H Daniels. London: Routledge:223–235.
Hedegaard, M. 2008. A cultural-historical theory of children’s development, in Studying
children: a cultural-historical approach, by M Hedegaard & N Fleer. Berkshire: MacGraw-
Hill Education:10–29.
Krasnic, T. Mind mapping for kids: how elementary school students can use mind maps to
improve reading comprehension and critical thinking. Kindle edition.

• Resources that are available through links on the module site of myUnisa:
Bloetner, S. 2014. Science performance-based assessments, in Strategies for formative
assessment with English language learners, by S Bloetner. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell
Education:181–226.
Fox, JE. 2015. Creative thinking, in Art & creative development for young children, by JE Fox
& R Schirrmacher. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning:22–33.
Keeley, P. 2016. Integrating FACTs with instruction and learning, in Science formative
assessment, volume 1: 75 practical strategies for linking assessment, instruction, and
learning, by P Keeley. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin:15–30.
Ketelhut, DJ & Tutwiler, MS. 2018. Science learning issue #1: learning real science, in Science
learning and inquiry with technology, by DJ Ketelhut & MS Tutwiler. New York: Taylor
& Francis:7–32.
Kidman, G & Casinader, N. 2017. Managing the reigns of inquiry: the role of the teacher in
IBL, in Inquiry-based teaching and learning across disciplines: comparative theory and
practice in schools. London: Springer Nature:31–46.
Stroud, A & Baines, L. 2019. Inquiry, investigative processes, art, and writing in STEAM,
in STEAM education: theory and practice, edited by MS Khine & S Areepattamannil.
Cham, Switzerland: Springer:10–25.
Wertsch, J. 2017. Mediation, in Introduction to Vygotsky, edited by H Daniels. London:
Routledge:59–72.
Wiliam, D & Leahy, S. 2017a. Strategy 1: clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning
intentions and success criteria, in Embedding formative assessment: practical techniques
for K-12 classrooms, by D William & S Leahy. West Palm Beach, FL: Learning Sciences
International:27–62.
Wiliam, D & Leahy, S. 2017b. Strategy 5: activating students as owners of their own learning,
in Embedding formative assessment: practical techniques for K-12 classrooms, by D
William & S Leahy. West Palm Beach, FL: Learning Sciences International:169–217.

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3.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
There are many online resources for a wide variety of science topics. In the topic “transport”
(grade 2, term 3, p 44 of CAPS: Life Skills for the foundation phase), we found an interesting
activity involving ramps and small toy cars that lends itself to many inquiries. If you type
“ramp activities for young children” in an internet search engine, you will come across many
of these activities. Here are examples of websites that you can access through myUnisa:

• http://www.peepandthebigwideworld.com/en/educators/curriculum/
family-child-care-educators/14/ramps/
• https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/lesson-plans/teaching-content/
activity-plan-4-5-ramps/

The activities described on these websites are a good start but there are many more.

Use the teaching ideas you get online to answer the following questions:

3.1 Which of the social science big ideas described in learning unit two would be
appropriate to weave through a theme plan about transport? Give reasons for your
choice of big ideas.
3.2 Plan an inquiry-based theme using the seven-phase cycle model of open IBSE (Van
Uum et al 2016). You can use the template in addendum A. Share your ideas online
with your class group.
3.3 Explain how the different questions you planned allowed you to weave the following
ideas through your theme plan:
• social science “big ideas”
• the nature of science
• conceptual change
• social or group work skills
• process skills
3.4 Describe how you integrated the following aspects into your inquiry-based theme
plan:
• language
• mathematics – measurement
• mathematics – data handling
3.5 Describe a creative art activity that you could add to your inquiry-based theme
plan.
3.6 Describe a design and technology activity that you could add to your inquiry-based
theme plan.
3.7 Which teaching approach (i.e., transmission, discovery, cultural-historical or interactive)
would you use during the following phases? Give reasons for you answer in each
instance.
• The teacher introduces the context of an inquiry (introduction of the topic).
• The learners tell the teacher what they would like to know in relation to the topic.
• The teacher introduces new scientific words.
• The learners plan their investigations.

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• The learners carry out their investigations.

• The teacher concludes the theme by referring back to the first concept map and
adding ideas/concepts to it.
3. 8 Describe how habits of body are developed throughout your inquiry-based theme.
3.9 Name and describe at least three process skills, apart from observation, that you as
the teacher could assess informally for learning.
3.10 There are several scientific words, such as texture, rough, smooth, friction, big/small
(wheels), heavy/light (cars), speed and fast/slow, that you could develop through
a ramp activity. How would you use the following activities to informally assess
whether learners use the scientific words correctly?
• activity in learners’ science journals
• creative art activity
• creative drama activity
• poetry

3.8 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were given a comprehensive explanation of how to go about
planning lessons that develop three aspects of scientific literacy, namely, science knowledge
and conceptual understanding, science process skills and understanding of the nature of
science. In this unit we attempted to develop your ability to plan science activities within
an inquiry theme for a specific topic. You were lead in the development of a theme plan as
well as individual lessons in which the ideas of learning units one and two were included.

In the following section (section B) you will be equipped with knowledge and skills to
develop technology lessons for foundation phase learners. Learning unit four introduces
technology education as a problem-solving activity that is organised according to the
technological processes. Learning unit five specifically deals with information technology.
The last learning unit, unit six, focuses on planning technology learning and assessment
with reference to the technological processes. (Refer to the mind map given in the
introductory section).

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ADDENDUM A: TEMPLATE FOR A SEVEN-PHASE INQUIRY-BASED
THEME PLAN
Topic
Grade
Term
Dates
Curriculum page/s
Big idea

Phase 1: introduction (domain focus: NOS)

Teacher outcome/s:
The teacher will
Learner objective/s:
The learners will
Resource/s
Integration
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based on the
domain and the big idea

Phase 2: exploration (domain focus: conceptual)

Teacher outcome/s:
The teacher will
Learner objective/s:
The learners will
Resource/s
Integration
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based on the
domain and the big idea

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Phase 3: designing an investigation (domain focus: NOS, procedural, social)

Teacher outcome/s:
The teacher will
Learner objective/s:
The learners will
Resource/s
Integration
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based on the
domain and the big idea

Phase 4: conducting the investigation (domain focus: procedural) (guided inquiry

can be used)

Teacher outcome/s:
The teacher will
Learner objective/s:
The learners will
Resource/s
Integration
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based on the
domain and the big idea

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Phase 5: conclusion (domain focus: NOS, procedural)

Teacher outcome/s:
The teacher will
Learner objective/s:
The learners will
Resource/s
Integration
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based on the
domain and the big idea

Phase 6: presentation/communication (domain focus: social, procedural, conceptual)

Teacher outcome/s:
The teacher will
Learner objective/s:
The learners will
Resource/s
Integration
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based on the
domain and the big idea

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Phase 7: deepening/broadening of understanding (domain focus: social, procedural,

conceptual, NOS)

Teacher outcome/s:
The teacher will
Learner objective/s:
The learners will
Resource/s
Integration
Teacher activity Learner activity Possible questions based on the
domain and the big idea

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LIST OF REFERENCES: SECTION A
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Bosman, L. 2009. The value, place and method of teaching natural science in the foundation
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10500/2345
Carey, S. 2009. The origin of concepts. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Carey, S, Zaitchik, D & Bascandziev, I. 2015. Theories of development: in dialog with Jean
Piaget. Developmental Review 38:36–54.
Charlesworth, R & Lind, KK. 2013. Math and science for young children. 7th edition. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Cockcroft, K. 2015. The role of working memory in childhood education: five questions
and answers. South African Journal of Childhood Education 5(1):1–18.
Cowan, N. 2014. Working memory underpins cognitive development, learning,
and education. Educational Psychology Review 26(2):197–223.
Draper, CE, Achmat, M, Forbes, J & Lambert, EV. 2012. Impact of a community-based
programme for motor development on gross motor skills and cognitive function in
preschool children from disadvantaged settings. Early Child Development and Care
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Eysenck, MW, Ellis, AW, Hunt, EB & Johnson-Laird, PNE (eds). 1994. The Blackwell dictionary
of cognitive psychology. Basil Blackwell.
Fleer, M, Jane, B & Hardy, T. 2007. Science for children: developing a personal approach to
teaching. Melbourne: Pearson Australia.
Fox, JE & Schirrmacher, R. 2014. Art & creative development for young children. Stamford,
CT: Cengage Learning.
Gillies, RM, Nichols, K, Burgh, G & Haynes, M. 2013. Primary students’ scientific reasoning
and discourse during cooperative inquiry-based science activities. International
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Gopnik, A & Wellman, HM. 2012. Reconstructing constructivism: causal models, Bayesian
learning mechanisms, and the theory theory. Psychological Bulletin 138(6):1085–1108.
Gopnik, A, Glymour, C, Sobel, DM, Schulz, LE, Kushnir, T & Danks, D. 2004. A theory of causal
learning in children: causal maps and Bayes nets. Psychological Review 111(1):3–32.
Harrison, C. 2015. Assessment for learning in science classrooms. Journal of Research in
STEM Education 1(2):78–86.
Hedegaard, M. 2012. Analyzing children’s learning and development in everyday settings
from a cultural-historical wholeness approach. Mind, Culture, and Activity 19(2):127–138.
Jonassen, DH & Ionas, IG. 2008. Designing effective supports for causal reasoning. Education
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Kareiva, P & Marvier, M. 2012. What is conservation science? BioScience 62(11):962–969.
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Klein, PD. 2000. Elementary students’ strategies for writing-to-learn in science. Cognition
and Instruction 18(3):317–348.
Krog, S. 2016. Physical education in the foundation phase, in Teaching life skills in the
Foundation Phase, edited by M Naudé & C Meier. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers:281–348.

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Lederman, NG, Lederman, JS & Antink, A. 2013. Nature of science and scientific inquiry as
contexts for the learning of science and achievement of scientific literacy. International
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SECTION B
Section B relates to technology education for young learners and follows
section A, which dealt with how the teaching and learning of science
happen in the foundation phase. Once you have reflected on the notes on
technology education in section B, the difference and the relationship between
science and technology should be clear to you. As you read and think about
the nature of technology, you should refer back to the nature of science.
The simplest way of differentiating between science and technology is by
understanding what the purpose of a specific activity is – is it to understand
the nature of the world (natural and manmade) or is it to develop (or improve)
the world by designing (or redesigning) aspects of the world? (Jadrich &
Bruxvoort 2013)

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Learning unit 4
The problem-solving nature of technology education

The purpose of this learning unit is to explain what is meant by technological literacy in
order for you to reflect on teaching approaches that promote technological literacy in
the foundation phase.

Learning outcomes

After you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to
• analyse and evaluate problem-based scenarios as a basis for planning appropriate
solutions
• apply appropriate problem-solving strategies to relevant examples given
• plan and write paragraphs to communicate ideas and opinions about technological
literacy, using appropriate academic and professional discourse
• analyse, interpret and make comparisons of different teaching approaches, such as
technological problem-solving, integration of mathematics, language and creativity
and a cultural-historical perspective
• identify suitable contexts for the application of these approaches
• identify the strengths and the limitations of each approach and suggest ways in
which the approaches can be used successfully in a foundation phase classroom
• use examples to cite the use of an approach appropriate for the learning context

Key concepts

y technology
y technology education
y technological literacy
y problem-solving
y design process
y creative thinking
y indigenous knowledge

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning unit four introduces technology education in which a problem-based approach
is followed. This approach creates opportunities for the development of creativity during
lessons focused on the technological processes.

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4.2 TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN

CURRICULUM
The current curriculum policy documents, that is, both the National curriculum statement
(NCS) and the Curriculum and assessment policy statement (CAPS), outline the aims of South
African education at the schooling level of grades R–12 (South Africa 2002b; 2011a). The
aim of teaching and learning is to produce learners who are able to:

• use critical and creative thinking to identify and solve problems and to make decisions
• work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team
• organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively
• collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information
• communicate effectively using visual, symbolic and/or language skills
• use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards
the environment and the health of others
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising
that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation

This unit focuses on how these aims can be achieved when technology lessons are taught
to foundation phase children. The National curriculum statement: technology education (NCS
TE) (South Africa 2002b) describes three learning outcomes for technology education,
namely,

• technological processes and skills (learning outcome one)

• technological knowledge and understanding (learning outcome two)
• the interrelationship between technology, society and the environment (learning
outcome three)

In the foundation phase, teachers are required to teach the technological processes and
skills described in learning outcome one only. This outcome states that learners “will be
able to apply technological processes and skills ethically and responsibly using appropriate
information and communication technologies” (South Africa 2002b:4).

During technological activities, learners engage in investigating, designing, making,

evaluating and communicating solutions. When used together, these skills are sometimes
known as the “design process”. The design process and the related skills are the focus of
learning units four and six. These skills are included in learning outcome one as part of the
steps of the design process (which is described below) and as assessment standards for
describing the level at which learners should be able to perform the design process skills.

The South African technology education curriculum also requires that learners be
given the opportunity to learn the processes and skills involved in using information
and communication technology (described in learning unit five). The relationship between
the design process and information technology in the South African curriculum is shown
in figure 4.1.

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Figure 4.1: Relationship between the design process and information technology in the
technology education curriculum of South Africa

4.2.1 What is technology?

Literature on the meaning of technology is extensive. Since we want to focus on a particular
meaning, we have decided to use the definition of technology as given by the NCS TE.
We will use this definition to clarify how technology should be taught and assessed. The
NCS TE (South Africa 2002b:4) defines technology as follows:

The use of knowledge, skills and resources to meet people’s needs and wants by
developing practical solutions to problems, taking social and environmental factors
into consideration.

To clarify this definition, we need to think of a place that has never had any intervention
by humans. Think about the idea of sending people to Mars.

Activity 4.1: Surviving on Mars

Read the information found on the following website by following the link on the module
site on myUnisa and then think about the questions that follow:
https://www.nasa.gov/content/nasas-journey-to-mars

• What will be available for the first human settlers on Mars? Will what is available on
Mars meet the needs of humans? Explain your viewpoint.
• What will humans have to do to survive on Mars? How will they need to change the
planet to make it suitable for them to live on?

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When people arrive on Mars for the first time, there will be no structures to live in, no
food to eat, no water to drink and no way to keep warm. If people are to survive on
Mars, there would have to be a way for them to build shelters, to grow food, to harvest
and clean water and to keep warm. They will need to breathe air at the correct levels of
oxygen. They will need to eat nutritional food and excrete their waste. These are human
needs. When knowledge, skills and resources are used to solve the problem of providing
for the needs of humans on Mars by building structures such as water harvesting and
distribution systems, then technologies have been developed. (Have you realised that
water, which is a basic necessity for people’s survival, is not available on Mars as far as we
know?) Technology will have an impact on the environment, in this case Mars, and there
will be consequences for the small society of people who live on Mars.

On Earth, similar developments have happened since the beginning of humankind. Using
technology, humans have developed technologies in a variety of ways that have changed
the way that food is gathered and prepared, shelters are made, people communicate and
so on. How has communication changed between people?

