Chapter 3

Angle Modulation

 Introduction
 Phase and Frequency Modulation
 NBFM and WBFM
 Generation of FM waves
 Direct method
 Indirect method
 Demodulation of FM
 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

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 Angle Modulation
Definition:
• The modulation in which, the angle of the carrier wave
is varied according to the baseband signal.
• An important feature of Angle modulation is that it can
provide better discrimination against noise and
distortion.
• Complexity Vs. Noise and interference Tradeoff
Two types:
• Phase modulation
• Frequency Modulation
 Angle Modulation
• The angle modulated wave can be expressed as

where denotes the angle of a modulated sinusoidal

carrier and Ac is the carrier amplitude. A complete
oscillation occurs whenever changes by 2π radians.

• If increases monotonically with time, the average

frequency in Hertz, over an interval from t to t+ Δt, is
given by

∆
• We may therefore define the instantaneous frequency of the
angle modulated signal s(t) as follows
𝑓 𝑡 lim 𝑓∆ 𝑡
∆ →

𝜃 𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝜃 𝑡
lim
∆ → 2𝜋∆𝑡

1 𝑑𝜃 𝑡
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
• There are an infinite number of ways in which the angle 𝜃 𝑡
is varied in some manner with the message (baseband)
signal. However, we shall consider two commonly used
methods.
i. Phase Modulation (PM)
ii. Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM):

• PM is that form of angle modulation in which the angle

is varied linearly with the message signal m(t), as
shown by

• The term represents the angle of the unmodulated

carrier and the constant represents the phase sensitivity
of the modulator, rad/V.

• The phase modulated signal s(t) is thus described in the

time domain by
Phase Modulation (PM)
 Frequency Modulation:
• FM is that form of angle modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency signal m(t), is varied linearly
with the message as shown by

• The term represents the frequency of the unmodulated

carrier and the constant represents the frequency
sensitivity of the modulator, Hz/V.

• The frequency modulated signal s(t) is thus described in the

time domain by
Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Relationship between Phase Modulation (PM)
and Frequency Modulation (FM)

Modulating Phase
Signal Integrator FM Wave
Modulator

Fig (a): FM wave generation using Phase Modulator

Modulating
Differentiator Frequency PM Wave
Signal Modulator

Fig (b): PM wave generation using Frequency Modulator

Example

(a)Square modulating wave m(t)

(b)Frequency-modulated wave
(c)Derivative of m(t) with respect to time
(d)Phase-modulated wave.
 Single tone FM:
• Consider a sinusoidal modulating signal defined by

• The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is

where
• The quantity is called frequency deviation,
representing the maximum departure of the
instantaneous frequency of the FM signal, from
the carrier frequency, .
The angle of the FM signal is

∆
The ratio of frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency is commonly called as modulation index of the
FM signal. We denote it by β

so, the FM wave is

β
 Frequency Modulation
• Depending on the value of we may distinguish two
cases of FM:
i. Narrowband FM, for small values of β and
ii. Wideband FM for large values of β
• lets take a look at Single Tone FM
β
 i. Narrowband Frequency Modulation:
• The expression for a narrowband FM signal is
generated from
β
• By simplifying the above equation, it can be written
as
β

Which can be expressed in detailed form as

𝐴 β
s t 𝐴 cos2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 cos2𝜋 𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 cos2𝜋 𝑓 𝑓 𝑡
2

• The above expression for NBFM is similar to

Single tone AM signal.
 Narrowband Frequency Modulation Contd.,

• In case of sinusoidal modulation, the basic difference between an

AM signal and NBFM signal is that the algebraic sign of the
lower side frequency in the NBFM is reversed.

• Thus a NBFM signal is essentially requires the same

transmission bandwidth (i.e 2𝑓 ) as the AM signal.
 Generation of NBFM
s(t) = Accos [2fct + (t)]
= Accos (2fct) cos (t) ‐ A sin (2fct) sin(t)
 Accos 2fct - A sin (2fct) (t) t
.
= Accos 2fct - A sin (2fct) 2 kf  m( t )dt
0

