NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

(Course Code:18ME651)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bangalore-560060
 TEXT BOOKS
• Non-Convention Energy Resources, B H Khan, McGraw Hill Education India Pvt. Ltd., 3rd
Edition.
• Solar energy, Subhas P Sukhatme, Tata McGraw Hill, 2nd Edition, 1996.
• Non-Conventional Energy Sources, G.D Rai, Khanna Publishers, 2003.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
• Renewable Energy Sources and Conversion Technology, N.K.Bansal, Manfred Kleeman &
Mechael Meliss, Tata McGraw Hill., 2004.
• Renewable Energy Technologies, Ramesh R & Kumar K U, Narosa Publishing House New
Delhi.
• Non-Conventional Energy, Ashok V Desai, Wiley Eastern Ltd, New Delhi, 2003.
NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES - MODULE 5

CHAPTER 1: Geothermal Energy, Energy from Biomass & Hydrogen

Energy.
 Module 5
• Geothermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, types of geothermal
station with schematic diagram, geothermal plants in the world, problems
associated with geothermal conversion, scope of geothermal energy.
• Energy from Bio Mass: Photosynthesis, photosynthetic oxygen production,
energy plantation, bio gas production from organic wastes by anaerobic
fermentation, description of bio-gas plants, transportation of biogas, problems
involved with bio-gas production, application of bio-gas, application of bio-gas in
engines, advantages.
• Hydrogen Energy: Properties of Hydrogen with respected to its utilization as a
renewable form of energy, sources of hydrogen, production of hydrogen,
electrolysis of water, thermal decomposition of water, thermo chemical
production bio-chemical production.
 Geothermal Energy
• “Geothermal” comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and thermal (heat). So,
geothermal means “earth’s heat”.
• The thermal energy contained in the interior of the earth is called geothermal
energy.
• Geothermal heat originates from earth's fiery consolidation of dust and gas over
four billion years ago.

• The geothermal energy is enormous and will last for several millions of years
and is therefore called renewable.

• Geothermal energy is one of the only renewable energy sources not dependent
on the Sun. Instead, it relies on heat produced under the surface of the Earth
• The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to
melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in parts of the mantle
convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock and
temperatures at the core–mantle boundary can reach over 4000°C (7200°
F).
• Geothermal heating, for example using water from hot springs has been
used for bathing since Palaeolithic times and for space heating since
ancient Roman times, however more recently geothermal power, the term
used for generation of electricity from geothermal energy, has gain in
importance.
• It is estimated that the earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more
than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs, although only a very
small fraction is currently being profitably exploited, often in areas near
tectonic plate boundaries.
• Geothermal energy already has several applications and could potentially
provide a significant source of renewable power for the United States.
• However, it is limited by a multitude of factors revolving around the issues
of sustainability and economics.
• There are two main applications of geothermal energy, which include
producing electricity at specialized power plants, and direct-heating, which
puts to direct use the temperature of water piped under the earth’s
surface.
• Geothermal power plants take on several types of forms, depending on
the type of geothermal area from which they extract energy.
• In any case, the plants depend on steam to power turbines and generate
electricity, though the methods of producing steam varies depending on
the type of geothermal reservoir.
• Direct-heating, on the other hand, provides immediate, usable energy.
This type of energy can heat individual buildings or entire areas, as in the
city of Klamath Falls, Oregon.

• It can also cool buildings by pumping water underground where the

temperature remains relatively stable near 60 degrees Fahrenheit, and
then into buildings, where the water absorbs heat, thus helping to air
condition the building.
 Sources of Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal Sources are Classified Based on:

• (1) Temperature,
• (2) Physical State of H20 (i.e. water or steam), and
• (3) Type of Energy Usage
Primary Classification is Resource Temperature:
– Low Temperature Reservoir: 50-200 °F (10-94 °C)
– High Temperature Reservoir: >200 °F
 Geothermal Power
• Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy. Technologies in
use include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations and binary
cycle power stations.
• Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries, while
geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries.
• As of 2015, worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 12.8 gigawatts
(GW), of which 28 percent or 3,548 megawatts are installed in the United States.