Activity 4.2: Technological advances in communication

Read this web page about how communication has changed from early cave drawings
to modern communication technologies such as posts on social media. Find the link on
the myUnisa module site:
https://www.creativedisplaysnow.com/articles/history-of-communication-from-cave-
drawings-to-the-web/
What are the differences between communicating by means of cave drawings
and communicating by making posts on social media?

For your own interest, read about cave drawings in South Africa on the following website.
As you read through the information, think about how you could incorporate the idea of
cave drawings in your teaching:

http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/south_africa/

Let us return to the question about the differences between cave paintings and social
media posts. There are obvious differences such as the tools and the materials that are
used to draw on the walls of caves and to post on social media. But there are similarities,
too. A message needs to be conveyed from one person to another. There needs to be
“something” to write or draw on, either a cave wall or a cell phone, and there needs to
be a common understanding between the people involved. If people of that era could
not use the communication tools of their time, they would have had problems.

The ability to find solutions to needs, wants and problems by developing technology
and then designing, making and using the technology successfully and wisely means
there is technological literacy. It is not helpful for a person if technology exists but that
person is unable to use it.

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4.3 TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY
The NCS TE (South Africa 2002b:4) states that the purpose of technology education is
to contribute towards learners’ technological literacy by giving them opportunities for
learning that allow them to:

• develop and apply specific skills to solve technological problems

• develop an understanding of concepts and knowledge used in technology and to use
the concepts and knowledge responsibly and purposefully
• develop an appreciation for the interaction between people’s values and attitudes,
technology, society and the environment

Note: If you read these three opportunities for learning activities, you may notice the close
link between them and the learning outcomes for technology education stated in the
NCS TE (South Africa 2002b). In the CAPS curriculum (South Africa 2011a), the study area
called beginning knowledge is described as the drawing together of content and concepts
from social sciences (history and geography), the natural sciences and technology. The
social science concepts in relation to beginning knowledge are conservation, cause and
effect, place, adaptation, and relationships and interdependence. In section A we linked
these social science concepts to the so-called big ideas or big concepts of science. You
should review the relevant sections for a clearer understanding of these big ideas since
they also relate to technology learning. Study figure 4.2, which shows the link between the
learning outcomes of the NCS TE (South Africa 2002b) and the CAPS: Life Skills document
(South Africa 2011a).

Figure 4.2: Technology education in the foundation phase is taught through the design
process, including the concepts of social sciences

This means that the South African curriculum requires teachers to develop technological
literacy in young learners by developing learning activities that require learners to

• use the design process and design process skills

• learn about technological products and systems and how they affect the environment
and society
• develop attitudes and values about the wise and ethical use of technologies

Technological literacy includes the ability to use technological products and systems
responsibly and wisely (or with good attitudes and values). Let’s think about a social
problem: our violent society. There are many children that live in areas where gang
violence is rife. Children are killed in the crossfire and their family members may even
be gang members. Guns are found in homes, not only of gang members but of ordinary

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people who are trying to stay safe. Guns are technological products, designed to defend
and kill. They are made with the use of tools. We can definitely say they are technological
products.

Activity 4.3: Attitudes and values towards technological products

Read this story about a young girl who found a gun under her grandmother’s pillow and
accidentally shot herself. The link can be found on the myUnisa module site: https://www.
bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-36270215
We periodically read about similar stories in South Africa. What is your attitude towards
guns?
Imagine you are a teacher and you asked your class to draw their families. One learner
draws his father with a gun. How will you react? Is there a topic regarding safety in the
Life Skills curriculum that you can discuss with your learners? Will you leave the topic
until you get to it or will you use this opportunity to discuss safety issues with the whole
class? What kind of classroom culture will you develop so that children feel safe in the
society in which they live?

Violence in schools is a major issue and young learners in many parts of our country are
subjected to all types of violence, not just gun violence. How you react will depend on your
own attitude to guns and violence. The social problem of violence has invaded our schools.
We do not intend to give you answers to these problems, only to challenge you to think
about your attitude to violence and the safety and wellbeing of the learners you teach. Your
attitude to violence and guns will be reflected in the kinds of drawings you allow learners to
draw, the kinds of toys you allow them to bring to class or the toys learners can play with in
the fantasy area of your classroom. Having reflected on a society where violence is pervasive,
should you allow toy guns (and toy knives) in your class?

As we have seen, for people to be technologically literate, they must be able to make certain
decisions about their use of technology and technological devices. We have looked at one
example of a technological product, namely, guns. Moreover, access to the internet and social
media also puts children (and adults) at risk and people should therefore use this technology
with wisdom.

Technology education is a problem-solving activity. Teachers have to develop activities that

allow learners to find solutions to problems by using a process called the design process.

4.4 THE PROBLEM-SOLVING NATURE OF TECHNOLOGY

At the heart of the design process is the identification of everyday problems, needs or
wants of people. Practical solutions are developed through a problem-solving process
(Kim 2017; Mansoor, Mariun & AbdulWahab 2017).

Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analysing and solving

issues. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and to find a
solution that best suits the problem, thereby resolving it. The best strategy for solving a
problem depends largely on the unique situation (known as the context of the problem).

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Moreover, good problem-solvers have certain “habits of mind”, which we discussed in
learning unit two.

You can read more about habits of mind for designers, technologists or engineers by
following the link to the chapter written by Van Meeteren (2018) on the module site on
myUnisa. (A full source reference is provided in section 4.11.)

In order to solve a problem correctly, it is important to follow a series of steps. These steps
form part of what is known as the problem-solving cycle (Kim 2017; Mansoor et al 2017).
While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to
find a solution. Instead, people often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple
times until the desired solution is found. A simplified version of the problem-solving
steps are given in figure 4.3. A more detailed explanation of the problem-solving steps
is provided in table 4.1. A comparison of the problem-solving steps and the steps in the
design process is also provided in table 4.1.

Figure 4.3: Simplified version of the problem-solving process

The steps of the design process are similar to the problem-solving steps. That is why
we say that the design process is a problem-solving process. The difference is that the
solution that is achieved by following the design process must be practical – it must be
made from materials through the use of tools. Only then is the problem-solving process
relevant to technology education.

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4.5 THE DESIGN PROCESS AS TAUGHT IN TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION
As noted earlier, the South African curriculum requires learners to develop the skills
necessary to perform two processes during technology education (figure 4.1). One of these
processes is the design process. The NCS TE (South Africa 2002b:6) describes the design
process as a creative and interactive approach used to develop solutions to identified
problems or human needs. The skills associated with the design process are as follows:
investigate, design (i.e., development of initial ideas), make, evaluate and communicate.
An expanded version of the design process is given in figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Expanded steps of the design process

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Table 4.1: Steps in the design process explained as steps in the problem-solving process
Problem- Explanation of problem- Explanation of design process step
solving solving steps
steps
Design process step 1: investigate
Identifying While it may seem like an Investigating a situation to gain
the problem obvious step, identifying the information is an important starting
problem is not always simple. point for technology. Research, or the
One must be very clear about finding of information, mainly takes
what the problem is. place at this point. Learners gather data
and information, grasp concepts, gain
Defining the After the problem has been
insight, find out about new techniques
problem identified, it is important to
and so on. Skills needed for this step
fully define the problem so that
include information-processing skills
it can be solved. What are the
(refer to learning unit five).
issues that need to be solved?
Problem- Explanation of problem- Explanation of design process step
solving solving steps
steps
Design process step 2: design
Forming a The next step is to develop a Once a problem is fully understood,
strategy strategy to solve the problem. the design brief needs to be written.
The approach used will depend Possible solutions should then be
on the context (situation) generated. These ideas are drawn on
and an individual’s unique paper. The first idea may not necessarily
preferences. be the best, so it is better if several
possible solutions are considered.
Organising Before one provides (comes
Knowledge and skills related to
information up with) a solution, one must
graphics (e.g., use of colour, rendering
first organise the available
techniques, two-dimensional and
information on the basis of
three-dimensional drawings, planning,
what one knows or doesn’t
sketching, drawing, calculating and
know about the problem.
modelling) are necessary. Once possible
The more information that is
solutions are available, a decision must
available, the better prepared
be made. The chosen solution will be
one will be to come up with an
the one that best satisfies the relevant
accurate solution.
specifications. Learners are expected
Allocating Excessive (unlimited) amounts to justify the choices made. Final
resources of money, time and other working drawings or sketches should
resources are not available to then be prepared. These drawings
solve a problem. It is worth should contain all the details needed
allocating resources to solving for making the product or the system
an important problem. One – instructions, dimensions, annotated
doesn’t want to spend too notes and so on. The solution may be
much of one’s resources on tested, simulated or modelled at this
finding the solution to an stage, before final manufacturing takes
unimportant problem. place.

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Problem- Explanation of problem- Explanation of design process step

solving step solving step
Design process step 3: make
Implementing Once a course of action has This step provides opportunities for
and been decided on, it must be learners to use tools, equipment and
monitoring implemented and the progress materials to develop a solution to the
progress monitored. Effective problem- identified problem, need or opportunity.
solvers tend to monitor their It involves building, testing and
progress as they work towards modifying the product or the system
a solution. If they are not to satisfy the design specifications.
making good progress toward Learners will cut, join, shape, finish,
reaching their goal, they re- form, combine, assemble, measure,
evaluate their approach or look mark, separate, mix and so on. The
for new strategies. “making” should take place according to
the design, although it is acceptable to
make modifications if necessary. Making
must always be undertaken in a safe and
healthy atmosphere and manner.
Problem- Explanation of problem- Explanation of design process step
solving step solving step
Design process step 4: evaluate
Evaluating After a solution has been Learners have to evaluate actions,
the results reached, it is important decisions and results throughout the
to evaluate the results to design process. They must evaluate
determine if it is the best the solutions and the processes
possible solution to the followed to arrive at them. Changes or
problem. improvements should be suggested
where necessary. Some evaluation
should be done against criteria (e.g.,
constraints), which may be given or self-
generated. This stage requires the use
of probing questions, fair testing and
analysis.

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 Problem- Explanation of problem- Explanation of design process step
solving step solving step
Design process step 5: communicate
The assessment evidence of the
processes followed in the project
– that is, the ability to analyse,
investigate, plan, design, draw, evaluate
and communicate – is presented. This
could be done in oral, written, graphic
or electronic form. A record of the
design process from conception to
realisation of the solution should be
kept in the form of a project portfolio.

Now let’s look at a few examples of the design process.

Activity 4.4: Designing cars

Have a look at these videos (through the links on myUnisa) that explain how new cars are
designed and prototypes are made and then answer the questions below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RRr_GyD1fqY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9cCO-l_yMY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yaQUp5aGoBM

• How would you describe the design process?

• What happened after the designers had drawn their ideas? What did they do with
these drawn ideas?
• What attitudes and values do good designers have?

The Lexus designers said they wanted to design a particular type of car – their problem
was how to redesign a car that looked “strong” (and robust), was comfortable to drive in
the city and, of course, looked good. The design process then went on when the designers
did their drawings, either on paper or computer. Notice that the designers did not start
designing a car from the beginning – they started with an existing car and then changed
existing ideas. Once they had captured their new ideas in drawings, they built models of
the redesigned cars, allowing them to check their designs and to see how the cars would
look in real life. It is this process of design that teachers must copy in classroom situations.

Did you notice in the video that designers do not work alone? They work in teams. Teachers
must bear this aspect in mind when they develop lesson plans for technology education.
Teachers must give learners individual time to imagine solutions and to draw their ideas
(using their creativity), but there must be a time when individuals explain their ideas to
their group members, after which the best ideas are turned into models of the real thing.
This is when there will be teamwork (also known as group work). Designers must value
the input and show attitudes of tolerance and respect towards their group members.

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If you find the process of design interesting, you may want to do a free hour-long course
on TESSA. TESSA is an open source website for teachers in Africa. It has some interesting
materials and is worth a visit every now and then. You can find more information about
design at this link: http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/ course/view.php?id=2425

So far, we know that designers follow the design process, which is a problem-solving
process. They design (or redesign) products to solve problems in a new way. Coming up
with new ideas is a creative process.

4.6 CREATIVITY AND THE DESIGN PROCESS

The design process encourages the development of critical and creative thinking (South
Africa 2002b). We will only discuss creative thinking since we believe that creative
opportunities for learners are most prevalent in technology education when the design
process is followed.

Firstly, what is creativity? Creativity is a thinking process that allows for the expression of
new ideas. Naiman (2014) writes on her blog, “Creativity at work”, that creativity is “the
act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality. Creativity is characterised by the
ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden patterns, to make connections
between seemingly unrelated phenomena, and to generate solutions. Creativity involves
two processes: thinking, then producing. Art (or drawing as an example of art) activities
allow learners to use their imagination, to think creatively and innovatively and, as such,
to come up with fresh solutions to problems (Westraadt 2016). An important aspect of
creative thinking is that it is based on the current understanding of the person doing the
thinking. Creative thinking allows for learning to take place. During creative thinking (or
free exploration in the brain), causal reasoning happens. Learners will think about how
changing something on their design will lead to a certain result. It is through this reasoning
that understanding of the world (natural and manmade) happens (refer to learning unit
one for a discussion of how conceptual development happens).

According to Fox and Schirrmacher (2015), creativity can be taught. South Africa’s curriculum
is aimed at developing creative learners. It is therefore important for teachers to understand
how creativity can be developed through good teaching. We will consider creativity in
children’s drawings of their ideas for making as they happen in the design process (refer
to figure 4.4 and table 4.1). Do activity 4.5 and consider creativity in the learner’s painting.

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 Activity 4.5: Creativity in learners’ art

Look at this painting of a car that was made by a young learner.

Describe what you see. Why do you think the learner painted the car in this way?
This picture comes from the Crayola website, http://www.crayola.com/education/index,
which has many ideas and lesson plans for teachers. You can even sign up to get e-mails
about drawing activities.

In activity 4.5, did you see a car that has many umbrellas attached to it? Why did the
learner paint the car in this way? Perhaps it is a way of keeping rain or the hot sun off
the beautiful car, although it looks like there are stars in the sky. Nevertheless, this is a
solution to a problem. The effect of having sun beating on your car could be that the
car would get hot, or rainfall could make the car rust. The learner would have thought
about cause and effect, which leads to conceptual understanding of the world. We will
not really know why the learner painted the car in this original and creative way until we
discuss the painting with him/her.

Learners in different grades have different abilities to express their ideas in the form of
art, but that doesn’t matter – while they attempt to express their designs (their imagined
products), they engage in creative thinking (and causal reasoning). You will become aware
of the thinking involved in art when you ask learners to explain their artworks.

To complete this section, we would like you to watch the video in activity 4.6 that explains
how understanding is developed through drawing.

Activity 4.6: How understanding is developed through drawing

Watch the video that can be found at this link on myUnisa:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMAm3QkhxaU
How is understanding developed by representing lots of information in the form of
drawings?

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There is a saying that a picture can paint a thousand words. In the video you saw how
large amounts of information was simplified into drawings and graphs. This is also known
as visual literacy. In your case, you will be developing visual literacy in learners since they
do not need to describe their solutions with many words; they have to describe their
solutions to given problems through drawings. While learners describe their ideas in
drawings, creative thinking and cause-and-effect thinking happen.

You will find many ideas about teaching the design process by following the link to the
chapter written by Royce (2016) on the module site on myUnisa. (A complete source
reference is provided in section 4.11).