Block diagram of a method for generating a Narrow Band FM signal

 Wide-band FM
• Here  is large, and the spectrum consists of a larger
number of sidebands.
• For a sinusoidally-modulated FM, the sidebands act in
such a way to vary the instantaneous frequency of the
carrier while still keeping its amplitudes constant.
• With narrow-band FM, where the frequency deviation
is small, only 2 sidebands are required to vary the
frequency of the carrier according to a sinusoid, and
keep the amplitude constant. But when the f gets
larger, more sidebands are required to do the same job.
• Generally speaking, the larger the value of  the more
immune the FM wave is to noise contamination.
 Wideband FM
∆
• The equation may be
expressed as Bessel series

where Jn() are Bessel functions of the first kind. Expanding

the equation for a few terms we have:
Plots of Bessel functions of the first kind for varying orders
 WBFM Contd.,
• The spectrum of an FM signal contains a carrier component and
an infinite set of side frequencies located symmetrically on either
side of the carrier at frequency separations of 𝑓 , 2𝑓 ….
• In this respect, the result is unlike that which prevails in an
AM system, since in an AM system a sinusoidal modulating
signal gives rise to only one pair of side frequencies.
• For the special case of β small compared with unity, only the
Bessel coefficients 𝐽 𝛽 and 𝐽 𝛽 have significant values, so that
the FM signal is effectively composed of a carrier and a single pair
of side frequencies at 𝑓 𝑓 .
• Unlike AM signal, the amplitude of the carrier component varies
with β according to 𝐽 𝛽 , dependent on the modulation index β.

• The average power of the FM signal is

FM Signal Spectrum.
The picture can't be display ed.

The amplitudes drawn are completely arbitrary, since we have not

found any value for Jn() – this sketch is only to illustrate the
spectrum.
• The bandwidth of an FM signal depends on the frequency
deviation.
• When the frequency deviation (and hence ) is high, the
bandwidth will be large.
• Since the amplitude of an FM signal is kept constant, the
power of an FM signal is the same as that of an
unmodulated carrier, i.e., PFM = A2/2.
• In other words, the power is independent of the frequency
modulation process since the power is not dependent on
the signal’s frequency.
• The bandwidth of an FM modulated signal is defined as
range of frequencies (sidebands) that contain 98% of the
total power of an FM signal.
• Bandwidth of a sinusoidally modulated FM signal

WFM = 2( + 1)m = 2( + m)

or
BFM = 2( + 1)fm = 2(f + fm)

• The bandwidth is twice the sum of the maximum

frequency deviation and the modulating frequency.----
Carson’s rule.
Example
A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal
such that the peak frequency deviation is 50 kHz. Determine
the bandwidth of the FM signal if the frequency of the
modulating sinusoidal is (a) 500 Hz; (b) 10 kHz.

Solution
(a) 𝛽=f / fm = 50000/500 = 100
B = 2( + 1)fm = 2(101)500 = 101 kHz

(b)𝛽= f / fm = 50/10 = 5
B = 2(𝛽+ 1)fm = 2(6)10 = 120 kHz
Exercise

If f = 75 kHz and fm = 15 kHz, determine the FM

bandwidth and compare this with the AM bandwidth.

What is your finding?

 Generation of FM Signals
• There are essentially two basic methods of generating
frequency modulated signals, namely

i. Direct FM (Parameter Variation Method)

ii. Indirect FM (Armstrong’s)

• In the direct method the carrier frequency is directly varied in

accordance with the input baseband signal, which is readily
accomplished using a “Voltage Controlled Oscillator”.

• In the indirect method, the modulating signal is first used to

produce a narrowband FM signal, and frequency multiplication is
next used to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level.
 Methods of FM Generation

Direct Methods Indirect Methods

Varactor Diode Modulator Armstrong

Indirect FM
FM Reactance Modulator Transmitter

Frequency-stabilized Reactance FM
Transmitter

Crossby Direct FM Transmitter

PLL Direct FM Modulator

Direct Method of FM Generation
Varactor Diode Modulator
• Reverse-biased diodes exhibit a junction capacitance that
varies inversely with the amount of reverse bias.
• A diode that is physically constructed so as to enhance
this characteristic is termed as varactor diode.

• When signal is applied to the varactor diode, its reverse

biasing is varied, which changes the diode's junction
capacitance. The oscillator frequency is subsequently
varied as required for FM, and FM signal is generated.
Direct Method of FM Generation
• The reactance modulator circuit operates on the master oscillator
to cause its resonant frequency to shift up or shift down depending
on the modulating signal being applied.

