DME

Introduction

Distance measuring Equipment is a secondary radar system that enables an aircraft to establish
its range from a ground station. A pilot obtains accurate magnetic bearing from a VOR &
accurate slant range from DME.

The two facilities are normally co-sited to form the approved ICAO RHO-THETA short range
“LINE OF SIGHT” navigation aid( RHO- Range , THETA- Bearing)

Uses Of DME

(a) It provides a circular position line when a single DME is used. Fixes are obtained when it is
used in conjunction with VOR or other DME stations.
(b) Its range indication is very useful when carrying out an instrument approach.
(c) It eases the task of the ATC in identifying on radar when an aircraft reports its position in
terms of range and bearing from a VOR/DME station.
(d) When two aircraft are using DME and flying on the same track, the positive ranges from
these aircraft enables the ATC to maintain accurate separation.
(e) Accurate ranges to touch-down are read off when a transponder is operating in conjunction
with ILS.
(f) It provides a basis for more accurate holding patterns.
(g) With an additional computer, area navigation may be carried out with accuracy.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The system works on the principle of secondary radar:
 The interrogator on board the aircraft transmits an interrogation signal.
 The ground-based transponder (transponder meaning a transmitter that is responding to
an interrogation) transmits to the aircraft.

Frequency
UHF – 960 to 1215 MHz

Emission Characteristics
P0N

P ---------------- Pulse modulated, constant amplitude.

0----------------- No modulating symbol.
N----------------- No information transmitted.

the aircraft’s position is a basic requirement for air navigation and one means of satisfying this
requirement is to present the pilot with bearing and distance information. Bearing information
may be derived in a variety of ways, some of which are via VOR or ADF systems. Distance
information may be derived from radar or by DME, which is a form of radar.

In primary radar a short pulse is transmitted and the time interval from transmission to reception
of the reflected pulse is measured. As the speed of an electromagnetic pulse through the
atmosphere is 300 000 kilometres per second, or one nautical mile in 6.2 micro-seconds, the
distance between the transmitter and the target can be calculated.

1 Notes are only for your reference. Please go thru your books for more details. (Himanshu Haldar)
In the case of radar sited on the ground an aircraft target may be easily identified and the
distance measured readily due to its relative freedom from other reflecting objects.

If radar is installed in an aircraft, precise identification of specific ground targets, for all practical
purposes, is very difficult to effect due to mass reflection from surrounding objects. Hence
primary radar is supplemented by additional equipment at the target to enable distance to be
reliably measured to the necessary degree of accuracy. When primary radar is supplemented to
accomplish this task it then becomes a form of secondary radar.
In secondary radar, pulses known as interrogation pulses are transmitted and when received at
the target they are passed through a ‘gate’ and then trigger transmission of reply pulses back to
the initial source where the time interval may be measured and displayed as distance. The
‘gate’ in the target receiver is an electronic device which is preset to receive only matching
pulses.

In the DME system the interrogating equipment, known as the ‘Interrogator’, is installed in the
aircraft and the target, located on the ground, is referred to as the ‘Transponder’ or ‘Ground
Beacon’.

The airborne interrogator radiates coded R.F. pulse pairs at a frequency within the band 978-
1213M Hz from an omni-directional antenna. A ground transponder ( the beacon),within range
of the aircraft and operating on the channel to which the interrogator is selected receives the
interrogation and automatically triggers the beacon transmitter after a fixed delay of 50 µ/s. The
omni-directional radiation from the beacon is coded R.F pulse pairs at a frequency 63 MHz
below or above the interrogation frequency.

This reply is received by the suitably tuned interrogator receiver and after processing is fed to
the range circuits where the round trip travel time is computed.

R = (T - 50)/12.395

Where :
R -------------- Slant Range
T--------------- Time in micro second
12.395 ------- 12.395 µ/s time taken for RF energy to travel I nautical mile and return.