In the video you watched in activity 4.6, you saw how knowledge of “modern technology”
was used to develop an understanding of problems in businesses that use lots of
information. But what about understanding that can be obtained through knowledge
of older technologies?

4.7 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND TECHNOLOGICAL

PROBLEM-SOLVING
A creative way of solving a modern problem is often possible if one considers indigenous
knowledge. Indigenous knowledge, according to Senanayake (2006), is a way of knowing
and doing that local people developed through the ages as they were going about their
everyday activities. Why is this relevant for technology education? The definition of
technology is that it is a way of solving problems through developing and making products
and systems. Throughout all ages, humankind has been faced with problems with regard
to food, shelter, health, keeping warm or cool and so forth. These problems are solved
by developing solutions from the resources that are available in a particular area. These
solutions then become part of the indigenous knowledge of the people living in that area.

The characteristics of indigenous knowledge are as follows:

• It is based on experience.
• In many cases, it was tested over centuries of use.
• It is a collective database of observable knowledge.
• It is adapted to local cultures and environments.
• It is dynamic and changing (a living knowledge base).
• It is based on the application of problem-solving.
• It is transmitted orally, sometimes through storytelling.
• It is not possible to separate indigenous knowledge from ethics, spirituality, metaphysics,
ceremony and social order.
• It bridges the science of theory with the science of practice.
• It reflects an ecologically based approach.
• Knowledge of science is contextualised (De Beer & Brits 2017).

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 Activity 4.7: Indigenous knowledge and modern medical technology

Read the newspaper article about indigenous knowledge by Oxford (2018:8) and then
answer the questions that follow:

• What knowledge did the traditional healer have?

• What knowledge did the medical technologist have?
• How were the two types of knowledge (information) used to solve the problem identi-
fied by the technologist?

The healer knew and understood the healing properties of plants in the area where
she lived. The healer’s knowledge represents traditional or indigenous knowledge. The
healer was able to provide the medical technologist with information. This information
was not readily available to all people. The medical technologist thought about how the
plants could be developed into modern medicines that can be manufactured and used
by people all over the world. The medical technologist had a good understanding of
chemistry, and with the help of the indigenous knowledge she obtained from the healer,
she was able to develop a new medicine.

For interest’s sake:

Researchers at North-West University, South Africa, are bringing indigenous knowledge
to young learners through puppetry. You can read more about their project at http://
news.nwu.ac.za/teachers-without-borders-reaching-out-educators.

The knowledge used during the development of technological products can be classified
into three knowledge areas (or knowledge strands). These three knowledge strands are
discussed next.

4.8 CONTENT AREAS FOR TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

There are three learning strands for technology education in the South African curriculum
(South Africa 2002b). These strands are

1. technological processing
2. systems and control
3. structures

4.8.1 Technological processing

This strand focuses on practical ways in which materials can be processed or manufactured
in order to improve their properties to make them more suitable for their intended use.
Learners use a range of materials in order to develop a sense of their properties. Learners
explore various methods of processing, namely, moulding, drying, casting, extracting,
preserving, heating, laminating and forming. These methods of processing are used to
alter the properties of materials for given purposes such as taste, texture, hardness and

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weather resistance. Learners engage in projects that establish a need in a processing

context (e.g., a doll that needs clothing or a pet that needs a house).

Processing of materials can be integrated with the structures content area or the systems
and control content area.

4.8.2 Systems and control

This content area is divided into mechanical systems (including hydraulic and pneumatic
systems) and electrical systems. The study of mechanical systems focuses on producing
movement in some way and examines how energy sources can be used to power products
to produce movement. The study of electrical systems focuses on the practical use of
electrical energy in circuits to satisfy specific needs. Learners explore the systems and
control content area through contexts like transport, lighting and household devices,
such as washing machines, fridges and fans.

4.8.3 Structures
The knowledge strand of structures focuses on practical solutions that involve supporting
loads and ways of making products that are stiff, stable and strong when forces are applied
to them. Learners can explore these issues within the contexts of housing, habitats,
shelters, containers, towers, bridges, packaging, transport, storage and so on.

These content areas will not be taught as such. Rather, this module will show you how
to find information about the topics for yourself and your learners. (Learning unit five
presents descriptions of how information technology is used for information processing).
It is more important that learners develop design skills, creativity and teamwork than
learn facts about processing, systems and structures.

We propose that technology be taught using a teaching framework similar to the one
proposed for science that organises the “big ideas” and “habits of mind and body” through
the content topics of the curriculum on beginning knowledge. The difference between
science lessons and technology lessons is that science is taught through inquiry and
technology is taught through the design process. Study table 4.2 to see how the previous
table of the integration of “big ideas” and science content (table 2.1) can be expanded to
include “design and make” ideas for the teaching of foundation phase learners (table 4.2).

An example of how the table can be used to integrate big concepts and design is given
in activity 4.8.

Activity 4.8: Materials processing and big concepts

Think about plastic bottles. What problems do they solve? Do you know how plastic bottles
are made? Watch this video through the link on myUnisa to find out more about the
manufacture and uses of plastic: http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/blowm1.htm
Now think about how plastic material is changed from plastic pellets into a bottle. What
big idea do you think this process links with best? Even though plastic bottles solve
problems for society, they are harmful to the environment, particularly the oceans, where

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 tons and tons of waste plastic float around. This plastic waste is created when we use
plastic products and then throw them away. The waste often lands up in river systems
and eventually ends up in the oceans. Watch this video through the link on myUnisa to
see the effect of plastics on the oceans: https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=sky+o
cean+rescue+videos+plastics+in+the+sea&src=IE-SearchBox&ru=%2fsearch%3fq%3ds
ky%2bocean%2brescue%2bvideos%2bplastics%2bin%2bthe%2bsea%26src%3dIE-Sea
rchBox%26FORM%3dIENTSR&view=detail&mmscn=vwrc&mid=C10EC49B1CF1E6350B
44C10EC49B1CF1E6350B44&FORM=WRVORC
The video makes the problem of plastic waste in the oceans very clear. What big idea do
you think this video links with best? The plastic in the oceans is not only a problem for
the animals that live in the oceans but also for people because people eat fish that comes
from the oceans. So, this is another technological problem. One way of solving this
problem is to recycle plastic.
Watch the following video on the recycling of plastic though the link on myUnisa:
http://www.bing.com/videos/ search?q=recycling+of+plastic+videos&qs=n&sp=-
1&pq=recycling+of+plastic+ video&sc=1-26&sk=&cvid=72A88B485A5E423F995
E42E2FE89A497&ru= %2fsearch%3fq%3drecycling%2bof%2bplastic%2bvide
os% 26qs%3dn%26form%3dQBRE%26sp%3d-1%26pq%3drecycling% 2bof%2b
plastic%2bvideo%26sc% 3d1-26%26sk%3d%26cvid%3d72A88B485A5E423
F995E42E2FE89A497& view=detail&mmscn=vwrc&mid=A01ED809CC3AE 548CCEFA01
ED809CC3AE548CCEF&FORM=WRVORC
What big idea is taught when we discuss recycling?

If you refer to table 4.2, you will notice that the science knowledge strand called matter
and materials and the technology knowledge strand called materials processing fit well
together. When learners are taught about materials such as plastic, the big idea is that
materials are changed from one form into another. So, for example, plastic pellets are
changed into plastic bottles. Plastic bottles are useful to us because we can carry around
liquid in bottles without worrying that the bottles will break and cause the liquid to be
lost. The problem for the environment comes when there are excessive amounts of
plastic bottles on landfills and in the oceans. Oceans are part of an environment; they are
ecosystems. We therefore study them in the knowledge strands of science and technology,
which fit with the big ideas of ecosystems and how humans fit into ecosystems. The big
ideas that are relevant here are conservation and cause and effect. We need to conserve
the animals in the oceans, for example, fish and we have to understand how our use of
plastic affects the environment and society.

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Table 4.2: Integration of “big ideas” science content, technology content and some
contexts for design activities
Curriculum Big ideas – content Social science key “Design and make”
topics concepts ideas for foundation
phase learners
What you need What is the main What key concepts What design and make
to teach from idea that ties the from the social activities can be used in
the curriculum new knowledge sciences will be used the given contexts?
of learners to their for the context of the
understanding of problem statement at
the technological the start of the design
world? process?
Transport How does it move?: Cause and effect Designing and making
Solar systems intuitive idea about model cars that can
physics move
How do I move?
Science strand:
energy and change
• boats that can move
and float on water
Technology strand: • mechanical systems
systems and control that can help to move
things
• pneumatic or
hydraulic systems to
move things
Soil How does it Cause and effect • Food processing:
Air and the change?: intuitive Adaptation following recipes to
atmosphere idea about make different foods
Water cycle and
chemistry • Packaging: designing
Science strand: and making different
phases of water packaging
matter and
Plants and their materials • Textiles processing:
life cycle designing and
Technology strand: making puppets,
Insects technological dolls clothes, weaved
and insect processing or knitted cloth (and
metamorphosis
using it to make
Recycling products), patterns
and prints on cloth
(for use in the making
of a product) and
pom-poms (and
using them to make a
product)
• Other technological
processes: making
water filters;
designing and
making models of
water collection and
distribution systems
• AND MANY MORE

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 Me and my How do I fit?: Relationships and • Designing and
body intuitive idea about interdependence making
I am special biology Place • model houses or
How I am the Science strand: life Cause and effect
• houses for animals
and living (e.g., mouse house,
same as my doghouse)
friends Technology strand:
structures
• Making tin-can
Senses telephones
Healthy living
• Designing and
making earmuffs
How I grow and
change
How animals
grow and
change
Solar system Where do I fit?: Conservation • Designing and
Food chains intuitive idea about Relationships and making a terrarium
ecology interdependence • Making a solar cooker
Different kinds
of animals Science strands: life • Designing and
and living; matter planting a school
How I interact and materials; garden with
with the energy and change; indigenous plants
environment and Earth and
beyond
Technology
strands: systems
and control; and
technological
processing

For interest’s sake: The website called “How stuff works” contains very good for information
about technological products. This link will take you to information about plastics:

https://science.howstuffworks.com/plastic.htm

Another website that is very useful is http://www.technologystudent.com.

It is not possible for a beginning teacher to be familiar with all the information that is
necessary for teaching technology. You must know how to link the “big ideas” with the
learning activities based on the design process. You have already learnt how this is done
for science (refer to learning unit three). We will show you in learning unit six how this
is done for technology. We will now briefly discuss how language is integrated in the
teaching of the design process.

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4.9 LANGUAGE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

Integrating language into technology education leads to conceptual development in
respect of the language used (and an understanding of scientific words). Refer to learning
unit one, where the focus was on conceptual change theory. During science activities,
learners use scientific words while the scientific meanings of the words are developed.
During design activities, learners have the opportunity to use the new scientific words,
too. Learners use language during discussions in their groups (or teams) of what the
problem is and how the problem can be solved, when they explain their drawings and
while they are building and evaluating their models or solutions. Learners will use written
language when they complete their design folios in which they record the steps of the
design process.

You can read more about how learners communicate in groups by following the link to
Eckhof (2018) on the module site on myUnisa. (A full reference is given in section 4.11).

An example of how language is used during the design process activities for building toy
cars that can travel over rough terrain is as follows: learners may have investigated the
effect of large wheels and small wheels on the movement of a car. They would have been
introduced to the terms force, push and pull and the names and functions of mechanisms,
such as wheels and axles and perhaps gears. Now, while they are designing their solutions
to the problem of moving a car over rough terrain, the words wheels, gears, force, push
and pull (and the meanings behind them) are used in their discussions and writing. The
design process lends itself to the use of new scientific words in specific contexts.

Similar learning happens for mathematics during the design process.

4.10 MATHEMATICS AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

Mathematical concepts related to space and shape and measurement are particularly well
developed in the design process. Think about designing and making a car for travelling
over rough terrain – the learners will be talking about wheels that are round (shape) and
big or small (measurement). Towards the end of the foundation phase, learners start to
measure in formal units but until then they use informal units. Nevertheless, measurement
is a science process skill that needs mathematical conceptual understanding. Measurement
is used during the precise description of the product to be made and during the making
process. The concept of space is also developed in the context of designing and building
cars. A car would be built as a three-dimensional model from a two-dimensional drawing.
It is important that learners develop these mathematical concepts from a young age,
and design activities give learners the opportunity to develop them in specific contexts.

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4.11 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
The following sources about technology education for young learners and the design
process are available from the Unisa Library:
Eckhoff, A. 2018. Creative investigations in early engineering & technology. Lewisville, NC:
Gryphon House.
English, L & Moore, T (eds). 2018. Early engineering learning. Singapore: Springer.
Johnson, CC, Peters-Burton, EE & Moore, TJ (eds). 2015. STEM road map: a framework for
integrated STEM education. New York: Routledge. ISBN: 9781138804227
South Africa. Department of Basic Education. 2002b. National curriculum statement:
technology education. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.

The following sections of books are available through links on the module site on myUnisa:
Eckhoff, A. 2018. Technology: communication and collaboration, in Creative investigations
in early engineering & technology, by A Eckhoff. Lewisville. NC: Gryphon House:88–104.
Royce, CA. 2016. Teaching through trade books: design dilemmas, in Bringing STEM to
the elementary classroom, edited by L Froschauer. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press:19–30.
Van Meeteren, BD. 2018. The importance of developing engineering habits of mind in
early engineering education, in Early engineering learning, edited by L English & T
Moore. Singapore: Springer:37–52.

4.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Choose one problem statement for a technology education project for foundation phase
learners. Explain how the learners, while working through the design process to solve
the problem as explained in the South African curriculum (South Africa 2011a; 2011b), will
develop the ability to

4.1 identify and solve problems and to make decisions using critical and creative thinking
4.2 work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team
4.3 organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively
4.4 collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information
4.5 communicate effectively using visual, symbolic and/or language skills in various
modes
4.6 use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards
the environment and the health of others
4.7 demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising
that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation

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4.13 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to the theoretical underpinnings of
technology education in the South African curriculum. After a short discussion on what
technology and technology education are, the problem-solving nature of technology was
described. The steps of the design process and the problem-solving process, respectively,
were compared to show similarities. The difference between the two problem-solving
processes lies in the nature of the problem identified. The design process leads to the
solution of a technological problem by means of a technological product. This unit
described how technology education develops creative thinking in learners through
the design process, particularly the drawing of ideas. Further points were presented on
how, in technology education, language and mathematics are integrated in the context
of a problem.

In the following unit you will be introduced to information technology for foundation
phase teaching and learning.

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Learning unit 5
Digital technology

Learning outcomes

On completion of this learning unit, you should be able to

• describe the terms ICT, Fourth Industrial Revolution and digital childhood
• explain the concept digital literacy
• differentiate between technology as a subject and digital technology
• identify and assess a variety of technological resources for the early years
• investigate the range of skills needed for the 21st century
• illustrate the use of the TPACK framework in technology-based teaching and learning
• argue for or against the use of digital technology in the early years

Key concepts

y ICT: information and communications technology

y Fourth Industrial Revolution
y digital childhood
y digital literacy
y digital tools
y 21st-century skills
y TPACK: technological pedagogical content knowledge

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous learning units were about teaching technology as a subject. This learning
unit specifically deals with digital technology, also known as ICT, in the early years of a
person’s life. Technology, and now we are referring to digital technology, in this age is
everywhere and is changing the way that we live, work and play. This means that new
knowledge and skills are needed to meet the demands of living in the 21st century
and through the Fourth Industrial Revolution. So, as a future teacher, you need to find
innovative ways of teaching, which should include digital technology.

