Electric and Hybrid Vehicle (2022)

1. Choose the correct answer of the following (any seven):

(a) The electric motor in a mild hybrid is acting as a
(i) power booster
(ii) hydro boost
(iii) buffalo power booster
(iv) booster plug
(b) The MHEV system consists of which volt?
(i) 12 V
(ii) 24 V
(iii) 48 V
(iv) None of the above
(c) In which vehicle energy is stored in an auxiliary battery and then it is used to quickly
start the vehicle?
(i) Full hybrid
(ii) Micro hybrid
(iii) Series hybrid
(iv) Mild hybrid
(d) MHEV stands for
(i) Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(ii) Micro Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(iii) Mild Horsepower Electric Vehicle
(iv) Micro Horsepower Electric Vehicle
(e) On overcharging a battery,
(i) it will bring about chemical change in active materials
(ii) it will increase the capacity of the battery
(iii) it will raise the specific gravity of the electrolyte
(iv) None of the above
(f) The full form of the BAHV is
(i) Battery-Assisted Hybrid Vehicle
(ii) Battery Proxy Hybrid Vehicle
(iii) Battery Assist Hydro Vehicles
(iv) None of the above
(g) What purpose does a generator serve in a hybrid vehicle?
(i) It converts nuclear energy into more nuclear energy
(ii) It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
(iii) It converts chemical energy into electrical energy
(iv) It converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
(h) What are the two main types of hybrid vehicle?
(i) The series hybrid vehicle and the mild hybrid vehicle
(ii) The parallel hybrid vehicle and the full hybrid vehicle
(iii) The series hybrid vehicle and the parallel hybrid vehicle
(iv) The full hybrid vehicle and the empty hybrid vehicle
(i) The fuel efficiency of mild hybrid vehicle is more as compared to conventional hybrid
systems by
(i) 10%-15%
(ii) 7%-15%
(iii) 3%-15%
(iv) 1%-15%

(j) First mass produced hybrid vehicle internationally is

(i) Tesla model X
(ii) Mahindra e2o
(iii) Toyota Prius
(iv) Ford GT

2. (a) What are the comparisons of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional vehicles?
Here is a comparison of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and conventional vehicles :

Aspect Hybrid Electric Vehicles Conventional Vehicles

(HEVs)
Power Source Combination of internal Internal combustion engine
combustion engine and electric only
motor
Fuel Efficiency Generally higher due to Lower, relies solely on the
regenerative braking and electric combustion engine
motor assistance
Emissions Lower emissions due to reduced Higher emissions due to
fuel consumption and electric- complete reliance on the
only driving capability combustion engine
Initial Cost Higher due to advanced Lower due to established
technology and dual powertrains technology and single
powertrain
Operating Costs Lower in the long term due to Higher in the long term due to
better fuel economy higher fuel consumption
Maintenance Can be more complex and costly Generally simpler and less
due to dual systems (engine and costly
electric motor)
Driving Range Often comparable to conventional Typically higher due to larger
vehicles, but varies by model and fuel tanks and mature
driving conditions technology
Refueling/Recharging Requires both refueling with Only requires refueling with
gasoline and potentially gasoline or diesel
recharging the battery
Performance Typically offers better Depends on engine size and
acceleration due to the instant type, but generally less
torque of the electric motor responsive than hybrids
Availability Increasing, but fewer models and Widely available with many
variants compared to conventional models and variants
vehicles
Government Often eligible for tax credits, Few incentives, mainly subject
Incentives rebates, and other incentives to fuel economy and emissions
regulations
Environmental Reduced impact due to lower Higher impact due to greater
Impact emissions and improved fuel fuel consumption and emissions
efficiency
Technology Advanced technology with Traditional technology with
regenerative braking, energy incremental improvements in
management systems efficiency

(b) A 12 V battery pack connected to series RL load with L=100 mH. The battery pack has
rated capacity of 120 Ah. At t=0 switch is closed and the battery begins to discharge
i)Calculate and plot battery discharge current it, if the steady state discharge is C/5.
Neglect voltage drop.
ii)Calculate and plot SoC, assuming that 10, the battery is charged to rated capacity.
iii)Calculate the time according to 70% DoD, assume >> 100 ms.
3. (a) Explain the power flow analysis of hybrid drive trains.

Power Flow Control

Due to the variations in HEV configurations, different power control strategies are necessary to regulate the power
flow to or from different components. All the control strategies aim satisfy the following goals:

• • maximum fuel efficiency

• minimum emissions

• minimum system costs

• good driving performance

The design of power control strategies for HEVs involves different considerations such as:

• • Optimal ICE operating point: The optimal operating point on the torque-speed plane of the ICE can be
based on maximization of fuel economy, the minimization of emissions or a compromise between fuel
economy and emissions.