• Resistors R1 and R2 establish a voltage divider network that biases

Q1. Resistor R3 furnishes emitter feedback to thermally stabilize
Q1 .
• Capacitor Cs interacts with transistor Q1's inter-electrode
capacitance to cause a varying capacitive reactance directly
influenced by the input modulating signal.
Direct Method of FM Generation
• Capacitor C4 effectively couples the changes at Q1's
collector to the tank circuit of while blocking dc
voltages.
• If the modulating voltage goes up the capacitance of Q1
goes down, and if the modulating voltage goes down the
reactance of Q1 goes up.
• This change in reactance is felt on Q1's collector and
also at the tank circuit of the oscillator transistor.
• The reactance modulator is efficient and provides a
large deviation. It is popular and used often in FM
transmitters.
 Indirect Method of FM Generation

• Start off with a marrow-band FM wave, and then use

frequency multiplication to increase the deviation f to a
desired value.
• Consider an FM wave s(t) is described by
𝑐  𝑐
• For small values of  the above reduces to
 𝑐  𝑐  𝑐
 𝑐  𝑐  𝑐
Indirect Method of FM Generation
• Suppose we pass NBFM signal s(t) through a circuit
which multiplies the instantaneous frequency of the wave
by a factor n.
• The output of the circuit will be at center frequency nfc,
with frequency deviation nf.
• Since the original modulating frequency fm remains
unchanged, the effective  at the output of the multiplier
has increased by a factor of n.
• Frequency multiplication can be accomplished by passing
the narrow-band wave through nth order non-linearity,
followed by band-pass filter centered at nfc, with suitable
bandwidth.
• The output yields the desired FM modulated wave with a
modulation index n.
Indirect Method of FM Generation
• Applying NBFM signal to nonlinear device

• Problem with the above scheme, as we require high values

of , the value of fc becomes too large to be of practical
use.
• To solve this, the multiplication is done in two steps, with
a frequency-mixing (heterodyning) operation in the
middle.
• The mixer translates the FM spectrum to a lower value of
fc without affecting the value of .
Indirect Method of FM Generation

• Precaution: any phase jitter in the original narrow-band FM

generator oscillator gets multiplied by a factor n1ꞏn2 at the output.
• any jitter in the mixer local oscillator will be multiplied n2 times
at the output.
• Therefore, this approach requires very stable crystal-controlled
oscillators to function properly.
FM Demodulators

• FM demodulators are frequency dependent circuits that produce an

output voltage that is directly proportional to the instantaneous
frequency at its input.
• FM demodulator change the frequency deviation of the incoming
carrier into an AF amplitude variation.
• The detection circuit should be insensitive to amplitude changes.
• They convert the FM IF voltage of constant amplitude into a
voltage, that is from FM to AM.
• The later is applied to a detector which reacts to amplitude changes
and ignores frequency changes.
• FM detectors are: Slope detector, phase shift Discriminator,
Ratio detector and PLL demodulator.
Basic FM Demodulator

FM Wave

Output
of Tuned
Circuit
 Basic FM Demodulator—Slope Detector
• The most basic circuit employed as FM demodulator is
parallel tuned LC circuit, often known as slope detector.
• The carrier frequency should fall on one side of resonant
frequency and
• The entire frequencies should fall on linear region of
transfer curve of tuned circuit.
Transfer Curve Output

Slope Detector Transfer

Characteristics

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 SLOPE Detector
• The output is then applied to a diode detector with RC
load of suitable time constant.
• The circuit is, in fact, identical to that of AM detector.

Limitations of Slope Detector

• It is inefficient, as it is linear in very limited frequency
range.
• It reacts to all amplitude changes(input FM signal).
• It is relatively difficult to tune, as tuned circuit must be
tuned to different frequency than carrier frequency.
 Balanced Slope Detector
• This circuit uses two slope detectors, connected in back
to back fashion, to opposite ends of center-tapped
transformer.
• And hence fed 1800 out of phase.
 Balanced Slope Detector
• The top secondary circuit is tuned above the IF(carrier
frequency)by an amount f, and bottom circuit is tuned
below IF by f.
• Each circuit is connected to diode detectors with
suitable RC loads.
• The output is taken across series combination of loads,
so that it is sum of the individual outputs.
When input frequency = fc
Then output of T’(+Ve)= output of T’’ (-Ve)
Vo= Zero
When input frequency = fc+f
Then output of T’(+Ve) > output of T’’ (-Ve)
Vo= +Ve
When input frequency = fc-f
Then output of T’(+Ve) < output of T’’ (-Ve)
So sum of outputs of T’ and T’’ (Vo) = -Ve
Transfer Curve of Balanced slope Deter

Useful Range
 Balanced Slope Detector-Drawbacks

• Even more difficult to tune, as there are three different

frequencies to be tuned.

• Amplitude limiting still not provided.

• Linearity, although better than single slope detector, is

still not good enough.

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