This learning unit will help you to understand the era in which we are living, which is known
as the Fourth Industrial Revolution. It will also help you to develop an understanding of the
concepts digital technology and digital literacy. It contains some examples of technological
resources for the foundation phase. While you study this unit, you will investigate some
of the skills that are needed for the 21st century. Finally, you will learn about the TPACK
framework, which is a useful tool for understanding the elements involved in teaching
and learning with technology.

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5.2 THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (4IR)

Various labels and definitions are used to describe the innovations of today’s new
socioeconomic era, such as the digital age, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the internet
of things/everything, or the industrial internet. In the last few years, the idea of the Fourth
Industrial Revolution has been suggested by the World Economic Forum (WEF) to refer to
the drastic and accelerating development of technologies and their impact on society at
large. Klaus Schwab, the founder and executive chairman of the WEF, wrote the underlying
paper for the annual meeting of the WEF in Davos in 2016, in which he profiles what he
calls the Fourth Industrial Revolution:

We stand on the brink of a technological revolution that will fundamentally alter the
way we live, work, and relate to one another. In its scale, scope, and complexity, the
transformation will be unlike anything humankind has experienced before. We do
not yet know just how it will unfold, but one thing is clear: the response to it must
be integrated and comprehensive, involving all stakeholders of the global polity,
from the public and private sectors to academia and civil society. (Schwab 2016)

According to the World Economic Forum, the 4IR has been progressing since the start of
the 21st century (Schwab 2016). It is a revolutionary change characterised by the ubiquitous
and mobile internet; cheaper, smaller and stronger sensors; and artificial and machine
learning. In the context of Industry 4.0, the 4IR dawned through the use of cyber-physical
systems (CPSs), the internet of things (IOT) and services (Jazdi 2014). Industry 4.0 cannot
be defined well, but it includes the following: smart factories, cyber-physical systems,
self-organisation, new systems in distribution and procurement, new systems in the
development of products and services, adaptation to human needs and corporate social
responsibility (Lee et al 2018).

Peters (2017) pictures the next industrial revolution as succeeding the IT revolution of
the 1970s, which automated production, speculating that a fourth revolution based
on what he calls “cyber-physical systems” is the next development paradigm – first an
era dominated by steam and mechanical production, what we commonly know as the
Industrial Revolution, followed by the mass production paradigm that dominated the
electric age, then IT and, finally, the era of cyber-physical systems, which can be seen as
a distinct era because of its velocity, scope and system impact. This is the age of global
connections that have the power to transform entire systems of “production, management
and governance” (Peters 2017:3).

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Figure 5.1: Industry 4.0

Throughout history, technology has generated the promise of a revolutionary society

and a revolutionary change in education by virtue of technological advances. The future
promises more of the same technological progression, according to Mishra, Koehler and
Henriksen (2011:23). Furthermore, Codrington and Grant-Marshall (2011:xiii) attest that it
has never before been as important to understand how individuals view the world as it is
now. Hannaway and Steyn (2016) examine how this cohort of foundation phase learners
make sense of their world and how they fit in or stand out from others in respect of the
way in which they learn and are taught. Lee et al (2018) state that the 4IR is already here,
but we are really at the beginning of a radical transformation. We are in an emergent
stage where we can start to see the development and application of new technologies.
The best approach to follow in responding to the revolution in technology is to adopt
a methodology of design thinking, particularly one that focuses on developing and
exploiting technologies that are people centred.

Activity 5.1

Read the article that can be found at this link on the module site on myUnisa:
https://www.fin24.com/Finweek/Featured/the-implications-of-having-an-industrial-
revolution-in-one-generation-20180409
Reflect on what the Fourth Industrial Revolution will mean for you as a foundation phase
teacher. How will you “keep up” with the learners in your class who use digital technology?

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5.3 DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL CHILDHOOD

Activity 5.2

Quickly write down the different digital devices you own. Now reflect on the following
questions: What do you use these devices for? How do you use these devices? What skills
do you need to use these devices? How do they make your life easier?

You may have mentioned that you use technology on a personal level to share ideas,
to communicate with friends and family, to make purchases, to apply for jobs and to search
for information. Technology is also prevalent in the professional or business world – it is
used to create new ideas, services and products, to collaborate globally, to communicate
and to market and manage businesses. While technology has made a substantial impact
on life in general and mainstream business, “most educational systems operate much as
they did at the beginning of the twentieth century” (Binkley et al 2012:v).

Think about the answer you gave regarding the different devices you own and it will be
clear that technology, specifically electronic technology, is transforming the ways in which
people work, live and play. The world is connected and basically borderless, and learning
can happen wherever and whenever. Connectivity infrastructure and cheaper computers
are becoming more common. School systems around the world are developing the ability
to provide learning opportunities to learners “anytime, anywhere” (Hawkins 2010). Several
terms are used when digital technology in education is discussed. A common term that
is used is information and communications technology. Crawford (1997) defines ICT as an
international network in which the contribution of knowledge and ideas is shared in order
to connect people by using communication such as cell phones and computers. In this
unit, we will use the term digital technology, which refers to technological tools such as
the internet, devices, applications, social networking and the like that teachers use for
teaching (and learning) and learners use for learning. Technology as a tool is the basis
for teaching and learning in the foundation phase, yet other aspects, such as pedagogy
and content, are key elements of the term digital technology. You will understand what
this means when we look at the TPACK framework later in this unit.

Let us first briefly look at generational theory, which proposes that the era in which a
person is born affects how she/he views the world. Think about it: our value systems are
shaped in the first decade or so of our lives, by our families, friends, communities, significant
events and the general era in which we are born. All people have values, expectations
and an attitude that is based on what life was like when they grew up. Moreover, and
very basically, “the idea behind generation theory is not to pour everyone into a mould;
rather your age, your generation is an attitude” (Codrington & Grant-Marshall 2011:3).

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Figure 5.2: Generation terminology

Children born in the current generation, known as Generation Alpha, never knew a
world without screens. They were born as the first iPad was born – in 2010 – and as such,
their lives will be seamlessly integrated into technology. From the moment they could
see, screens were all around them, much more so than even children who are a decade
older. Screens took photos of them from the second they were born. Screens were placed
in front of them as a babysitting device. Screens were used at home and at school, for
entertainment and as education. At every turn there has been a screen and they know
innately how to interact with it. In many cases, children are immersed in experiences
with digital technologies before their formal schooling years, and they come to school
equipped with an already developing range of skills and experiences (Arnott 2017).

Activity 5.3

Think about a “technology” that came into being when you were a child. What impact
did it have on your childhood? Did it have an impact on education? How did it influence
your learning?

Computers, for example, may have influenced your childhood. Computers may not have
influenced your education as a young child, but many developments occurred in respect
of computers from your early childhood until the time you left school. In that time, you
may have, without actually realising it, gone from knowing how to use a computer to
using one for learning.

This brings us to the next point: technologies are not new. Even though we think digital
technology is new, it is important to remember that technologies have always been
created and therefore all generations have had a technology that influenced their era.

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Arnott (2017) explains that new technologies affect the physical, social, emotional,
psychological, educational and learning “environments” that surround children.

At this point, it is important that we understand the term digital childhood. Arnott (2017),
a prominent researcher in the field of digital technology in the UK, makes the following
observations in explaining the concept digital childhood:

• Definitions of digital resources are fruitless because the evolution of these resources
is too fast-paced for such definitions to be meaningful.
• We should focus on the term childhood since the digital era was just another period
in history.
• There is a shift in the way children experience the world; how children interact with
physical, social and cultural spaces in contemporary society; and how learning and
play are transformed in the dynamic and fluid context.

Instead of trying to define what digital resources are, we should look at them from the
viewpoint of a digital childhood, which is the context in which children are living, learning
and experiencing.

So, what do these terms, digital technology and digital childhood, mean for you as a teacher
living in an era characterised by constantly emerging technologies? These definitions and
the rest of this unit will hopefully give you some understanding of what it means to teach
the present cohort of digitally literate children and how you can use digital technology
in your teaching.

5.4 DIGITAL LITERACY AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS

As mentioned earlier in this unit, learning can happen anywhere and anytime. The
ability to find, evaluate, create and share information using electronic devices and the
internet is therefore important in the 21st century. Twenty-first century skills are often
defined as flexible problem-solving, communication and collaboration (Binkley et al
2012), intrapersonal skills of self-management, time-management, self-regulation and
adaptability (Koenig 2011:2) and process-oriented skills like teamwork and flexibility
(Noss 2012:3). According to Brooks-Young (2007:10), “mastering these skills is the first
step toward learning how to make effective use of technology as a tool for teaching and
learning.” In an attempt to define digital literacy, Belshaw (2012:31) posits that, although
unclear, digital literacy is simply a set of basic skills in a digital world. In this module, the
term digital literacy refers to the capabilities that an individual possesses to teach and/or
to learn in a digital age.

Griffin, Care and McGaw (2012) argue that many countries are moving from an industrial-
based economy to an information-based economy and that education systems must
respond to this change. In the industrial age, there was a strong focus on the development,
distribution and consumption of products, and employment was classified accordingly.
Since then, the focus has shifted to classifying employment in terms of the development,
distribution and consumption of information. Educational outcomes therefore need to
be adapted to meet the demands of new ways of working, thinking, learning and living.
In addition, Laurillard et al (2009:2) argue that what and how students learn have been

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affected by the role that education has in preparing individuals for work. Resnick (2009)
observes that young children “construct stories and castles through play and artwork
together, they establish and cultivate their abilities to collaborate and think creatively,
exactly the skills that are needed for accomplishment in the 21st century.”

The Partnership for 21st Century Learning (P21) developed a framework for 21st-century
learning in 2007. This framework includes: learner outcomes, such as the 4 Cs (critical
thinking, communication, collaboration and creativity); life and career skills; key subjects;
and information, media and technology skills. The framework also accounts for various
support systems, such as standards and assessment, curriculum and instruction, professional
development and learning environments. All components of this framework are
interconnected in the process of 21st-century teaching and learning. P21 advocates for the
integration of 21st-century skills (including critical thinking, collaboration, communication,
creativity, technological literacy and social-emotional development) in early learning
experiences for young children, allowing them to develop the skills they need not only
when they enter school but also in other aspects of life. In 2017, P21 developed a framework
for 21st-century learning for early childhood. The framework provides adults who work
with young children with practical guidance, including specific examples of 21st-century
skills and knowledge in relation to early learners. The various skills that young children
should develop for the 21st century and that are covered in the framework are:

• creativity and innovation

• critical thinking and problem-solving
• communication and collaboration
• flexibility and adaptability
• initiative and self-direction
• social and cross-cultural skills
• productivity and accountability
• leadership and responsibility
• information and media literacy

Activity 5.4

Go to the following website to look at the 21st Century Learning for Early
Childhood Framework: http://www.battelleforkids.org/learning-hub/
learning-hub-item/21st-century-learning-for-early-childhood-framework
Pay attention to the various outcomes and their definitions, as well as the charts of skills
and outcomes. These charts show the adaptations for early learning for the age group
0–5 years. The left side of each section sets out the skills and outcomes and the right side
contains examples of behaviours in respect of young children. Now extend the examples
of behaviours to how you think foundation phase learners will display these skills. See
the example below:

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EL SKILLS AND OUTCOMES – COMMUNICATION

TODDLER/ PRESCHOOL/ KINDERGARTEN FOUNDATION
EARLY PREKINDERGARTEN (5–6 YEARS) PHASE
PRESCHOOL (2–3 (3–4 YEARS)
YEARS)
Uses Uses language Uses language Describes an Describes
spoken to share a story to repeat stories, event or a an event or
and or to describe songs or rhymes story and then a story by
written an event or an or to relate to draws a picture writing about
language action experiences about it it
for a
variety of
purposes

You may have noticed that the skills and outcomes “fit” well with science and technology,
specifically the process skills and the problem-solving nature of the various learning areas.

5.5 DIGITAL RESOURCES FOR THE FOUNDATION PHASE

The website teacha! is a digital marketplace that has thousands of resources made by
teachers for teachers. Follow this link to find resources for the foundation phase: https://
teachingresources.co.za/foundation-phase-resources/ is a digital marketplace that has
thousands of resources made by teachers for teachers.

The following sites are zero rated by Vodacom, which means that no data charges apply
for Vodacom users (i.e., all content and resources on the website can be browsed and
downloaded for free):

• Vodacom has partnered with the Department of Basic Education, Microsoft, Mindset
Learn and a number of other stakeholders to provide a teacher development initiative
with a view to improving the quality of instruction in all subjects at every level:
http://www.digitalclassroom.co.za/digitalclassroom/
• Another Vodacom initiative is the Vodacom e-school, where you can find CAPS-
aligned content in all 11 official languages: https://myvodacom.secure. vodacom.co.za/
vodacom/services/vodacom-e-school

5.6 TPACK
Shulman (1986) introduced the notion of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which
went beyond knowledge of subject matter only and included knowledge about how
specific content can be taught. He held that there were two areas of focus, which were
being taught separately. The one area was teachers’ subject matter knowledge and the
other was pedagogy. PCK is then the “area” where these two types of knowledge meet.
If we use science as the example, the subject matter would be the content of science
(concepts, learning areas, etc), the pedagogy would be the methods for teaching science
(the inquiry method) and the PCK would be an inquiry-based approach whereby young

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children are taught about floating and sinking. Using PCK as a starting point, Koehler and
Mishra (2005) noted the importance of understanding effective teaching with technology.
Within the context of a technological environment, Koehler and Mishra (2005) recreated
Shulman’s idea of PCK into the concept of technological pedagogical content knowledge.
(Refer to figure 5.1.)