• Optimal ICE operating line: In case the ICE needs to deliver different power demands, the corresponding
optimal operating points constitute an optimal operating line.

• Safe battery voltage: The battery voltage may be significantly altered during discharging, generator
charging or regenerative charging. This battery voltage should not exceed the maximum voltage limit nor
should it fall below the minimum voltage limit.

Power Flow Control in Series Hybrid

In the series hybrid system there are four operating modes based on the power flow:

• • Mode 1: During startup (Figure 1a), normal driving or acceleration of the series HEV, both the ICE and
battery deliver electric energy to the power converter which then drives the electric motor and hence the
wheels via transmission.

• Mode 2: At light load (Figure 1b), the ICE output is greater than that required to drive the wheels. Hence,
a fraction of the generated electrical energy is used to charge the battery. The charging of the batter takes
place till the battery capacity reaches a proper level.

• Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 1c), the electric motor acts as a generator, which converts
the kinetic energy of the wheels into electricity and this, is used to charge the battery.

• Mode 4: The battery can also be charged by the ICE via the generator even when the vehicle comes to a
complete stop (Figure 1d).

Power Flow Control in Parallel Hybrid

The parallel hybrid system has four modes of operation. These four modes of operation are
 • • Mode 1: During start up or full throttle acceleration (Figure 2a) ; both the ICE and the EM share the
required power to propel the vehicle. Typically, the relative distribution between the ICE and electric motor
is 80-20%.

• Mode 2: During normal driving (Figure 2b), the required traction power is supplied by the ICE only and
the EM remains in off mode.

• Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 2c), the EM acts as a generator to charge the battery via
the power converter.

• Mode 4: Under light load condition (Figure 2d), the traction power is delivered by the ICE and the ICE
also charges the battery via the EM.

Power Flow Control Series-Parallel Hybrid

The series-parallel hybrid system involves the features of series and parallel hybrid systems. Hence, a number of
operation modes are feasible. Therefore, these hybrid systems are classified into two categories: the ICE
dominated and the EM dominated .

The various operating modes of ICE dominated system are:

• • Mode 1: At startup (Figure 3a) , the battery solely provides the necessary power to propel the vehicle and
the ICE remains in off mode.

• Mode 2: During full throttle acceleration (Figure 3b), both the ICE and the EM share the required traction
power.

• Mode 3: During normal driving (Figure 3c), the required traction power is provided by the ICE only and
the EM remains in the off state.

• Mode 4: During normal braking or deceleration (Figure 3d), the EM acts as a generator to charge the
battery.

• Mode 5: To charge the battery during driving (Figure 3e), the ICE delivers the required traction power and
also charges the battery. In this mode the EM acts as a generator.

• Mode 6: When the vehicle is at standstill (Figure 3f), the ICE can deliver power to charge the battery via
the EM
The operating modes of EM dominated system are:

• • Mode 1: During startup (Figure 4a), the EM provides the traction power and the ICE remains in the off
state.

• Mode 2: During full throttle (Figure 4b), both the ICE and EM provide the traction power.

• Mode 3: During normal driving (Figure 4c), both the ICE and EM provide the traction power.
• Mode 4: During braking or deceleration (Figure 4d), the EM acts as a generator to charge the battery.

• Mode 5: To charge the battery during driving (Figure 4e), the ICE delivers the required traction power and
also charges the battery. The EM acts as a generator.

• Mode 6: When the vehicle is at standstill (Figure 4f), the ICE can deliver power to charge the battery via
the EM
(b) Explain the series-parallel configurations of electric drive train with neat diagram
4. (a) Explain the series-parallel configurations of hybrid drive train with neat
diagram.

Series-Parallel (Power-Split) Hybrid Drive Train

The series-parallel hybrid drive train, also known as a power-split hybrid, combines features of both
series and parallel configurations. This configuration offers flexibility and efficiency by allowing the
vehicle to operate in multiple modes: electric-only, engine-only, and combined power. A key component
of the series-parallel hybrid is the power-split device, typically a planetary gear set, which enables the
blending of power from both the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the electric motor.

Components and Power Flow

1. Battery:
o Stores electrical energy.
o Supplies power to the electric motor through the power inverter.
o Can be charged by the generator or through regenerative braking.
2. Power Inverter:
o Converts DC power from the battery to AC power for the electric motor.
o Converts AC power from the generator to DC power to charge the battery.
3. Electric Motor:
o Drives the wheels directly.
o Can also act as a generator during regenerative braking to recharge the battery.
4. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE):
o Provides mechanical power to the power-split device.
o Can drive the wheels directly or drive the generator to produce electrical power.
5. Generator:
o Converts mechanical energy from the ICE into electrical energy.
o Supplies power to the electric motor or charges the battery.
6. Power-Split Device (Planetary Gear Set):
o Blends power from the ICE and the electric motor.
o Allows the ICE to operate at optimal efficiency by decoupling engine speed from vehicle
speed.