Both beacon and transponder use a single omnidirectional antenna shared between transmitter
and receiver n each case. This is possible since the system is pulsed, and diplexing is simple
since the transmit and receive frequencies are different.

2 Notes are only for your reference. Please go thru your books for more details. (Himanshu Haldar)
Once every 30 second the beacon transmits its identity which is detected by the pilot as a
Morse code burst of three letters at an audio tone of 1350 Hz. It should be noted that the RF
radiated from the beacon during identification is of the same form as when transmitting replies,
i .e. pulse pairs. The difference is that when replying there are random intervals between
transmissions whereas during identification the intervals are constant at 1/l350th of a second.

AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT

The airborne unit (interrogator) consists of:

 An omni-directional blade aerial

 A transmitter
 A receiver
 A time measuring device
 A tracking unit

Interrogation
The full TACAN interrogation frequency range is 1025- 11 50M MHz with 1 MHz spacing .Thus t
he interrogation will be one of 126 possible frequencies depending on the channels selected. T
he RF is keyed by pulse pairs. The timing which is depends on the cannel selection X, or Y'.

The interrogator transmits pulse pairs on the selected frequency. These pulse pairs are spaced
by either 12μ seconds (X channel) or 36μ seconds (Y channel). Discussion regarding the X and
Y channels occurs later.

The interrogator transmits pulse pairs on the selected frequency. These pulse pairs are spaced
by either 12μ seconds (X channel) or 36μ seconds (Y channel). Discussion regarding the X and
Y channels occurs later.

Note: For the X channel, the transponder replies with a pulse pair spacing of 12μ seconds. The
Y channel reply is at 30μ seconds.The PRF depends on mode of operation on DME.

When the pilot switches the equipment on, or when a new DME channel is selected, the pulse
pairs transmit at 40-150 pulse pairs per second (pps). This is the search mode. The equipment
stays in search mode until the equipment either:

search mode:
Search during search the range measuring circuits of the interrogator have not recognized
those pulses amongst the total received which have the same jittering pattern as the
interrogation. The interrogation rate is high so as to decrease search time maximum rate
allowed being 150/second. The search time is modern equipment is typically less than 1 second
It is an ICAO recommendation that if after 15000 pairs of pulse have been transmitted without
acquiring indication of distance then the PRF should not exceed 60 until a change in operating
channel is made or a successful search is completed.

3 Notes are only for your reference. Please go thru your books for more details. (Himanshu Haldar)
  Locks on (normally 4 to 5 seconds)
 15 000 pulse pairs have been transmitted
 40-150 PRF (Average)

If lock-on occurs, then the transmitter reduces the pulse recurrence frequency (PRF) of pulse
pairs to 24 to 30 pps, known as tracking mode. If the system transmits 15 000 pulse pairs, the
PRF drops to 60 pps until the system locks on.

Tracking mode:

10-30PRF (Average)

The actual PRF. depends on the equipment design and may be lower than minimum figurers
given. There will be a small variation in the average PRF due to jitter. The average. PRF
assuming that 95% of the time is spent on track must be less than 30. The radiation is Omni-
directional with vertical polarization.

During track the range measuring circuits, having acquired the reply pulses, follow their early or
late arrival as the aircraft moves towards or away the beacon. The continuous range readout is
given with tha flag out of view. The PRF is low, in order to optimize beacon capability a
maximum average PRF of 30 is laid down. This assumes that 95 % of the time is occupied by
the tracking.

In practice modern equipments may have track PRFs of less than 10.

4 Notes are only for your reference. Please go thru your books for more details. (Himanshu Haldar)
JITTERED PRF
If two aircraft transmit to a DME at the same time, the replies are on the same frequency. If both
signals received by the aircraft are the same, how can the receiver differentiate the correct
reply? To which aircraft is each reply being directed?