Figure 5.3: Conceptualisation of TPACK framework (reproduced by permission of the

publisher, © 2012 by tpack.org)

They believe that there are three primary constituents of teaching with technology
– content, pedagogy and technology – and the interaction between these bodies of
knowledge are essential to the framework (Koehler & Mishra 2009). At the centre of
the framework is the interaction of all three bodies of knowledge, which is known as
technological pedagogical content knowledge. TPACK essentially consists of seven
knowledge areas, as explained below:

• Technological knowledge (TK) refers to an understanding of the various technologies

that exist (Schmidt et al 2009:125). It includes knowledge of standard technologies
and more advanced technologies, as well as knowledge of how to use technological
tools and resources (Koehler & Mishra 2009; Mishra et al 2011).
• Content knowledge (CK) may be defined as teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter,
according to Mishra et al (2011:23). Shulman (1986) describes CK as knowledge of

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theories, concepts and conceptual frameworks, as well as knowledge relating to

acquired ways of establishing knowledge.
• Pedagogical knowledge (PK) is teachers’ knowledge about the practices and processes
of teaching and learning and includes knowledge of lesson planning, classroom
management and assessment methods (Koehler & Mishra 2009; Mishra et al 2011).
• Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is knowledge about how to integrate pedagogy
and content effectively to bring about better teaching practice in a specific content
area (Shulman 1986; Schmidt et al 2009). PCK represents knowledge of common
misconceptions and likely preconceptions learners bring with them to the classroom,
according to Archambault and Crippen (2009).
• Technological content knowledge (TCK) refers to technology usage that can change
the way that learners practice concepts in a certain content area (Schmidt et al 2009).
Koehler and Mishra (2009:65) state that “understanding the impact of technology on
the practices and knowledge of a given discipline is critical to developing appropriate
technological tools for educational purposes.”
• Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) refers to teachers’ knowledge about
the affordances and constraints of technology as an enabler of different teaching
approaches (Mishra & Koehler 2006). Leendertz et al (2013) suggest that technology
should be connected to pedagogy to add value to teaching and learning and, therefore,
it cannot be regarded as being context free.
• Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) refers to teachers’ knowledge
and understanding of the interplay between CK, PK and TK when using technology
for teaching and learning (Schmidt et al 2009). It includes an understanding of
the complexity of relationships between students, teachers, content, practices and
technologies (Archambault & Crippen 2009).

The reason why we brought this framework to your attention is to guide you on how to
use digital technology when you teach young learners. Successful teaching is not just
about using new digital tools. You must also consider what you are teaching with the
aid of digital tools and how you use those tools. You should ask yourself the following
questions with respect to each component of TPACK:

• Technological knowledge: With what do foundation phase learners learn and foundation
phase teachers teach?
• Pedagogical knowledge: How do foundation phase teachers use technology to teach?
• Content knowledge: What do I need to know to be able to teach? What content are the
learners supposed to learn? How will technology help me to find, gather and become
up to date with content for teaching and learning in the foundation phase?

Activity 5.5

Think of an activity that you would do with learners using digital technology. Now
consider the TPACK framework described above. Reflect on whether or not you included
all the components of TPACK when you decided on an activity.

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In this activity, you should have chosen a specific activity using digital technology,
for example, using a tablet to … or watching a video for … . Thereafter, you should
have reviewed the TPACK framework and checked whether you had given thought to
every component in planning the activity. If you gave attention to a specific type of
knowledge, why? If you left out a specific type of knowledge, why and what can you do
to pay attention to it in the planning of activities in future?

5.7 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Use the additional online resources to practise the application of your new knowledge and
understanding of the content of this learning unit. Your e-tutors could use the information
in these additional resources as examples. Moreover, assessment activities, such as
assignments and exams, could contain references to these resources in instances where
you will be required to discuss and reflect on your new knowledge and understanding.

Read the article, “How ICT resources can support learning at primary level” by Rebecca
Jenkin. She mentions various technologies that can support the teaching of literacy.
Think about which technologies you think could enhance your teaching. Follow this link:
http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/pluginfile.php/5902/mod_ resource/content/1/
How_ICT_resources_can_support_learning_at_primary_level.pdf

Read the article on technology-based teaching and learning in the foundation

phase that can be found at this link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/
03004430.2016.1186669

5.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

5.1 Write down your own definitions of digital technology, digital childhood and digital
literacy.
5.2 Research various technological resources that you could use in your teaching.
5.3 What are (the) 21st-century skills?
5.4 Illustrate how the TPACK framework is applied to your teaching and learning.

5.9 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to the concepts digital technology and digital
literacy and the use of digital technologies in the early years. You also learnt about the
skills that are necessary for the 21st century and the elements of the TPACK framework
in relation to technology-based teaching and learning.

As a final thought, consider this quote: “Technology will never replace great teachers, but
technology in the hands of great teachers is transformational.”

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Learning unit 6
Planning for technology teaching and assessment

In the previous learning unit you were introduced to information technology and how it
can be used in teaching and learning.

Learning outcomes

After you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to
• identify and interpret technology process skills in design activities of the technological
problem-solving approach
• cite appropriate examples to demonstrate an understanding of concepts and process
skills relating to technology
• analyse and interpret the technological problem-solving teaching approach and the
integration of mathematics, language and creativity teaching approach
• identify suitable contexts for the application of the technological problem-solving
approach and the integration of mathematics, language and creativity approach
• compile research reports in which you demonstrate the ability to design your own
practice based on the technological problem-solving approach and the integration
of mathematics, language and creativity approach
• develop theme plans according to the technological problem-solving approach and
the integration of mathematics, language and creativity approach
• apply your understanding of the assessment of technology education in the
foundation phase

Key concepts

y design process skills

y theme plan based on the stages of the design process
y integration within a theme plan based on the stages of the design process
y assessment in technology education

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this learning unit is to enable you, as a student teacher, to:

• reflect on the different design process skills and how to develop plans and formulate
strategies for teaching these skills to foundation phase learners
• analyse teaching plans and strategies in respect of their suitability in promoting the
development of design process skills among foundation phase learners

The design process and its problem-solving and creative nature were discussed in learning
unit four. Learning unit five described the nature of teaching with computers and other

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technological devices. In this learning unit, the theoretical side of technology education
is applied to actual teaching, specifically the development of learner activities and
assessments that focus on information-gathering skills, problem-solving skills and creativity
(refer to figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1: The design process is central to the development of creativity, problem-solving
skills and information-gathering skills

6.2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLANNING DESIGN ACTIVITIES

In this section we will describe how design activities provide the means for learning
about “big ideas” and developing habits of body and mind. Refer to table 4.2, where
curriculum topics are set out alongside possible “big ideas” and examples are given of
design process activities for young learners. The table shows neither the content areas
for technology education (structures, processing, and systems and control) nor habits
of body or mind. We will now consider the transport-related example given in table 4.2
and show how the knowledge strands of technology and habits of body and mind are
developed through the design process. Table 6.1 is a copy of the first row of table 4.2.
While you study table 6.1, revise terms such as intuitive ideas, science knowledge strands,
technology knowledge strands and cause and effect that were dealt with in learning units
one and two, and then answer the questions in activity 6.1.

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Table 6.1: Considerations for design activities based on building a sailing boat
Topic Intuitive ideas, and Big ideas from Example of a
science and technology social science design and make
knowledge strands beginning activity
knowledge
Transport Intuitive idea: how does it Cause and effect Designing and
move? making boats that
Science: energy and change can move and float
on water
Technology: systems and
control

Activity 6.1: Learning in the topic “transport”

Why do you think the topic “transport” can be described as one in which learners will
develop their intuitive ideas about how things move?
How is the topic “transport” connected to the science strand “energy and change”?
How is the topic “transport” connected to the technology strand “systems and control”?
Why do you think a learner activity such as designing and making a sailboat could develop
learners’ understanding of cause and effect?

When young learners push toy cars or see how toy sailboats move in the wind, they
experience how things move. They see that a force must be applied (by a hand that pushes
a toy car or the wind that blows a toy sailboat). Without this push or pull, there would
be no movement. Young children develop this concept of movement, namely, that an
object moves when a force is applied to it, when they play with toy cars very early on (if
they are given the opportunity to play with cars). This is known as intuitive knowledge.

When there is movement, energy must be available. The hand that pushes a toy car
transfers energy from the person’s body to the toy car. Wind energy causes a sailboat to
move. The topic “transport” is therefore linked to energy and change.

Machines like cars and boats have mechanisms, such as wheels and pulleys, which form
part of mechanical systems. Therefore, cars and boats are related to systems and control.

Lastly, there is evidence of cause and effect. The cause of movement could be the push of
a toy car by a young child or the wind on the sail of a sailboat. The effect is the movement
of the toy car or the sailboat. Table 6.1 shows that if you teach topics in which there are
learner-centred scientific investigations and technology design activities, the learning of
the “big ideas” can be planned.

Table 6.2 is an example of how the topic “water transport” can be used to plan design
activities for learners. The planned activities revolve around designing and making a

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sailboat such as the dhow3 used by the people off the east coast of Africa. This focus was
chosen because it links with the transport topic of the curriculum and the indigenous
knowledge of African people. The design activities listed start with a problem based on
transporting people and goods on water. Before learners start working on the design
process activities, the teacher should find out what they know about water transport.
What they know or don’t know will influence how they relate to the problem. The teacher
must consider the cultural-historical aspects of learning, as described in section A.

In table, 6.2, the activities are sequenced according to the design stages described in
learning unit four. The table links habits of body and mind to some of the activities. Study
table 6.2 and then consider the questions in activity 6.2.

3 The dhow has been used for many years by African people off the east coast of Africa,
particularly off the coast of Mozambique. Knowledge of boats and sails has been passed
down from generation to generation and can be considered indigenous knowledge. It is
important that teachers show learners that problems encountered in society have been
solved since the earliest times. There are many examples of indigenous knowledge that
can be used to start design activities for clothing, food, mechanical systems (like sails and
pulleys) and structures.

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 Table 6.2: Considerations of habits of body and mind in design activities for young children based on water transport
Design Shortened explanation of Examples of learner activities that can be done Habits of body Habits of
stages design stage under a topic, e.g. transport mind
A problem is identified and The learners listen to a story about a family who have to visualisers
stated. move their belongings from one place to another along conjecturers
the coast.

problem
Identify a
The learners gather data and After the problem, that is, moving people and goods visualisers
information, grasp concepts along the coast, has been stated, the learners investigate experimenters
and gain insight. They find out it by gathering information about different kinds of sails describers
about new techniques to solve on different kinds of boats (e.g., the dhow found off the
technological problems. They coast of Mozambique and other sailboats throughout
use information-processing history) from various sources. (Refer to addendum 6.1.)
skills.
The learners watch a video about the sails of sailboats –
https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=3oODen08FGU

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The learners investigate different sail systems (refer to proprioception4
addendum 6.2) (science investigation or simulation).

Investigate
They investigate how pulley systems work (possibly
through simulations, e.g., https://interactives.ck12.org/
simulations/physics/block-and-tackle/app/index.html).
Pulleys are used to lift sails. (Refer to addendum 6.3.)
The learners investigate how pulleys work. (Refer to
addendum 6.4.)
They write short paragraphs about what they have learnt
in their investigations.

4 Refer to learning unit two for an explanation of proprioception. When learners build and move pulleys, they move their bodies in space, which they are
LSK3701/1

not aware of.

 Design Shortened explanation of Examples of learner activities that can be done Habits of body Habits of
stages design stage under a topic, e.g. transport mind
A design brief and design The learners draw their ideas for making sailboats proprioception5 representers
specifications are written. individually. Thereafter, in groups, they choose or inventors
Possible solutions are drawn develop the best solution for moving goods and people visualisers
on paper. Several possible along the coast. Reasons must be given according to
solutions are considered the specifications. The learners should preferably draw conjecturers

Design
(teamwork). The best solution their own designs. (Sometimes learners can be given
that satisfies the specifications model patterns of boats to make. Facilitating the making
is selected. process is an easier option but is not technically correct
according to the design process.)
The learners use tools and The learners make model sailboats. proprioception reasoning with
materials to develop a solution – sense of invariance
to the identified problem. This position and
step involves building, testing motion of the

Make

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and modifying a product or a limbs when
system according to the design handling tools
specifications.

5 When learners draw their designs, they are unconsciously aware of where their hands are and how they move them in space.
 Design Shortened explanation of Examples of learner activities that can be done Habits of body Habits of
stages design stage under a topic, e.g. transport mind
The learners evaluate actions, The learners evaluate their boats according to the describers
decisions and results against specifications, e.g., do the boats float and do the sails conjecturers
the specifications and allow the boats to move in “wind” (from a fan)?
constraints throughout the The learners write a short paragraph to explain the
design process. Changes or

Evaluate
evaluation of the sailboats they built, as well as possible
improvements should be improvements that can be made. Evaluation is based on
suggested. the design brief and/or specifications.
The learners communicate The learners’ drawings and written work, such as describers
their investigations, design the design brief, the design specifications and their
drawings and plans for making evaluation reports, form part of their design folios.
the product or system and
evaluating it by means of a

Communicate
design folio.

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LSK3701/1
Do the following activity to get a clear understanding of the learner activities described
above.

Activity 6.2: Learning in the design process of making a sailboat

Read the following addenda:

Addendum 6.1: what is a dhow?
Addendum 6.2: classification of sailboats
Addendum 6.3: pulleys and pulley systems
Addendum 6.4: pulley activities for young children
After you have read the addenda, you might understand the learning activities set out
in table 6.2 better. Now consider the following questions:

• Which planned activity focuses on indigenous knowledge systems? Give a reason for
your answer.
• How do you think proprioception is developed in the planned activities in table 4.2?
• Look at the column that lists the habits of mind of good problem-solvers. You will
find that all the habits of mind will be present in the design process if the process is
followed properly as a teaching strategy. Can you define each of the habits of mind?
How, do you think, are the habits of mind linked to the activities in the table?
• In which activities do you think creativity will be developed, and why?
• In which activities will mathematical concepts be developed, and why?
• In which activities will language be developed, and why?

You previously learnt that proprioception is based on our perception of the movement of
our bodies. Whenever learners manipulate equipment (such as in science investigations),
draw (such as in design activities) and make products or models (such as in the making
stage of the design process), they use their bodies in space.

You should be able to define each of the habits of mind of good problem-solvers and to
state why you think one of those habits is developed in an activity. We will only describe
the habit of mind of a visualiser. This habit is evident in the drawing of design ideas. In
the case of the sailboat activity, learners will have investigated different sail systems (and
possibly pulleys that lift and lower sails, too) and should then proceed to design their own
sailboats by drawing them. They are expected to be able to visualise the sails they will
draw and then to draw them on paper. Design drawings also require creativity because
even if one has background knowledge of, for example, sails, each problem has its own
constraints that must be worked with. These constraints will require learners to think of
new ways of doing the activity.

During all stages of the design process, learners use language to describe their learning,
such as writing short sentences, describing their drawings and talking with their teammates
when making their boat. Mathematical concepts such as scale are developed when
learners draw or build models of real products. The concept of measurement should
be developed when learners make measurements while they are making their models.

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You can read more about pulleys by following these links:

http://www.technologystudent.com/gears1/pulley1.htm https://www.instructables.com/
id/Basic-Pulley-Mechanisms/

A teacher’s guide to pulleys and other simple machines together with learner worksheets
and good diagrams can be found at the following link: https://www.demco.com/webprd_
demco/images2/related_docs/knex_leversandpulleys_tguide.pdf

A pulley simulation where you can change the weight, the force applied and the distance
to lift can be found at this link: http://www.compassproject.net/sims/pulley.html

Follow these links for ideas on teaching the design process:

https://thehomeschoolscientist.com/100-engineering-projects-kids/ https://
thehomeschoolscientist.com/build-a-wind-car-engineering-challenge/ https://www.
facebook.com/InventorsOfTomorrow/ https://www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/
cub_sailcars_activity1

This website provides information on science and technology apps for young children:
https://thehomeschoolscientist.com/10-best-stem-apps-kids/

6.3 DEVELOPING A THEME USING DESIGN PROCESS

ACTIVITIES
Let’s think about the design of a doghouse. If you are developing learner activities about
how animals grow and change and how we should care for our pets by feeding them
and giving them clean water, the learners may say that pets need to be kept warm, clean
and dry. A problem statement could be made about the need to build a house for a pet
dog that will keep the pet dry and warm. Remember to start the teaching of the theme
by finding out from the learners how many of them have pets at home. You may want
to keep a pet such as a hamster for the time that you are dealing with the topic of caring
about pets since many learners may not have experience of caring for pets.