Operating Modes
 1. Electric-Only Mode:
o The vehicle is driven solely by the electric motor using power from the battery.
o Ideal for low-speed city driving and short distances.
2. Engine-Only Mode:
o The ICE drives the wheels directly through the power-split device.
o Used during highway cruising or when the battery is low.
3. Hybrid Mode (Combined Power):
o Both the ICE and the electric motor provide power to the wheels.
o The ICE can drive the generator to provide additional electrical power to the motor.
o Offers optimal performance and efficiency during acceleration and hill climbing.
4. Regenerative Braking:
o The electric motor acts as a generator, converting kinetic energy into electrical energy.
o The generated power is stored in the battery.
5. Battery Charging:
o The ICE drives the generator to produce electrical power, which is used to charge the
battery.
o Can occur while the vehicle is in motion or when stationary.

(b) Explain about speed coupling of parallel hybrid train.

Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Speed Coupling

In Figure 9 a parallel hybrid drive train with speed coupling using planetary gear unit and an EM.
The connection of the ICE and the EM is as follows:

• • The engine supplies its power to the sun gear through a clutch and transmission. The
transmission is used to modify the speed vs. torque profile of the ICE so as to match the
traction requirements. The transmission may be single gear or multigear.

• The EM supplies its power to the ring gear through a pair of gears. The Locks 1 and 2
are used to lock the sun gear and ring gear to the stationary frame of the vehicle in order to
implement different modes of operation.
 •

• Figure 9: Parallel hybrid drive with speed coupling

There are 5 different modes of operation possible for the configuration shown in Figure 10 and
they are:

• • Hybrid traction: When lock 1 and lock 2 are released, i.e. the sun gear and the ring gear
can rotate both the ICE and EM supply positive speed and torque to the driven wheels.
Since, the output shaft is connected to the carrier gear, the output torque and speed is give
by
•

(12)

(13)

• Engine alone traction : When the lock 2 locks the ring gear, only the ICE delivers the
required traction force to the wheels. The output torque and the speed is given by

(14)

(15)
 • Motor alone traction: When lock 1 locks the sun gear, only the EM delivers the traction
force to the wheels. The output torque and the speed is given by

(16)

(17)

• Regenerative braking: In this case lock 2 is engaged, the ICE is switched off, the clutch
is disengaged and the EM is controlled in regenerating mode and the battery absorbs the
kinetic energy of the vehicle.

• Battery charging from the ICE: In this mode the locks 1 and 2 are released. The EM
is controlled to rotate in the opposite direction, i.e. the EM operates with positive torque
and negative speed and absorbs power from the engine and delivers it to the battery.

5. (a) Explain the chopper control of DC motors used in hybrid electric vehicles.
(b) Explain about sensorless techniques of PMMC machine.

Sensorless Techniques of PMMC Machines

The operation of Permanent Magnet Motor Controllers (PMMC) typically relies on position
sensors like Hall-effect sensors or optical encoders for rotor position information to manage the
turn-on and turn-off of each phase. However, these sensors are expensive, fragile, and reduce the
reliability of motor drives, especially in harsh environments like military applications. Sensorless
technology can maintain system operation even if position sensors fail, which is critical in such
applications.

Sensorless techniques can be categorized into four main groups:

1. Using Measured Currents, Voltages, Fundamental Machine Equations, and

Algebraic Manipulations:
o Flux Linkage Calculation: This method calculates flux linkages from measured
voltages and currents to estimate rotor position. The rotor speed can also be
determined by the rate of change of flux linkage.
o Model-Based Prediction: This involves creating a model to predict measurable
voltages or currents, comparing them with actual measurements, and using the
differences to estimate rotor position.
2. Observer-Based Methods:
o These methods use observers, which are systems that estimate the internal states
of a system (in this case, rotor position) based on external measurements.
Observers can be designed using various control theory techniques to provide
accurate rotor position estimates.
3. Back EMF (Electromotive Force) Methods:
o These techniques utilize the back EMF generated in the motor windings when the
rotor moves. By analyzing the back EMF, rotor position and speed can be
inferred. Examples include direct back EMF detection and back EMF integration
methods.
4. Novel Techniques:
o Artificial Intelligence (AI) Methods: Techniques such as neural networks and
fuzzy logic can estimate rotor position by learning the relationships between
measurable quantities (like voltages and currents) and rotor position.
o Machine Structure Variations: Some methods involve modifying the motor's
structure to facilitate sensorless operation.