The equipment in the aircraft “jitters” the PRF before transmission. This random PRF is unique
to the aircraft. When the ground station replies, it manufactures exactly the same PRF reply for
the aircraft. Any reply taken by the airborne equipment that does not match the PRF of the initial
transmission is rejected. The responder now responds to the new rate, and since the
interrogator PRF randomly varies, only the responses to that interrogation will have the same
random variation of PRF. Within the airborne receiver, the tracking unit looks for responses
around the anticipated time interval compatible with the current range from the ground
responder. This effectively creates a gate, and only responses that arrive within that gate
receive consideration. The receiver then determines a match between the PRF of the response
and those that were transmitted. Once matched, the time difference is measured, and, allowing
for responder fixed delay, a range is derived. This is tracking mode.

The pilot must first tune his airborne equipment at the

control unit to the designated VHF frequency
published for the DME station, then identify the
station aurally. Thereafter he need only read the
range as indicated on the display. Some equipments
offer the ability to select a groundspeed function. This
will only work correctly if the station is below the
aircraft's track or intended track, in other words if the
aircraft is flying towards or away from the station. An extension of that is a time function, which
computes and displays the elapsed time to the station if the current groundspeed is maintained.

Range Arc Tracking. The DME can be used in certain instrument approach
procedures which include a portion of 'arcing'. This involves following a DME arc at
the nominated range until arriving on a VOR radial.

5 Notes are only for your reference. Please go thru your books for more details. (Himanshu Haldar)
TRANSPONDER
The ground transponder consists of a receiver and a transmitter. When it detects an
interrogating signal, it transmits a response after a delay of either 50 μs or 74 μs, depending on
the channel. Response is at a different frequency to that received, with the transponder being
capable of generating up to 2700 pps. When replying to a signal, the ground transponder replies
at a rate of 24 – 30 pps.

The transponder is constantly replying to whatever signals it detects. If there are no genuine
aircraft generated signals, it replies to random noise. The transponder filters the received
signals and replies to the strongest it receives, whether generated by an aircraft or by noise. In
theory, the closest interrogating aircraft will have their signals replied to. The transponder is able
to respond to approximately 2700 pulse pairs every second.

Identification
The ground station also transmits an identification signal on the same frequency, approximately
every 30 seconds. During the identification period, the transponded pulses are replaced by
regularly spaced pulses, keyed with the beacon identification letters.

FREQUENCY ALLOCATION
Interrogator and transponder operating frequencies are grouped into pairs, the two frequencies
being 63 MHz apart. The airborne interrogator uses frequencies from 1025 MHz to 1150 MHz
for transmissions, while the ground-based transponder answers on frequencies in two groups,
962 MHz to 1024 MHz (low) and from 1051 MHz to 1213 MHz (high).

The range of the interrogator frequencies from 1025 to 1150 provides 126 channels. To double
the available response channels to 252, the response frequencies are split into groups 63 MHz
higher and lower than the corresponding interrogation channel. For the interrogation channels
from 1 to 63, an X beacon would prompt a response 63 MHz lower and a Y beacon, 63 MHz
higher. For interrogation channels 64 to 126, the X beacon would obtain a response 63 MHz
higher and the Y beacon, 63 MHz lower.

X and Y Channel Arrangement & Pairing with VOR frequency

There are 126 interrogation frequencies (1025 to 1150Mhz with spacing 1Mhz) and 252
possible reply frequencies in full TACAN ( TaCtical Air Navigation) frequency range.

DME ground equipments are designated as 'X' or 'Y' channels. 'X' channels are the most
common. The transponder signal is 63 MHz higher than the received signal. 'Y' stations reply at
63 MHz below the received signal, and the pulse pairs are differently spaced. 'X' stations are
paired with VOR beacon frequencies with whole number decimals (e.g. 114.30), whereas 'Y'
beacons are paired with frequencies using halved decimals (e.g. 114.35).