Refer back to table 4.2 where the “beginning knowledge” topics in CAPS: Life Skills for
the foundation phase (South Africa 2011a) are classified according to the science strands.
Table 6.3 has been copied from the relevant row of table 4.2. Note that the “big ideas”
that should form the basis of our discussion are relationships and interdependence, place
and cause and effect. We will focus on relationships and interdependence.

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Table 6.3: Considerations for design activities based on building a house for a pet dog
Topic Intuitive ideas, and Big ideas from Example
science and technology social science of a design
knowledge strands beginning and make
knowledge activity

How Intuitive idea about Relationships Designing

animals biology: how do I fit? and and making
grow and Science strand: life and interdependence a model
change living Place house for a
dog
Technology strand: Cause and effect
structures

Activity 6.5: Theoretical considerations for building a model doghouse

Why do you think the topic “how animals grow and change” can be described as one in
which learners will develop their intuitive ideas about biology?
How is the topic “how animals grow and change” connected to the science strand “life
and living”?
How is an activity where learners design and build a model of a doghouse connected to
the technology strand “structures”?
Why do you think a learner activity such as designing and building a model of a doghouse
could develop learners’ understanding of relationships?

How animals (and humans) grow and change throughout their lifetimes is one of the
fundamental “big ideas” of biology (or life sciences). The big ideas of biology are found in
the knowledge strand “life and living”. Children will experience growth and change within
their own bodies and will notice it in their pets or other animals in their environment.
Puppies become big dogs and older dogs cannot run as fast as younger dogs. Learners
see these changes in their grannies and grandpas. Learners also see that there are
relationships between people. For example, learners rely on their parents and caregivers
to feed them and to keep them safe. There is interdependence: on the one hand, children
rely on their caregivers for guidance and love and, on the other hand, their caregivers
need help around the house. The same applies to humans and their pet dogs. Dogs can
protect us and be our friends, but they are dependent on us for food and shelter. That is
why a design and build activity for a model of a doghouse will lead to an understanding
of the big idea about relationships and interdependence.

Let us now consider a theme plan for learner activities for the design and construction of
a model of a doghouse. This theme plan is based on the technological problem-solving
steps (or design steps). The theme plan is given in table 6.4.

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Table 6.4: Theme plan for learner activities developed for the design and building
of a doghouse
Design stage Explanation of activity Activity
Identify need The teacher sets the scene Invite a guest speaker from the SPCA
or problem and identifies the need to come and talk to the learners about
or problem through a looking after their pets.
story, a TV programme, Have a campaign to collect food and
a newspaper article or blankets for homeless dogs.
a community event. Let the learners draw and colour a
front cover for their design folios (art
activity).
Each learner should write the
problem and a design brief in her/his
own words.
Investigate The learners gather Investigation 1: What are the best
information/data, materials for insulating a doghouse?
brainstorm ideas, discuss (science investigation)
and share ideas, find Investigation 2: What are the best
information in books, watch materials for waterproofing a
videos/YouTube and/or doghouse? (science investigation)
listen to guest speakers. Investigation 3: What is the best
3D shape for building a doghouse?
(mathematical investigation into
rectangular and triangular pyramids
and prisms)
All investigations should
be communicated in the learners’
design folios (or through posters).

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Design stage Explanation of activity Activity
Design and The learners develop initial The learners write down the
plan ideas and choose the specifications for a doghouse (e.g., big
best one, giving reasons, enough, have a door, be warm and be
develop ideas on paper and waterproof).
experiment with ideas. They draw their own ideas for
a doghouse, using not only the
knowledge they obtained from
the investigations but also their
imagination (shape and materials
should be considered).
The drawings should be included in
the learners’ design folios.
(The teacher may show the learners
how to draw 3D shapes in 2D
diagrams).
The learners choose their best idea
and give reasons for their choice.
Organise and The learners plan the The learners work in groups from this
make activities (in time sequence) point.
and then organise the tools The groups develop a plan of how the
and materials they need; doghouse models will be made, using
they build the doghouse their best ideas.
models, which involves They interpret the drawings of
the actions of measuring, the best ideas while making the
marking, cutting, joining doghouse models. (They use
and finishing off (or cardboard, scissors and glue to
moulding) (flow diagram). make the models. Insulating and
waterproofing materials should also
be used).
Each learner describes the making
process in her/his design folio.
Evaluate The learners test the The learners evaluate the doghouse
product, product against the set models against the specifications
process or specifications, using, for listed.
system example, a checklist. The evaluations and ideas on
They reflect on the process improvements should be included in
and write a short report on the learners’ design folios.
how the process could have
been made more efficient.
Communication Learners must communicate The activities are described in each
in oral, written or graphical stage.
form in all stages of the
process.

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Let us consider the investigations that learners carry out in a theme plan.

6.3.1 Investigations during the design process

Consider the following information and questions about investigation activities developed
for the theme plan for designing and building a model of a doghouse.

Activity 6.6: Investigations into materials for building a model doghouse

Investigation 1: What are the best materials for insulating a doghouse?

Study the lesson plan that is available at this website through the link on myUnisa: https://
www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/the_best_insulator
Why is it important that an activity on heat insulation be developed in this theme plan?
Investigation 2: What are the best materials for waterproofing a doghouse?
Study the interesting and unique learner activity on waterproofing that can be found at
this link on myUnisa: http://www.science-sparks.com/waterproofing/
Why is it important that an activity on waterproofing be developed in this theme plan?
Investigation 3: What is the best 3D shape for building a doghouse?
Study this website for ideas about teaching 2D and 3D shapes:
https://childhood101.com/hands-on-activities-for-learning-about-2d-3d-shapes/
This website has printable templates of 3D shapes: https://www.education.com/
worksheets/3d-shapes/
Why is it important that an activity on 3D shapes be developed in this theme plan?
Lastly, why should all investigations be reported in writing in a design folio?

There are many ideas on investigations for a specific theme. The best way to choose
investigations is to look at the product and to consider what knowledge is needed to
design and make it. In this case, the learners will design and build a model of a doghouse.
The dog must be kept warm and dry in the house. Materials are used when a structure
is built. In this case, the learners will build a model with cardboard, but they can still
investigate different materials for different properties. A doghouse is a structure and
will have a specific shape. The shape the learners use for their doghouses depends on
certain constraints. One of the constraints the teacher could impose is that the learners
must use as few materials as possible. What shape is the best for using as little material
as possible and keeping the dog dry and warm?

Learners could find the information they need in books and on websites, but in order to
develop their scientific literacy, they should do scientific investigations to find answers to
their questions. Teachers should encourage the learning of science through doing, that
is, learners should not simply learn facts without understanding them and how to apply
them in their lives. That is why the first two investigations are included in the theme plan
for designing and building a doghouse: one to find the best heat insulation material and
the other to find the best waterproofing material for the doghouse.

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In the theme plan for building a doghouse, the investigation into 3D shapes is important,
not only so that the learners can develop an understanding of shapes in the environment,
but also so that they consider the best shape for the doghouse. Should a doghouse be
like the houses people live in? Do all people live in the same types of houses? They should
consider different houses, such as houses built on stilts in areas where there are floods
and deep valleys, igloos built from ice blocks and African rondavels built from a mixture
of clay and grass. If material is a constraint, then the learners should consider different
shapes and decide on the shape that requires the least material. The best shape for a
doghouse may be a triangular prism because it has only three sides (saving of materials),
and the two top sides are sloped so rainwater can run off.

Teachers should also consider including investigations into indigenous knowledge

systems in theme plans. Let us consider how African indigenous knowledge systems
about building houses could be included in the theme plan for designing and building
a model of a doghouse.

Activity 6.7: Investigating African indigenous knowledge systems about housing

materials

How could African indigenous knowledge systems be included in the theme plan about
making a doghouse?
Visit the following websites through the links on myUnisa to get some ideas:
https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/ndebele-architecture-and-settlement-patterns
http://www.mstworkbooks.co.za/natural-sciences/gr7/gr7-ec-04.html

A traditional African building material is a mixture of clay and straw, which has good
insulating properties. Traditional huts (houses) do not have windows, or the windows are
very small. Windows allow a lot of heat to escape from a building. The roofs of traditional
huts are made from thatch, which is a poor conductor of heat. Most heat of a home is lost
through the roof and so, by using thatch as an insulating material in a roof, heat loss in
cold weather and heat gain in hot weather are minimised. The thatch roofs of traditional
huts extend over the walls, creating an overhang that shades the walls in summer; in
winter, the sun can reach under the overhang. Why do you think this is possible? Walls
are very thick. All these principles can be discussed with learners and incorporated into
the design of a doghouse.

Learners should report all their findings of an investigation in their design folios. Recording
(a science skill) their findings about scientific investigations gives learners an opportunity
to use the relevant scientific words and to explain their current understanding of the
problem under investigation. A design folio is a written report about what a learner has
learnt. Ensuring that learners write about what they have learnt in a design folio helps to
develop their language skills, as described in section 4.8.

We will now focus on design activities that involve the drawing of freehand sketches.

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6.3.2 Drawing freehand sketches during the design process

During the design stage of the design process, learners show their understanding of
the problem under investigation by drawing a possible solution to the problem. Even
though the drawings might not be good representations of the real thing, the teacher
should engage the learners and ask them to describe their design drawings. The kinds of
questions that the teacher asks should let the learners think about shape and size, among
other things. Questions such as “What shape will the doghouse be?” and “What shape
will the door be?” integrate mathematics into design process activities. Revise section
4.9 about the integration of mathematics into technology education.

Further questions should relate to the design of the product, or doghouse in this case, for
example, “Will there be any windows?”, “Is there a roof?”, “How are you going to insulate
the house?” and “Why should the doghouse be waterproofed?” The answers to these
questions are not so important. What is important is that learners think (and reason)
about dimensions (size), measurement units and shape. Material properties (also scientific
concepts), such as waterproofing and insulation, should also be discussed.

For interest’s sake:

Visit this site about making images bigger or smaller using grid lines (or drawing to scale)
through the link that is available on the module site on myUnisa:

https://study.com/academy/lesson/scale-drawing-using-proportional-reasoning.html#/
lesson

This site provides information on how to use a grid to enlarge an image while drawing:
https://design.tutsplus.com/tutorials/how-to-use-a-grid-to-enlarge-an-image-while-
drawing--cms-20593

Before learners can make images larger or smaller, they should be taught how to draw
using grids. There are many ideas such as dog drawings (and even a sailboat for the
previous theme plan) at this site: https://www.activityvillage.co.uk/grid-copy-puzzles

An example of a grid that is used to make an image bigger or smaller is this one for a
drawing of a lion. Can you find one for a dog or house drawing?

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Figure 6.2: Example of a grid for drawing

Visit this site to learn how to teach children how to draw without grids:

https://www.theartabet.com/what-should-you-teach-a-young-child-to-draw-ages-3-to-7/

During drawing activities, many creative aspects, such as colour, line and proportion, need
to be considered. These aspects are discussed in your Life Skills module that deals with
art activities for young learners and are not discussed here. You may want to look at the
books that are available in the library about creative drawing for young learners. These
books are listed under “Additional resources” near the end of learning units four and six.

Drawing solutions to problems using freehand sketches can lead to creativity, if the teacher
is aware of how to encourage it (Sousa 2017). The problem-solving process requires that we
find ways of solving problems, which results in ways of doing things differently. Creative
thinking is a requirement of the South African curriculum but is often not taught.

If a teacher, for example, tells learners to design a doghouse in the shape of a triangular
prism, the teacher does not allow for creativity. On the other hand, if the teacher shows
learners all kinds of 3D shapes and asks them to design a doghouse using any shape,
this is more likely to lead to creativity. Creativity also comes in detail. If a learner draws
an extra garage, a shade tree or a water tank for the dog, then it may seem “silly” but the
learner is being original and thinking “outside the box”. Refer to the picture of a learner’s
painting of a car with umbrellas in learning unit four – the umbrellas were a unique and
original solution to a problem.

Activity 6.8: Creativity and originality

Read the Wikipedia article about the Torrance test of creative thinking:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torrance_Tests_of_Creative_Thinking

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The test focuses on these four elements:

(1) Fluency: The total number of interpretable, meaningful and relevant ideas generated
in response to a stimulus.
(2) Flexibility: The number of different categories of relevant responses.
(3) Originality: The statistical rarity of the responses.
(4) Elaboration: The amount of detail in the responses.
We will focus on originality and elaboration as elements of creative thinking that must
be encouraged in design drawings.
Read this website for some more ideas about creativity and originality:
https://generallythinking.com/creativity-and-originality/
Read this website to develop an understanding of how to encourage young
children to draw and how to encourage creativity: https://artfulparent.com/
how-to-encourage-drawing-skills-confidence-creativity-in-young-children/
Can you describe what is meant by originality and creativity, and how do they differ?

Originality is about rareness or uncommonness. Creative ideas are original and useful.
Creativity is more beneficial than originality but is harder to measure because the usefulness
of an idea is not always immediately apparent.

Elaboration is a little easier to understand – it is when learners add more detail to their
drawings as they imagine and consider more possibilities. For original ideas to become
more understood, the details of the idea should be given. For the original ideas to become
more useful (and therefore creative), they should be considered in more detail.

Teachers must encourage learners to represent their ideas for solving a given problem
through drawings. Drawings allow learners to represent their understanding of the
world, particularly their understanding of scientific and mathematical concepts. Teachers
should also encourage learners to be original in thinking of ways to solve a problem and
not impose their preconceived ideas of the solution on learners. Teachers must develop
good questioning that will allow learners to explain their drawings to them. They must
also question learners to encourage them to add more detail to their drawings. Teachers
should also encourage learners to question their own ideas about a solution to a problem
and the drawings that they have drawn. Learners should also ask questions for clarity
when they discuss one another’s designs during group work.

In the following section we will develop another theme plan using the stages of the design
process as an example of a theme plan in the strand about technological processing. We
have already shown you examples of design process theme plans with a focus on systems
and control (building a sailboat) and structures (building a doghouse). In the following
design process theme plan, the focus is on making puppets.

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6.4 DEVELOPING YOUR OWN THEME PLAN OF DESIGN
PROCESS ACTIVITIES
The following design process theme plan focuses on making puppets that represent the
stages of the insect life cycle. Refer to the row in table 4.2 that focuses on intuitive ideas
about chemistry. You will find the topic about insects and insect metamorphosis there.
We could use either the big idea of cause and effect or the big idea of adaptation as the
overarching concept that will lead our discussions with learners. We have decided to use
adaptation as the big idea, so we must consider how that idea will be brought into the
making of insect puppets. Perhaps one of our investigations could be about how insects
camouflage themselves – as an adaptation to surviving in a specific place. Table 6.5 shows
the row from table 4.2 that has been simplified to focus on the topic of insects and insect
metamorphosis and learner activities based on the design and making of puppets.