These sensorless techniques improve the reliability and reduce the cost of PMMC drives by
eliminating the need for fragile and expensive position sensors, making them suitable for a wider
range of applications

Advantages of Sensorless Control

• Cost Reduction: Eliminates the need for physical sensors, reducing overall system cost.
• Reliability: Removes the potential failure points associated with physical sensors,
increasing system reliability.
• Simplicity: Simplifies the motor design by eliminating the need for sensor mounting and
wiring.
 • Performance: Provides accurate control across a wide range of speeds and operating
conditions.

Challenges

• Initial Position Detection: Determining the rotor position at standstill or low speeds can
be challenging.
• Parameter Sensitivity: Accurate motor parameters are often required, and variations in
these parameters can affect estimation accuracy.
• Computational Complexity: Some sensorless techniques involve complex algorithms
that require significant computational resources.

Applications

Sensorless control techniques are used in various applications, including:

• Automotive: Electric and hybrid vehicles

• Industrial Automation: Robots, CNC machines, and conveyor systems
• Consumer Electronics: Air conditioners, washing machines, and fans
• Renewable Energy: Wind turbine generators

6. (a) Explain the multi-quadrant control of DC motors used in hybrid electric vehicles.
The application of DC motors on EVs and HEVs requires the motors to operate in multiquadrants,
including forward motoring, forward braking, backward motoring, and backward
braking, as shown in Figure 7.10. For vehicles with reverse mechanical gears, two-quadrant operation
(forward motoring and forward braking, or quadrant I and quadrant IV) is
b) A dc. separately excited motor is powered by a d.c to d.c converter from a 600 volts d.c.
source. The armature resistance is 0.05ohm . The back e.m.f. constant of the motor 1.527
V/A rad/s. The average armature current is 250 amps. The field current is 2.5 amps. The
armature current is continuous and has negligible ripple. If the duty cycle of the converter
is 60%, determine (i) the input power from the source, (ii) the equivalent input resistance of
the d.c.-d.c. converter drive, (iii) the motor speed and (iv) the developed torque
7. (a) Describe the basic principle of super capacitors based energy storage system in
hybrid electric vehicles.

Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors or electrochemical capacitors, are energy storage

devices that offer high power density, rapid charge and discharge capabilities, and long cycle
life. In hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), supercapacitors are used in conjunction with batteries to
improve overall performance, efficiency, and longevity. Here’s an explanation of the basic
principles of supercapacitors and their role in HEVs:

Basic Principles of Supercapacitors

1. Structure and Components:

o Electrodes: Supercapacitors consist of two electrodes, typically made of high-
surface-area materials like activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, or graphene.
o Electrolyte: The electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte, which can be aqueous
or organic, facilitating the movement of ions.
o Separator: A separator prevents direct electrical contact between the electrodes
while allowing ionic movement.
2. Energy Storage Mechanisms:
o Electric Double-Layer Capacitance (EDLC): Energy is stored electrostatically
by the accumulation of ions at the electrode-electrolyte interface, forming a
double layer of charges. This process is purely physical and does not involve
chemical reactions, leading to high power density and long cycle life.
o Pseudocapacitance: Some supercapacitors also use electrochemical processes
where charge is stored through reversible faradaic (redox) reactions at the surface
or near-surface of the electrodes. This provides higher energy density compared to
EDLC.
3. Charge and Discharge:
o Rapid Charging: Supercapacitors can be charged very quickly because the
energy storage mechanism involves the movement of ions rather than slower
chemical reactions.
o High Power Delivery: They can discharge rapidly, delivering high bursts of
power when needed, which is particularly useful during acceleration or
regenerative braking in HEVs.

Role of Supercapacitors in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

1. Energy Buffering:
 o Power Peaks: Supercapacitors handle high power peaks during acceleration and
regenerative braking, reducing the stress on the main battery and extending its
lifespan.
o Smooth Power Flow: They buffer rapid changes in power demand, providing
smooth and efficient energy flow in the vehicle’s powertrain.
2. Regenerative Braking:
o Efficient Energy Recovery: During braking, kinetic energy is converted into
electrical energy. Supercapacitors can quickly absorb this energy due to their high
charge acceptance rate, improving the overall efficiency of the vehicle.
o Storage and Reuse: The stored energy can be rapidly discharged to assist in the
next acceleration, reducing the load on the primary battery.
3. Complementary to Batteries:
o Hybrid System: In HEVs, supercapacitors are often used in combination with
batteries. Batteries provide high energy density for sustained energy supply, while
supercapacitors offer high power density for quick energy delivery and
absorption.
o Extended Battery Life: By handling high power demands, supercapacitors
reduce the cycling and thermal stress on batteries, which can significantly prolong
battery life and enhance overall system reliability.