DME DME TACAN Remarks

VOR Interrogation Transponder Channel
Frequency Frequency Frequency
(Ground Reply)

108.00 1041 1104 17X VHF Navigation Frequency

108.00 to 118.00MHz.Even VHF
Nav freq – DME reply in X
channels

6 Notes are only for your reference. Please go thru your books for more details. (Himanshu Haldar)
 108.05 1041 978 17Y Odd VHF Nav Freq – DME reply
in Y channels
108.10 1042 1105 18X Coupled with ILS(Localizer
frequency )
108.15 1042 979 18Y Coupled with ILS(Localizer
frequency )

For Civil DME beacons the 52 channels 1 to 16 ( X and Y , total 32) & 60 to 69 ( X and Y, Total
20 ) are not in use and are avoided for two reason. Firstly DME is meant to be used in
conjunction with VOR & ILS (Localizer) (short Range VHF Navigation System) with occupy 200
channels rather than 252. Secondly, having 52 redundant channels, the gap is chosen to
overlap the ATC transponder frequencies of 1030 and 1090 Mhz to avoid any interferences,
although different codes and mutual suppression are also used for the purpose.

The use of the 52 missing channels is, however, not precluded by the ICAO; they may be
allocated on nation basis.

Squitter Pulses
If the average transmit pulse rate at a DME ground station drops to values below 700 pp/s (pp/s
= pulse pairs per second) due to, for example, a low number of aircraft, the ground station adds
random "squitter pulses" to ensure that a minimum pulse rate is provided. This minimum pulse
rate is necessary in order to facilitate synchronization of the automatic gain control of an aircraft
receiver to the signal of a ground station. Furthermore, the most important pulse parameters of
a ground station (e.g. rise and fall time, pulse width and spacing, pulse delay and pulse peak
power) are continuously monitored and adjusted by a "BITE" (BITE = Built-In Test Equipment)
while the system is in operation. However, this monitoring and regulation loop only works
correctly if there are an adequate number of test pulses. These random squitter pulses are
generated by an internal interrogator and fed to the receiver. There, these pulses are then
processed in exactly the same way as pulse interrogations from aircraft.

Beacon Saturation

7 Notes are only for your reference. Please go thru your books for more details. (Himanshu Haldar)
Theoretically 126 aircraft can use each station at one time, if none of them are scanning at the
high rate. On an average, however, we assume that some aircraft will be attempting to 'lock on',
so a figure of 100 aircraft is commonly accepted as the average number which can use each
station simultaneously. However, some RNAV systems alternate their DME interrogations
between several stations, requiring to re-Iock every minute or so, which means that they are
interrogating at the high rate for a considerable period of the time. The ground stations will only
reply to the 2700 strongest signals every second, so a large number of high-rate interrogations
mean fewer aircraft can use each station.

Another complication is that some modern airborne equipment also transmits at higher power,
not only 'swamping' the station but 'pushing out' some older, closer, airborne equipment which
has a lower transmitter power. 'Beacon saturation' is the name given to the apparent error
caused by stronger signals preventing an aircraft receiving a range.

Range Measurement
The airborne equipment subtracts the 50 μs delay from the time between transmission and
reception and displays that time as an equivalent range. This can be calculated by dividing the
time by 2 and multiplying by the speed of radio wave propagation C. The DME indicator shows
the aircraft range from the station, so the pilot knows his aircraft is somewhere on the
circumference of a circle with the beacon at the centre and the indicated range as its radius.
DME therefore gives a circular position line, which can be combined with one or more other
position lines to give a navigational fix.

The accuracy of a position line, as required by ICAO at least 95% of the time, is ± 0.5 nm, or ±
3% of the aircraft's range if greater. In fact, DME is the most accurate of the 'classic' navigation
aids, which makes it the preferred input to area navigation systems. Assuming there is no
beacon saturation, the maximum range is limited by the UHF formula. Most airborne equipment
indicates a maximum of 200 nm, but some continue out to 300 nm. As readers can calculate, at
that range the interrogating aircraft would need to be at an altitude of about 56,000 ft. Concorde
was the only commercial aircraft type capable of cruising at such altitudes.

_____________________________________________________________________

8 Notes are only for your reference. Please go thru your books for more details. (Himanshu Haldar)