Table 6.5: Underlying teaching and learning concepts for the integration of science
and a design activity for building puppets to show insect metamorphosis
Topic Intuitive ideas, Big ideas Example of a design
and science from social and make activity
and technology science
knowledge strands beginning
knowledge

Insects How does it change?: Adaptation Designing and making

and insect intuitive idea about puppets using printed
metamorphosis chemistry cloth with traditional
patterns
Science strand:
matter and materials
Technology strand:
technological
processing

A theme plan for designing and making insect puppets using printed cloth needs a
problem. In this case, we have decided that the problem or challenge is that groups of
grade threes must present puppet shows to grade R classes. Each puppet show must show
the metamorphosis of an insect, and each group must show a different insect – perhaps
a grasshopper, a butterfly, an ant or a ladybug6. Now that we have a problem, we would
like you to draw up a theme plan based on the stages of the design process for yourself
in the theme planning template provided in addendum 6.5.

You may feel a little apprehensive at this point. Remember that there is no right or wrong
theme plan. As long as you follow the template and understand each of the stages, you

6 Take note that not all insects undergo a complete metamorphosis. Read up on insect
metamorphosis.

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should be able to plan the learner activities. Planning lessons can be very daunting. Just
remember that you may not necessarily do it correctly the first time, but the more you
practice, the better you will get at it. Give it a try!

If you don’t know much about puppets, you should read the information provided on
the following websites by following the links on myUnisa:

• This website discusses puppets in the classroom. Look at problems 2 and 3 for some
ideas: http://wonderteacher.com/teaching-children-to-use-puppets/
• The following website also has some good ideas about puppets, but remember,
we are looking specifically at making puppets to solve a problem. This
website gives some more ideas about integration, specifically, the integration
of technology education and language: https://www.edutopia.org/blog/
puppets-will-change-your-classroom-sam-patterson-cheryl-morris

If you are not sure about insects, insect metamorphosis and insect camouflage, then read
the information on the following websites:

• These videos give information about insect metamorphosis:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBdbGPK1ZlQ
https://www.teachervision.com/insects-bugs

• This website will give you many ideas about how to teach young learners about insects,
particularly the life cycle and camouflage of butterflies:
https://www.theschoolrun.com/homework-help/insects

• The following YouTube videos give information about insects:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rKQfJFAHW8Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nuPCu8lHC8I

Now you should be ready to develop learner activities that follow the stages of the design
process. Use addendum 6.5 to complete your theme plan based on a puppet show that
shows the metamorphosis of an insect. The insect puppets must be made of hand-printed
cloth. After you have planned the theme, you should self-assess the theme plan, using
the checklist given in activity 6.9.

Activity 6.9: Self-assessment of theme plan

Criteria for assessing the development of a Yes Maybe No

theme plan on puppets: Have I

set the scene with an activity that focuses either

on puppets or insects?

allowed the grade three learners an opportunity

to focus on the problem of developing puppets
to present a puppet show to grade R learners?

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planned for the grade three learners to write
their understanding of the problem and a short
design brief in their design folios?

planned an activity for the learners to

learn about how puppets are made in the
investigation stage?

planned an activity for the learners to learn

about the characteristics of insects in the
investigation stage?

planned an activity for the learners to learn

about insect metamorphosis in the investigation
stage?

planned an activity on how insects adapt to

their environment, particularly camouflage?
(adaptation is the big idea that will be developed
throughout the theme)

given an opportunity for learners to write down

their understanding of the investigations in
their design folios?

given each group an opportunity to discuss its

puppet show and which group member will
make which puppet and to write down this
information?

planned for a freehand drawing activity of a

stage of a chosen insect?

considered what drawing activity I will give

learners as an introduction to the drawing of
insects?

planned for the making of puppets that

represent the different stages of insect
metamorphosis?

planned for the learners to practise their puppet

shows as a group?

planned for the presentation of the puppet

shows to grade R learners?

given the groups a chance to evaluate the

success of their puppet shows (and to write
suggested improvements in their design folios)?

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Here are other questions you should consider:

How will you organise the learners into groups? When will the learners start working
together on their puppet presentations? What resources (materials for making puppets)
will you need? How/where will you get the resources? Have you considered how much time
the learners will need, particularly for the making of the puppets? (Do not be tempted to
let the learners make the puppets at home because you will not know who really made
them and this is not correct practice). Will there be any sewing involved in making the
puppets? If so, have you investigated different sewing stitches with the learners?

We are trying to show you that you must be very precise with your planning and consider
resources, time management and assessment.

We are not going to give you the complete theme plan because we think the checklist
has given you a good idea of what should be in the theme plan. We will continue with
our discussion on developing learner activities by discussing only the making stage of
the theme plan relating to insect puppets.

6.4.1 Skills developed during the making stage

Making an insect puppet involves many skills, such as choosing the correct materials and
tools, measuring and marking, cutting, putting together or joining (by using fabric glue
or, perhaps, by sewing parts together), finishing off, (perhaps with ribbons or bows, or
making the face) and then evaluating whether the product will solve the problem. Planning
for the making stage involves considering all these skills and planning for learners to use
them. The making process is set out in figure 6.3. Each of the steps in the making process
gives teachers an opportunity to assess learners’ making skills informally. Assessment will
be discussed further in the next section.

6.4.2 Integration during the making stage

A drawing on a two-dimensional paper represents a three-dimensional product. The
two-dimensional representation in the drawing of an insect puppet must be interpreted
into a three-dimensional product during the making stage. This spatial visualisation skill
is fundamental for developing mathematical, scientific and technological concepts (Kok &
Bayaga 2019). Further mathematical skills used during the making stage are measurement
and reasoning about shapes.

Learners should work in groups when they make the puppets. They should discuss the
making of the puppets and should be encouraged to use the correct scientific words,
such as metamorphosis, camouflage and words for parts of the body, for example, head,
thorax and abdomen.

Furthermore, learners print the cloth they will use to make the insect puppets, demonstrating
their interpretation of the stages of the life cycles of their chosen insects. Art activities
like this one that allow learners to elaborate on their original thoughts promote the
development of creativity.

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If you would like to learn more about the integration of mathematics, science and art into
technology education, read the chapters written by Bryan et al (2016) and Dubosarsky et
al (2018) that are available through the module site on myUnisa. (Full source references
are given in section 6.6).

6.5 ASSESSMENT IN TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

When a theme plan based on design and make problem-solving activities is developed,
the second-last stage is known as the evaluation stage. This stage gives learners a chance
to evaluate their products through self- and/or peer assessment. The teacher leads the
process of evaluation by discussing what could be considered a successful product or
not. The success of a product will depend on the specifications agreed upon during the
design process. In some cases, such as when learners built cars or bridges, the teacher
can hold a “competition” of sorts, allowing for the informal evaluation of the products
the learners made. In the case of cars, the competition could be a race and in the case of
bridges, the competition could be to see which bridge can carry the most weight before
it breaks. The winning product is the one that goes fastest or furthest or is the strongest.
In our example of a puppet show about insect metamorphosis, evaluation could be
focused on the puppet shows.

Figure 6.3: Making stage of the design process – process skills relevant to the making
of a puppet
Let us now focus on assessment done by teachers to determine if learning has taken place.
In the foundation phase, assessment of technology education is informal and formative.
It gives teachers an idea of learners’ development towards technological literacy (Naudé
2016). Can you remember what is meant by technological literacy? Can you remember
what is meant by informal assessment for learning rather assessment of learning? You
should revise the discussion of assessment in learning unit three.
To enhance your own understanding, you may want to watch the following videos about
formative assessment and how to monitor young learners’ progress:
https://www.teachingchannel.org/video/formative-assessment-monitoring-1
https://www.teachingchannel.org/video/formative-assessment-monitoring-2

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The focus of our discussion of assessment will be on the problem-solving nature of the
design process and the skills learnt during each stage of the process. We assume that you
have an underlying understanding of assessment principles, such as validity, reliability and
objectivity. There are textbooks that will give you an understanding of these principles
(e.g., Naudé & Davin 2017). It is our intention to apply these principles of assessment in
considering assessment specifically for problem-solving through the design process.

Before we start discussing assessment in technology education in the foundation phase,

it is important that you know that assessment is planned while a theme plan is being
developed. Revise the theme plans described previously and take note of the ideas
given in respect of assessment. Moreover, you will notice that learners report all activities
in design folios, that is, they keep a record of the design process that is followed in
respect of a given product in design folios. Design folios are therefore records of learners’
understanding of the different stages of the design process. They are records of the
process of problem-solving – from understanding the problem, investigating the problem,
designing a solution to the problem, making the product and evaluating whether the
product solves the problem. Each of these stages gives the teacher a chance to assess
learners’ understanding.

From now on we will refer to what learners do as a project. A project entails long-term
activities that are connected, such as activities in the technological problem-solving
process (Siew, Amir & Chong 2015) Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM;
Connors-Kellgren et al 2016). (To be clear, we will refer to the development of a theme
plan as a teacher activity and the activities that learners do as a project.)

By now we have shown you how to develop a theme plan based on the design process.
You are now ready to develop a theme plan that includes assessment using the template
of an assessment plan for technology education provided in addendum 6.6. If you look
at the template, you will notice that it does not include an explanation of each stage of
the design process because you should know by now which learner activities can be
developed for each stage. The first column is for the stage name, the second column is
for the learner activity/activities and the third column is for the skills and concepts you will
assess (either formally or informally). We have developed an assessment plan for the design
and making of puppets that show insect metamorphosis (table 6.6). This plan may look
very complicated at the moment. Bear in mind that you are on a developmental journey
– you are undergoing a metamorphosis yourself, so to speak. Your first attempts may not
be as complex as the plan we developed. We recommend that you start by developing
one activity for each stage and then develop more activities later on. From the start you
should know what skills and concepts you want to assess (mostly informally). If you use
addendum 6.6 to plan activities from the start, you will only need to develop one plan
for each theme, which will include assessment. You should therefore use the template
given in addendum 6.6 from now on.

We will now briefly discuss assessment in respect of each of the stages of the design process
(and which learners should have recorded in their design folios), using the assessment
plan for puppets given in table 6.6.

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6.5.1 Assessment of the problem identification stage
Did you notice that the problem identification stage focuses on learners’ language skills?
This stage gives teachers an opportunity to integrate language with technology education
and problem-solving. We will not discuss the assessment of language development further,
but if you are interested in learning more about this aspect, there are videos online that
will be helpful such as the following one:
https://www.teachingchannel.org/video/assess-listening-speaking-skills-ousd

Table 6.6: Assessment plan for a theme based on the design process for puppet making
Design stage Learner activity Concepts and skills for
assessment
Identify need Learners listen to a story about Language skills – listening
or problem insects and how they change and comprehension skills
Learners watch a video of a Language skills – visual
puppet show literacy skills
Learners consider how Language skills – learners use
they can represent insect spoken language to explain
metamorphosis through their ideas
puppets Language skills – learners use
Learners write down their written language to explain
understanding of the problem their understanding
in their design folios
Investigate Learners watch the teacher Visual and language skills
demonstrate different kinds of (noted above)
puppets and write notes about Scientific knowledge:
different kinds of puppets (e.g., characteristics of
sock, rock or shadow puppets) insects, stages of
Learners follow a traditional metamorphosis, complete
lesson on the characteristics and incomplete
of insects and complete a metamorphosis
worksheet in which they select Science process skills:
the insects from drawings observe, compare and classify
of different animals; learners
should be able to give reasons Big ideas: adaptation; change
for their answers
Learners watch a video about
insect metamorphosis (or
observe changes that happen
to silkworms that are kept in
class)
Learners watch a video about
insect camouflage

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Design stage Learner activity Concepts and skills for

assessment
Design and Learners follow as the teacher Group work skills (cooperative
plan shows them how to draw three learning)
insects (butterfly, bee and Design skills – drawing skills
ladybird) (art assessment)
Learners discuss in their groups Design skills – creativity
their choice of insect and its (originality and elaboration)
metamorphosis, who will
develop a puppet for each Mathematics – size (informal
stage, what kind of puppet will or formal measurement and
be used to represent each stage scale or proportion)
and the size of each puppet Mathematics – 2D shapes
Each learner draws her/his
insect stage as a puppet (books
and internet sites should be
available that show pictures of
different insects and how to
draw them)
Each learner considers size and
shape for her/his drawing
Each learner considers adding
features of the insect stage to
her/his puppet
Organise and Learners collect materials and Making skills: choice
make tools, depending on their of suitable materials;
choice of puppets measurement; cutting;
Learners measure and mark joining; adding details;
parts of their puppets neatness; movement of
puppet
Learners cut materials, using
the correct tools (consider
safety)
Learners learn to join fabric by
sewing with a running stitch;
learners join fabrics using the
correct joining techniques
Learners complete their
puppets, adding details such as
eyes and legs where necessary
Learners evaluate their puppets
in respect of detail and
movement

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 Design stage Learner activity Concepts and skills for
assessment
Evaluate Learners evaluate their puppet Language skills
product, show (after presentation to
process or grade R learners)
system Learners write their evaluation
in their design folios
Communication Learners discuss how they will Language skills
present their puppet show Cooperative learning in
Learners practise their puppet groups
show
Learners take photos of their
puppets and present them in
their portfolios

6.5.2 Assessment of the investigation stage

Did you notice that the investigation stage also focuses on language? This is because
learners must communicate their learning in a design folio. The investigation stage
includes investigations into scientific ideas. You should revise this aspect in the relevant
section in section A.
There is a component of investigation that is not highlighted in the assessment plan for
the puppet project, namely, the role of teaching with information technology, which
you learnt about in learning unit five. What role can information technology play in
the investigation stage? Revise unit five and think of ways in which learners could find
information, learn ideas and communicate their findings using information technology.

6.5.3 Assessment of the design by drawing stage

Did you notice how the design stage focuses on learners’ mathematical understanding,
particularly the concepts of 2D images and 3D models? Other mathematical concepts that
are highlighted in the assessment plan for the puppet theme are measurement, scale and
proportion. Patterning with shapes can also be developed. Each of these concepts has a
developmental trajectory and we urge you to revise them in your mathematics modules.
During the design stage, learners draw their ideas about the solution to the problem.
Integration of creative art, particularly drawing, is possible at this stage. Drawing requires
the use of different elements, such as shape, colour, shades and tones, line, contrast, texture
and pattern. Drawings can be formatively assessed for these elements (Westraadt 2016).
Creativity (including originality and elaboration) are the focus of the design stage. When
teachers assess learners’ drawings formatively for detail and originality, they should discuss
the drawings with the learners and prompt them to add more details to the drawings.
While the learners add details, there may be a chance for original thought to develop.