Advantages of Supercapacitors in HEVs

• High Power Density: Supercapacitors can deliver and absorb large amounts of power
very quickly, which is ideal for dynamic driving conditions.
• Long Cycle Life: They can endure millions of charge-discharge cycles without
significant degradation, ensuring longevity and reliability.
• Rapid Charging: Supercapacitors can be charged in a matter of seconds or minutes,
much faster than conventional batteries.
• Wide Operating Temperature Range: They perform well over a broad range of
temperatures, making them suitable for various environmental conditions.

Challenges and Considerations

• Lower Energy Density: Supercapacitors have lower energy density compared to

batteries, meaning they cannot store as much energy in the same volume or weight.
• Cost: The materials and manufacturing processes for supercapacitors can be expensive,
though costs are decreasing with technological advancements.
• System Integration: Effective integration of supercapacitors with batteries and the
vehicle’s power management system requires sophisticated control algorithms to
optimize performance and efficiency.

(b) Explain about lithium-based batteries in energy storage system.

Lithium Batteries

Since the late 1980s rechargeable lithium cells have come onto the market. They offer greatly
increased energy density in comparison with other rechargeable batteries, though at greatly
increased cost. It is a well-established feature of the most expensive laptop computers and mobile
phones that lithium rechargeable batteries are specified, rather than the lower cost NiCad or NiHM
cells that we have been considering earlier.

The lithium batteries are of following types:

• Lithium polymer batteries

• Lithium ion batteries

In the following subsections each of the above two battery types are described.

The lithium polymer battery

The lithium polymer battery uses lithium metal for the negative electrode and a transition metal
intercalation oxide for the positive. In the resulting chemical reaction the lithium combines with
the metal oxide to form a lithium metal oxide and release energy. When the battery is recharged
the chemical reaction is reversed. The lithium is thus both a reactant and the mobile ion that moves
through the electrolyte. The overall chemical reaction is:

(5)

The lithium-ion battery

The lithium ion battery was introduced in the early 1990s and it uses a lithiated transition metal
intercalation oxide for the positive electrode and lithiated carbon for the negative electrode. The
electrolyte is either a liquid organic solution or a solid polymer. Electrical energy is obtained from
the combination of the lithium carbon and the lithium metal oxide to form carbon and lithium
metal oxide. The overall chemical reaction for the battery is:

...........................................................(6)

The essential features of the battery are shown in Table II. An important point about lithium ion
batteries is that accurate control of voltage is needed when charging lithium cells. If it is slightly
too high it can damage the battery, and if too low the battery will be insufficiently charged. Suitable
commercial chargers are being developed along with the battery.

.......................................Table II Nominal battery parameters for lithium ion batteries.

........................

8. (a) Explain the concept of parallel hybridization in energy storage of hybrid electric
vehicles.

Parallel hybridization in energy storage for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) refers to a
configuration where both the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the electric motor can
independently or simultaneously provide power to drive the vehicle. This configuration leverages
multiple energy storage systems, such as batteries and supercapacitors, to optimize performance,
efficiency, and reliability. Here’s a detailed explanation:

Concept of Parallel Hybridization

1. Power Sources:
o Internal Combustion Engine (ICE): The conventional engine that provides
mechanical power by burning fuel.
o Electric Motor: Powered by an energy storage system (e.g., batteries or
supercapacitors), the electric motor can drive the vehicle independently or assist
the ICE.
2. Energy Storage Systems:
o Battery: Typically used for storing large amounts of energy, providing sustained
power over a longer duration.
o Supercapacitor: Stores and delivers short bursts of high power, ideal for quick
acceleration and regenerative braking.
3. Power Split and Control:
o Parallel Configuration: Both the ICE and the electric motor are connected to the
vehicle’s drivetrain. They can work together or separately to provide propulsion.
 o Power Management System: An advanced control system manages the power
flow between the ICE, electric motor, and energy storage systems to optimize
efficiency, performance, and emissions.

Working of Parallel Hybridization

1. Starting and Low-Speed Driving:

o Electric Mode: The electric motor, powered by the battery, can drive the vehicle
alone, providing a quiet and emission-free start. This is particularly efficient at
low speeds and in stop-and-go traffic.
2. Acceleration and High-Speed Driving:
o Combined Mode: Both the ICE and the electric motor can provide power
simultaneously for quick acceleration and high-speed driving. The electric motor
assists the ICE, reducing the load and improving fuel efficiency.
3. Cruising:
o ICE Mode: During steady-state cruising at higher speeds, the ICE can drive the
vehicle alone, operating in its most efficient range. The electric motor may assist
intermittently to optimize performance.
4. Regenerative Braking:
o Energy Recovery: During braking or deceleration, the electric motor acts as a
generator, converting kinetic energy into electrical energy. This energy is stored
in the battery or supercapacitor for later use, improving overall efficiency.
5. Power Boost:
o Supercapacitor Assistance: During sudden acceleration or power demand, the
supercapacitor can quickly discharge its stored energy, providing an additional
power boost to the electric motor. This reduces the strain on the battery and ICE.