• International markets grew at an average annual rate of 5 percent over the last
three years and global geothermal power capacity is expected to reach
14.5–17.6 GW by 2020.
• Based on current geologic knowledge and technology, the Geothermal
Energy Association (GEA) estimates that only 6.5 percent of total global
potential has been tapped so far, while the IPCC reported geothermal
power potential to be in the range of 35 GW to 2 TW.
• Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from
geothermal sources include El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland
and Costa Rica.
• Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable, renewable source of
energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth's
heat content.[4]
• The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on
average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less
than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants.
 Principle and Working of Geothermal Power Plants
Geothermal Energy:
• Heat has been radiating from the Earth's core for billions of years. This heat is
originated since the formation of the Earth and it is continuously regenerated
by the decay of radioactive elements.
• The rate of this regeneration of geothermal heat is so high that it makes the
geothermal energy a renewable resource. Near the Earth's core, the
temperature ranges about 5500 degree Celsius.
• This heat is basically the thermal energy stored inside the Earth's core and the
Earth's crust acts like an insulator and keeps the heat trapped inside. This
thermal energy is known as geothermal energy. (geo=earth and thermal=heat).
• This energy is estimated to be one or two orders larger than all the energy
recoverable from nuclear sources. The heat trapped inside the core (by
the Earth's crust) is transferred to the surface by the following ways:

1. Direct heat conduction

2. Bubble like magma that buoys up to the surface
3. Rapid injection of magma into deep, natural rifts
• Direct heat conduction does not produce much heat on the surface. Also,
magma buoys up to the surface only at selected locations like active
volcanoes. Whereas magma is injected into deep rifts and causes
heating of the underground water.
• This geothermal energy rises upwards due to one of the above reasons
and causes large amounts of underground water to be heated on or
below the surface of the Earth. Such locations are called Geothermal
reservoirs. Such reservoirs are either on the surface in the form of hot
springs or underground reservoirs which are reached by drilling wells.

• The heat energy in geothermal reservoirs can be carried up to the surface

and utilized to produce electricity by geothermal power plants.
Geothermal Power Plants:
• A geothermal power plant uses steam obtained from these geothermal
reservoirs to generate electricity.
• Wells are drilled at the appropriate locations to bring this geothermal energy up
to the surface. A mixture of steam and water is collected from the production
well.
• Steam separators are employed to separate the steam and use it to operate
turbines. The further process is quite similar to a thermal power plant - steam
turbines run the generators and, hence, electricity is generated.
• The condensed steam and the water collected from the production well are
injected back into the reservoir through the injection well.
• This is, however, a general working principle of a geothermal power plant.
The particular working of the plant depends upon the type of the plant.
 Types of Geothermal Power Plants
• Different Types of Plants are Required to Take Advantage of the Particular
Characteristics of Each Specific Geothermal Site
• Main Types of Geothermal Power Plants:
– Dry Steam
– Flash Steam
– Binary Cycle
Dry Steam Plant:
• This is the simplest and oldest type of geothermal plant. It directly uses
steam from the reservoir to operate the turbine. The steam is collected
from the production well and used to operate low-pressure turbines.
Hence, the working fluid is steam. The used steam is then condensed and
injected back through the injection well.
Flash Steam Power Plants:
• A 55 MW plant requires 100 kg/s of steam ,the steam once it has been
separated from the water is piped to the powerhouse where it is used to
drive the steam turbine.

• The steam is condensed after leaving the turbine, creating a partial

vacuum and thereby maximising the power generated by the turbine
generator.
• The steam is usually condensed either in a direct contact condenser, or a
heat exchanger type condenser. In a direct contact condenser the cooling
water from the cooling tower is sprayed onto and mixes with the steam.
• The condensed steam then forms part of the cooling water circuit, and a
substantial portion is subsequently evaporated and is dispersed into the
atmosphere through the cooling tower.

• Excess cooling water called blow down is often disposed of in shallow

injection wells. As an alternative to direct contact condensers shell and
tube type condensers are sometimes used, as is shown in the schematic.
• In this type of plant, the condensed steam does not come into contact with
the cooling water, and is disposed of in injection wells.

• Typically, flash condensing geothermal power plants vary in size from 5

MW to over 100 MW.
• Depending on the steam characteristics, gas content, pressures, and
power plant design, between 6 and 9 tonne of steam each hour is required
to produce each MW of electrical power.