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Group work skills are also developed in the design stage (as well as the making stage).
You would have learnt how to develop group work activities in a module focused on
teaching and learning. We will not discuss assessment of group work here; instead, we
refer you to modules or textbooks on teaching and learning. For your own interest, visit
this website to look at how group work can be assessed:
http://www.discoveryeducation.com/teachers/free-lesson-plans/the-insect-world.cfm

Teaching Channel’s videos are very useful. Watch these two videos about group work:
https://www.teachingchannel.org/video/independent-and-group-work
https://www.teachingchannel.org/video/structured-groups

Watch this video about sharing formative assessment with learners: https://www.
teachingchannel.org/video/co-teaching-formative-assessment

6.5.4 Assessment of the making stage skills

Making skills are developed during the making stage. These skills are organised into
six categories, namely, (1) choosing suitable materials and tools; (2) measuring with the
correct instrument; (3) cutting with the correct tool; (4) joining using an appropriate
method; (5) finishing off by adding details and neatening rough edges; and (6) evaluating
the product not only for how it looks but also for its ability to solve the problem. Refer to
figure 6.3, which sets out the making stage of the design process, specifically in relation
to the making of a puppet.
Table 6.7 provides a checklist for assessment of the making stage of a puppet.
Table 6.7: Checklist for making a puppet
Criteria: The learner was able to Yes No

select the correct materials for making the puppet

select the correct tools for measuring

measure accurately using formal or informal units

mark the cutting lines

cut using the correct tool

cut safely

join sections of the product using a suitable joining method

join sections using appropriate tools

complete the product by adding details

complete the product by neatening off all rough edges

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Assessment of concepts and skills in the stages of the design theme plan can be done
formatively by the teacher. Learners can also be given an opportunity to assess their own
understanding. During each stage, the criteria for assessment should be made clear to
learners. Learner self-assessment can be completed using a checklist.

There is no need to assess each stage, skill or concept for every project. On the other hand,
you as the teacher may decide not to assess specific stages, skills or concepts separately,
but to assess the overall project. In that case, you may develop a checklist similar to the
one given in table 6.8. It is an example of a checklist for the assessment of a puppet
project. You will notice that a checklist like this does not assess deeper learning, such as
use of language, understanding of mathematical concepts or creativity (originality and
elaboration). These kinds of checklists do assess technological problem-solving by the
design process, though. If you decide to develop a checklist such as this one, it should be
included in learners’ design folios when the teacher assessment is complete. You could
also adapt a checklist like this for self- or peer assessment.

Table 6.8: Checklist for a design project on puppets: grade three

Date: _________________________

Learners’ names:

Criteria: The learner/s is/are able to Yes No Comment

Needs analysis and description

identify the need for puppets to

convey a message

write a design brief for the making

of a puppet for a specific role in the
puppet play

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Criteria: The learner/s is/are able to Yes No Comment

Design and development

write a brief description of the kind

of puppets that will be built

complete the worksheet about

different kinds of puppets

make a labelled drawing of an insect

puppet, showing approximate
measurements

Planning and making

select materials and tools for the

making of the puppet

use a sewing needle and thread

to sew a button on the puppet (to
represent eyes or other features)

consider safety aspects

follow instructions for the making of

the puppet

neatly complete the making of the

puppet

Testing, evaluating and presenting

use the puppet in a small play in a

specific role

ensure the puppet moves as required

in the play

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Your last activity is to develop an assessment plan for the making of a doghouse.

Activity 6.10: Assessment plan for a model of a doghouse

Develop an assessment plan for the making of a model of a doghouse by using the template
given in addendum 6.6. Use the learner activities described in table 6.4 as a guide. Start
by completing the second column with the learner activities. Then think about the skills
and concepts you will be able to assess for each stage. Use the following checklist to
check the third column of the assessment plan for a doghouse project:

I was able to plan for assessment of problem-solving Yes No

skills and concepts through design activities because I
noted that
language skills can be assessed during the development of
the problem statement
language skills can be assessed during the development of
the investigation activities
there are different language skills, such as
reading, comprehension, oral presentation, written
presentation and visual literacy
learners’ understanding of scientific concepts can be assessed
learners’ use of science process skills can be assessed
mathematical concepts can be assessed during the design
and making stages
different mathematical concepts, such as measurement, scale,
proportion or patterning, can be developed
creativity can be assessed by the originality of the drawings
creativity can be assessed by the elaborateness of the design
drawings
elements of art (shape, colour, texture, line, etc) can be assessed
in the design drawings
making can be assessed by learners’ ability to collect materials
and tools
making can be assessed by learners’ ability to measure and
mark
making can be assessed by learners’ ability to cut with suitable
tools
making can be assessed by learners’ ability to join sections
of the product
making can be assessed by learners’ ability to add detail neatly
to the product

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How did you do in this activity? Were you able to apply the knowledge you gained from
this unit to plan how you would carry out formative assessment? How would the formative
assessment of these skills and concepts inform your teaching strategy? The reason for
formative assessment (or assessment for learning) is to inform your practice. What skills
would learners need extra support with? Can they, for example, measure accurately in
centimetres? If not, what support will you give them?

With that we come to the end of this unit on developing theme plans that follow activities
in the design process. We hope you enjoyed learning about teaching technology in the
foundation phase.

6.6 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Two types of additional resources are available, namely, those that you can access from the
Unisa Library and those that you can access directly through the module site on myUnisa.

The following books are available from the Unisa Library:

Bloetner, S. 2014. Strategies for formative assessment with English language learners.
Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education.
Daniels, H (ed). 2017. Introduction to Vygotsky. London: Routledge.
Froschauer, L. 2016. Bringing STEM to the elementary classroom. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
Khine, MS & Areepattamannil, S (eds). 2019. STEAM education: theory and practice. Cham,
Switzerland: Springer.
Wiliam, D & Leahy, S. 2017. Embedding formative assessment: practical techniques for K-12
classrooms. West Palm Beach, FL: Learning Sciences International.
English, L & Moore, T (eds). 2018. Early engineering learning. Singapore: Springer. ISBN:
9789821086212
Mayesky, M. 2012. Creative activities for young children. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
ISBN: 13:9781111520977
Roman, HT. 2017. Teaching your kids to think and solve problems. IEEE-USA Books & eBooks.

The following e-resources are available through links on the module site on myUnisa:
Bryan, LA, Moore, TJ, Johnson, CC & Roehrig, GH. 2016. Integrated STEM education, in
STEM road map: a framework for integrated STEM, edited by CC Johnson, EE Peters-
Burton & TJ Moore. New York: Routledge:23–28.
Dubosarsky, M, John, MS, Anggoro, F, Wunnava, U & Celik, U. 2018. Seeds of STEM: the
development of a problem-based STEM curriculum for early childhood classrooms, in
Early engineering learning, edited by L English & T Moore. Singapore: Springer:249–269.

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6.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Read the problem statement below and answer the questions that follow:

A grandparents’ day, where learners will perform a nativity play, is being planned for the
foundation phase. The school does not have many resources, but there is a box of teabags
and the school garden has a lemon tree that is bearing fruit. The grade three learners
decide that they can make iced tea for their grandparents to drink.

6.1 Name and describe a “big concept” that could be used as a focus for the questions
that the teacher will ask learners in the context of food processing, particularly the
making of lemon iced tea.
6.2 What intuitive ideas will learners use when they investigate recipes and how to
make iced tea?
6.3 What habits of body will learners develop when they make iced tea?
6.4 What habits of mind will learners develop when they investigate how to make iced
tea and then make iced tea?
6.5 Describe the making skills that could be assessed when learners make iced tea.
6.6 Develop an assessment plan for a theme based on the design process for making
iced tea. The assessment plan must be completed on the template and must have
at least one learner activity for each stage of the design process. The assessment
plan must also include at least one skill or concept in mathematics, science and
language that can be assessed.
The grade two learners will design and make invitations for the grandparents
to come to the school to see the nativity play.
6.7 Describe how creativity will be developed in the making of the invitations.
6.8 Describe how art, language, science and mathematics are integrated in the design
and making of the invitations.

6.8 CONCLUSION
In the last learning unit of the module you were shown how to develop learner activities
organised in a theme plan that follows the stages of the design process. When learners
do the planned activities in a logical order, they develop problem-solving skills, which
promotes the development of technological literacy. Knowledge about a problem and skills
to solve the problem are developed when knowledge and skills from science, mathematics,
language and art are integrated. The concepts and skills that will be assessed are planned
when the learner activities are planned. Assessment is carried out for learning, either by
the teacher or the learners themselves. The results of assessment allow teachers to think
of alternative strategies to teach skills or concepts.

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ADDENDUM 6.1: WHAT IS A DHOW?

(Downloaded 25 August 2018 from https://www.iboisland.com/what-is-dhow/)

Figure 6.4: A dhow

A dhow is a one- or two-masted Arab sailing vessel, usually with lateen rigging (slanting,
triangular sails), common still today in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. On the larger
types, called baggalas and booms, the mainsail is considerably bigger. Bows are sharp
with a forward and upward thrust and the sterns of the larger dhows may be decorated.

The small, lateen-rigged sailing vessels called dhows were predominant for more than
two millennia. The dhow trade was particularly important in the western Indian Ocean,
where these vessels could take advantage of the monsoon winds. A great variety of
products was transported between ports on the coast of East Africa and ports on the
Arabian Peninsula, and even as far as Bombay and Mangalore on the west coast of India.
The ancient art of traditional dhow travel has been practised in this region for centuries,
fathers passing on the craft of skippering dhows to their sons through the generations.

All dhows are handcrafted and corked using “alleged” – the traditional practice of
hammering cotton into the tiny gaps between the hand-hewn planks. The cotton expands
to soak up water and dries out at low tide. Maintenance is an ongoing traditional affair.

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ADDENDUM 6.2: CLASSICATION OF SAILBOATS
(Downloaded 25 August 2018 from https://www.boats.com/resources/sailing-101-sailboat-
types-rigs-and-definitions/#.W4EoZP5JnIU)

Mast configuration and sails

Mast configurations and sail combinations are one way of categorising sailboats. These
are just a few of the most common types.

The most common type of sailboat is a sloop. A sloop has one

mast and two sails, a mainsail and a headsail. Depending on the
size and shape of the headsail, it may be called a jib, a genoa or
a spinnaker. The headsail is hoisted to the top of the mast on the
forestay, a supporting cable that runs from the top of the mast
to the bow of the sailboat.

A cutter also has a single mast and a mainsail, but the mast is
farther aft to allow room for two headsails from two forestays.
The headstay carries the jib and the inner stay carries the
staysail. This is often a favourite rig for cruising sailboats because
it offers an easily managed range of sail combinations for
different wind strengths.

A schooner’s aft mast is taller than its forward mast. Schooners

may have up to six masts, though most only have two.

A cat rig has only one sail, and the mast is located well forward.
This is a popular rig on smaller boats, which are known as
“catboats”.

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ADDENDUM 6.3: PULLEYS AND PULLEY SYSTEMS

(Downloaded 26 August 2018 from https://sciencing.com/physics-pulley-systems-10051530.
html)

The physics of pulley systems

A pulley is a simple device designed to make it easier to lift a heavy weight by changing
the direction of the force that must be applied to move the object. The most basic type
of pulley is simply a rope and a wheel.

Types of pulleys
There are three basic types of pulleys: fixed pulleys, movable pulleys and combined-pulley
systems. A fixed pulley is a wheel hanging on a rope from an object such as a beam. A rope
is draped over the wheel and one end is attached to the object to be lifted. The other end
is pulled down to lift the object. A fixed pulley remains in the same place when you lift
the object. A movable pulley is hung in such a way that it moves when you lift the object.
A combined-pulley system is made by running the rope through two or more pulleys.

Fixed and movable pulleys

A fixed pulley does not reduce the amount of force needed to lift an object. If you attach
one end of the rope to a 50 kilogramme block (or weight of 500 Newton), you still have to
apply at least 500 Newton of force to lift it when you pull on the other end – and in reality
you need slightly more since you also need to move the rope and overcome friction. In
terms of physics, the fixed pulley does not provide any mechanical advantage. Movable
pulleys allow you to lift a load with less effort than fixed pulleys, so they do produce a
mechanical advantage. However, they are still less efficient than combined pulleys, which
work by distributing the force among the different sections of rope.

Combined-pulley systems
Combined-pulley systems work by distributing the force needed to move an object. In a
system with two pulleys, the rope is divided into three sections. One section goes down
from the ceiling to the first pulley, where the weight is attached. The second section
goes from the first pulley up to the second pulley at the ceiling. The third section goes
from the second pulley down to the person pulling the rope. If the object weighs 300
Newton, it would require one-third of the force, so the total force needed to move the
object is only 100 Newton.

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ADDENDUM 6.4: PULLEY ACTIVITIES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN
(Downloaded 26 August 2018 from https://inventorsoftomorrow.com/ 2016/09/26/
pulleys-2/)

Key concept (the science of simple machines)

A pulley is a wheel that you loop a rope over. The key point of pulleys is that they redirect
force. For example, instead of PUSHING a load UP, you can attach it to a rope and pulley
above you and PULL DOWN. All pulley systems redirect force. Some pulley systems make
work easier, allowing a worker to use less force to move an object.

A demonstration of pulley-style action

1. Tie a rope on something heavy (e.g., a basket of books, a sack of flour or a two-litre
bottle of soda).
2. Have a child lift the object off the ground by pulling up on the rope. The child may
only be able to lift it 15 centimetres or so off the ground – partially because it is
heavy, partially because his/her little arms can only reach so high.
3. Then have the child pick up the object him-/herself and try to lift it high up above
his/her head with his/her arms. It is higher now, but it feels heavy to push up.
4. Then, string the rope up over the back of a chair or over a doorknob and have the
child pull down on it. It feels easier to pull the rope down to lift the object than it
did to push the object up with his/her hands. But the child can only lift it as high
as where the pulley action is happening (e.g., the doorknob).
5. Then throw a rope over the side of a slide platform (or around a railing on an open
staircase: http://handsonaswegrow.com/simple-machines-for-kids-the-pulley/) and
put a child up there to reel it in. Look how high you can lift something when you
use this tool!

Where to find a pulley

Notice that in none of the above examples an actual “pulley” from a store was used –a
chair or a doorknob, a slide platform or a stair railing was used. You’re getting pulley
action just by wrapping a rope around an object and pulling.

You can also rig a “pulley” with other objects you may have

• A rolling pin pulley: http://cabinetofcuriositiesva.com/2014/08/21/a-lesson-on-simple-

machines-simply-worked/
• A spool that cord or ribbon was once wound around
• Carabiners: www.youtube.com/watch?v=oGgCaFTcbHk

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ADDENDUM 6.5: THEME PLANNING TEMPLATE FOR TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION
Design stage Explanation of activity Activity

Identify need or Set the scene and identify

problem the need or problem through
a story, a TV programme,
a newspaper article or
a community event.

Investigate Gather information/data,

brainstorm ideas, discuss and
share information and ideas,
find information in books,
watch videos/YouTube and/or
listen to guest speakers.

Design and plan Develop an initial idea and

choose the best one, giving
reasons, develop ideas on
paper and experiment with
ideas.

Organise and Plan the activities (in time

make sequence) and then organise
the tools and materials
needed; build the product,
which involves the actions of
measuring, marking, cutting,
joining and finishing off (or
moulding) (flow diagram).

Evaluate product, Test the product against

process or specifications, using, for
system example, a checklist.
Reflect on the process and
write a short report on how
the process could have been
made more efficient.

Communication Communicate in oral, written

or graphical form in all stages
of the process.

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ADDENDUM 6.6: ASSESSMENT PLAN FOR TECHNOLOGY
EDUCATION
Design stage Learner activity Concepts and skills for
assessment

Identify need or
problem

Investigate

Design and plan

Organise and
make

Evaluate product,
process or system

Communication

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