Advantages of Parallel Hybridization

1. Improved Efficiency:
o Optimized Operation: The power management system ensures that the ICE
operates in its most efficient range, while the electric motor handles low-speed
and high-power demands.
o Reduced Fuel Consumption: By using electric power for low-speed driving and
assisting during acceleration, parallel hybrids reduce overall fuel consumption.
2. Enhanced Performance:
o Power Boost: The combined power from the ICE and electric motor provides
better acceleration and overall performance compared to conventional ICE
vehicles.
o Smooth Transition: Seamless switching between power sources ensures smooth
and responsive driving experience.
3. Energy Recovery:
o Regenerative Braking: Captures and reuses energy that would otherwise be
wasted during braking, improving energy efficiency and extending the driving
range.
4. Flexibility:
 o Dual Power Sources: The ability to use both ICE and electric power provides
flexibility in various driving conditions and reduces dependency on a single
energy source.

Challenges and Considerations

1. Complexity:
o Power Management: Advanced control algorithms are required to manage the
power flow and ensure efficient operation.
o Integration: Integrating multiple power sources and energy storage systems
requires sophisticated design and engineering.
2. Cost:
o Initial Investment: The additional components, such as electric motors, batteries,
and supercapacitors, increase the initial cost of the vehicle.
3. Space and Weight:
o Packaging: Accommodating multiple energy storage systems and power sources
can be challenging in terms of space and weight distribution.

Applications in HEVs

Parallel hybridization is commonly used in various types of HEVs, including:

• Mild Hybrids: Where the electric motor assists the ICE but cannot drive the vehicle
independently.
• Full Hybrids: Where the electric motor can drive the vehicle independently or assist the
ICE.
• Plug-in Hybrids: Enhanced versions of full hybrids with larger batteries and the ability
to recharge from an external power source, allowing for extended electric-only driving.

(b) Explain about control area network (CAN).

In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), the Control Area Network (CAN) plays a crucial role in
ensuring smooth and efficient communication between various electronic control units (ECUs).
These ECUs manage different functions, such as powertrain control, battery management,
regenerative braking, and infotainment systems. Here’s a detailed explanation of CAN in the
context of HEVs:

Key Features of CAN in HEVs

1. Multi-Master Capability:
o Multiple ECUs: HEVs have numerous ECUs, including those for the internal
combustion engine (ICE), electric motor, battery management system (BMS), and
more. CAN allows these ECUs to communicate seamlessly without a central host.
o Priority-Based Arbitration: CAN resolves message conflicts by prioritizing
messages based on their identifiers, ensuring that critical data (e.g., safety-related
information) is transmitted first.
 2. Broadcast Communication:
o Message-Based Protocol: CAN transmits messages to all nodes on the network.
Each ECU can filter and process relevant messages based on the message
identifier, ensuring efficient data dissemination.
3. High Reliability and Error Detection:
o Robust Error Handling: CAN incorporates multiple error detection
mechanisms, such as cyclic redundancy check (CRC), bit stuffing, and frame
check, ensuring data integrity and reliability.
o Fault Confinement: CAN can isolate faulty nodes, preventing them from
disrupting the entire network.
4. Flexible Data Rates:
o Standard CAN: Typically supports data rates up to 1 Mbps, suitable for most
HEV applications.
o CAN FD: Flexible Data-Rate CAN allows higher data rates (up to 8 Mbps) and
larger data payloads, enabling faster and more efficient communication.

Components of CAN in HEVs

1. ECUs (Electronic Control Units):

o Powertrain Control Module (PCM): Manages the internal combustion engine
and electric motor, optimizing their operation for efficiency and performance.
o Battery Management System (BMS): Monitors and controls the battery pack,
ensuring optimal charging, discharging, and thermal management.
o Regenerative Braking System: Coordinates the conversion of kinetic energy
into electrical energy during braking.
o Vehicle Control Unit (VCU): Acts as a central controller, integrating data from
various ECUs to manage overall vehicle operation.
2. CAN Bus:
o Physical Layer: The physical wiring (usually a twisted pair) that connects all
ECUs. It ensures robust communication by minimizing electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
o Termination Resistors: Typically 120-ohm resistors at each end of the bus
prevent signal reflections and maintain signal integrity.

Operation of CAN in HEVs

1. Data Transmission:
o Message Structure: CAN messages consist of an identifier (defining priority and
type), control field (indicating data length), data field (containing actual data),
CRC field (for error checking), acknowledgment field, and end-of-frame.
o Broadcast and Filtering: Each ECU listens to the bus and processes only the
messages relevant to its operation based on the identifier.
2. Real-Time Communication:
o High Priority Messages: Critical messages, such as those related to safety and
powertrain control, are assigned high priority to ensure they are transmitted first.
 o Non-Critical Messages: Lower priority messages, such as infotainment data, are
transmitted when the bus is free.
3. Error Detection and Handling:
o Error Detection: CAN uses CRC, bit monitoring, and frame checks to detect
errors in messages.
o Error Handling: When an error is detected, the message is discarded, and a
retransmission is requested, ensuring reliable communication.

Applications of CAN in HEVs

1. Powertrain Management:
o ICE and Electric Motor Coordination: CAN enables precise control and
coordination between the ICE and electric motor for optimal performance and
efficiency.
o Mode Switching: Facilitates smooth transitions between different driving modes
(e.g., electric-only, hybrid, and ICE-only).
2. Battery Management:
o Monitoring and Control: The BMS uses CAN to communicate with other
ECUs, ensuring optimal battery performance, longevity, and safety.
o State of Charge (SOC) and State of Health (SOH) Monitoring: Real-time data
on battery SOC and SOH is transmitted via CAN, allowing the VCU to make
informed decisions.
3. Regenerative Braking:
o Energy Recovery: CAN coordinates the regenerative braking system with the
electric motor and battery, maximizing energy recovery and improving efficiency.
4. Vehicle Dynamics and Safety:
o Stability Control: CAN integrates data from various sensors and ECUs to
manage stability control systems (e.g., ABS, traction control).
o Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS): Enables communication
between sensors, cameras, and control units to support features like lane-keeping
assistance and adaptive cruise control.

Advantages of CAN in HEVs

• Efficiency: High-speed communication and efficient data management enhance overall

vehicle performance and efficiency.
• Reliability: Robust error detection and handling ensure reliable communication even in
harsh automotive environments.
• Scalability: CAN’s flexible architecture supports the addition of new ECUs and features
without significant reconfiguration.
• Cost-Effective: Reduces wiring complexity and cost compared to point-to-point
communication systems.

9. a) Explain the different categories of energy management strategies in electric vehicles

and hybrid vehicles.
Energy management strategies in electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are
essential for optimizing performance, efficiency, and longevity of the vehicle's powertrain. These
strategies can be broadly categorized based on their approach and objectives. Here’s an overview
of the different categories of energy management strategies:

1. Rule-Based Strategies

a. Deterministic Rule-Based Strategies:

• Definition: These strategies use pre-defined rules and thresholds to manage energy flow
based on driving conditions and vehicle states.
• Characteristics: Simple to implement, do not require complex computations.
• Examples:
o Thermostat Control: Switching between electric and internal combustion engine
(ICE) modes based on predefined state of charge (SOC) thresholds.
o Engine on/off strategy: The ICE turns off during idling or low-power demand
and turns on when higher power is needed.

b. Fuzzy Logic-Based Strategies:

• Definition: Uses fuzzy logic to handle uncertainties and non-linearities in the system.
• Characteristics: More flexible and adaptive than deterministic rule-based strategies.
• Examples:
o Adaptive Control: Adjusting power distribution between battery and ICE based
on fuzzy logic rules considering factors like SOC, driver demand, and road
conditions.

2. Optimization-Based Strategies

a. Global Optimization:

• Definition: Strategies that seek to optimize the overall performance of the vehicle over a
complete driving cycle.
• Characteristics: Requires prior knowledge of the driving cycle and significant
computational resources.
• Examples:
o Dynamic Programming (DP): A method that computes the optimal control
strategy over the entire driving cycle but is computationally intensive and not
feasible for real-time implementation.

b. Real-Time Optimization:

• Definition: Strategies that optimize energy management in real-time based on current

and predicted driving conditions.
• Characteristics: Less computationally intensive than global optimization, suitable for
on-the-fly adjustments.
 • Examples:
o Model Predictive Control (MPC): Uses a model of the vehicle to predict future
states and optimize control actions over a moving time horizon.
o Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS): Converts electrical
energy consumption into an equivalent fuel consumption and minimizes the total
equivalent fuel consumption in real-time.

(b) Explain about the battery management system in hybrid electric vehicle

A Battery Management System (BMS) in a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is crucial for ensuring
the safety, reliability, and efficiency of the vehicle's battery pack. The BMS is responsible for
monitoring, managing, and protecting the battery pack, which is essential for the optimal
performance of the HEV. Here’s an in-depth explanation of the BMS in HEVs:

Key Functions of the BMS

1. Monitoring:
o Voltage Monitoring: The BMS continuously monitors the voltage of each cell in
the battery pack to ensure they are within safe operating limits.
o Current Monitoring: It tracks the current flowing into and out of the battery
pack to prevent overcurrent situations that can damage the cells.
o Temperature Monitoring: Temperature sensors are placed throughout the
battery pack to detect any hotspots and ensure the cells operate within the optimal
temperature range.
2. Protection:
o Overvoltage and Undervoltage Protection: The BMS prevents the cells from
overcharging (overvoltage) and deep discharging (undervoltage), which can
damage the battery.
o Overcurrent Protection: It protects the battery pack from excessive currents
during charging and discharging, which can cause overheating and damage.
o Thermal Protection: If the temperature exceeds safe limits, the BMS can initiate
cooling measures or shut down the system to prevent thermal runaway.
3. Balancing:
o Cell Balancing: The BMS equalizes the charge across all cells to ensure uniform
charge and discharge cycles, maximizing the battery pack’s capacity and lifespan.
This can be done using passive balancing (dissipating excess energy as heat) or
active balancing (redistributing energy among cells).
4. State Estimation:
o State of Charge (SOC): The BMS estimates the SOC, which represents the
remaining capacity of the battery as a percentage of its total capacity.
o State of Health (SOH): It estimates the SOH, indicating the battery’s overall
condition and its ability to hold charge compared to a new battery.
 oState of Power (SOP): The BMS assesses the maximum power that can be safely
drawn from or supplied to the battery at any given time.
5. Communication:
o Data Logging: The BMS records key parameters such as voltage, current,
temperature, SOC, and SOH for diagnostic and performance analysis.
o Communication with Other Systems: It communicates with other vehicle
control units (e.g., vehicle control unit, powertrain control module) via CAN bus
or other communication protocols to coordinate the battery’s operation with the
vehicle’s overall energy management strategy.
6. Thermal Management:
o Active Cooling/Heating: The BMS can control thermal management systems,
such as fans, liquid cooling, or heating elements, to maintain the battery pack
within the optimal temperature range.
o Thermal Modeling: It uses thermal models to predict temperature changes and
take proactive measures to prevent overheating or overcooling.

Components of the BMS

1. Sensors:
o Voltage Sensors: Measure the voltage of individual cells and the entire battery
pack.
o Current Sensors: Measure the current flowing into and out of the battery pack.
o Temperature Sensors: Monitor the temperature at various points within the
battery pack.
2. Microcontroller/Processor:
o Control Unit: Processes data from sensors, executes algorithms for state
estimation, and manages protection and balancing functions.
3. Communication Interface:
o CAN Bus: Facilitates communication between the BMS and other vehicle control
units.
o Wired/Wireless Communication: Ensures reliable data exchange within the
vehicle’s electronic system.
4. Balancing Circuitry:
o Passive Balancers: Use resistors to dissipate excess energy as heat from
overcharged cells.
o Active Balancers: Use capacitors or inductors to transfer energy from
overcharged cells to undercharged cells.
5. Power Supply:
o Battery Power: The BMS is powered by the battery pack it manages or an
auxiliary power source.

Importance of the BMS in HEVs

1. Safety:
 o Preventing Failures: The BMS mitigates risks associated with battery failures,
such as thermal runaway, by continuously monitoring and protecting the battery
pack.
o Ensuring Safe Operation: By maintaining the battery within safe operating
limits, the BMS ensures the safety of the vehicle and its occupants.
2. Performance Optimization:
o Maximizing Efficiency: The BMS optimizes the battery’s performance by
ensuring efficient charging and discharging cycles.
o Extending Battery Life: By preventing overcharging, deep discharging, and
thermal issues, the BMS extends the battery pack’s lifespan.
3. Reliability:
o Consistent Operation: The BMS ensures consistent performance of the battery
pack, which is critical for the reliable operation of the HEV.
o Diagnostic Capabilities: Data logging and communication features of the BMS
facilitate diagnostics and maintenance, enhancing the overall reliability of the
vehicle.
4. Energy Management:
o Coordination with Vehicle Systems: The BMS coordinates with other vehicle
control systems to optimize energy usage, improving fuel efficiency and reducing
emissions in HEVs.

Challenges and Considerations

1. Complexity:
o Integration: Integrating the BMS with other vehicle systems and ensuring
seamless communication can be complex.
o Algorithm Development: Developing accurate algorithms for state estimation
and protection requires extensive research and testing.
2. Cost:
o Initial Investment: High-quality sensors, microcontrollers, and balancing circuits
can be expensive.
o Maintenance: Ongoing maintenance and software updates may be required to
ensure optimal performance.
3. Scalability:
o Different Battery Chemistries: The BMS must be adaptable to different battery
chemistries and configurations used in various HEVs.
o Future Technologies: As battery technologies evolve, the BMS must be designed
to accommodate future advancements.