• Small power plants (less than 10 MW) are often called well head units as
they only require the steam of one well and are located adjacent to the
well on the drilling pad in order to reduce pipeline costs.
• Often such well head units do not have a condenser, and are called
backpressure units. They are very cheap and simple to install, but are
inefficient (typically 10-20 tonne per hour of steam for every MW of
electricity) and can have higher environmental impacts.
Binary Cycle Power Plants:
• In reservoirs where temperatures are typically less than 220oC (430oF).but
greater than 100oC (212oF).binary cycle plants are often utilised.
• The illustration below shows the principal elements of this type of plant.
• The reservoir fluid (either steam or water or both) is passed through a heat
exchanger which heats a secondary working fluid which has a boiling point
lower than 100oC (212oF). This is typically an organic fluid such as
Isopentane, which is vaporised and is used to drive the turbine.

• The organic fluid is then condensed in a similar manner to the steam in the
flash power plant described above, except that a shell and tube type
condenser rather than direct contact is used.

• The fluid in a binary plant is recycled back to the heat exchanger and
forms a closed loop. The cooled reservoir fluid is again re-injected back
into the reservoir.
• Binary cycle type plants are usually between 7 and 12 % efficient
depending on the temperature of the primary (geothermal) fluid.

• If the geothermal resource has a temperature between 100o C and

150oC, electricity can still be generated using binary plant technology.

• The produced fluid heats, through a heat exchanger, a secondary

working fluid (isobutene, Isopentane or ammonia), which vaporises at a
lower temperature than water.

• The working fluid vapour turns the turbine and is condensed before
being reheated by the geothermal water, allowing it to be vaporised and
used again in a closed-loop.
Combined Cycle (Flash and Binary):
• Combined Cycle power plants are a combination of conventional steam
turbine technology and binary cycle technology.
• By combining both technologies, higher overall utilisation efficiencies can
be gained, as the conventional steam turbine is more efficient at
generation of power from high temperature steam, and the binary cycle
from the lower temperature separated water.
• In addition, by replacing the condenser-cooling tower cooling system in a
conventional plant by a binary plant, the heat available from condensing
the spent steam after it has left the steam turbine can be utilised to
produce more power.
Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy Technology:
• The technology to mine the heat from the hot rock found almost
everywhere at some depth beneath the surface of the earth was
conceived and developed at Los Alamos between the years of 1970 and
1996.

• Conceptually, hot dry rock (HDR) heat mining is quite simple. As shown in
the drawing water is pumped into hot, crystalline rock via an injection well,
becomes superheated as it flows through open joints in the hot rock
reservoir, and is returned through production wells.

• At the surface, the useful heat is extracted by conventional processes, and

the same water is recirculate to mine more heat.
• The key element in successful heat mining is the development of an
engineered geothermal reservoir in a hot body, impermeable rock.
• The point in a hot rock body at which an HDR reservoir is created is
determined by the selection of the location on the surface from which the
injection well is drilled and the depth within the wellbore at which the water is
injected into the hot rock, while the overall size of the reservoir is a direct
function of the total amount of water pumped into the rock during its
development.

• Although these parameters can be engineered, the shape, orientation, and

internal structure of the reservoir, are entirely functions of the local geologic
conditions and are, at present, beyond human control. For this reason, it is
important to understand the local geology before attempting to develop an
HDR reservoir.
• As an HDR reservoir is being formed, rock blocks are moved very slightly
by the injected water. These small movements give rise to low frequency
stress waves similar to, but much smaller than, those caused by
earthquakes.
• Micro seismic technology has been developed to identify these signals
and locate their points of origin. The data from many such signals provide
a picture of the size, shape, and orientation of the reservoir.
• With this information in hand, production wells can be drilled into the
reservoir to most efficiently tap the superheated water that has been
injected.
Geothermal Plants in the World:
• There are geothermal power plants all over the world, but a group of ten stand out
as seriously powerful producers.

1. The Geysers Geothermal Complex, USA.

• This large complex, located about 100km north of San Francisco, California, is made
up of 18 power plants , offering an active production capacity of 900MW.

• It’s huge, spread across 45 square miles, and generates enough energy to power
almost 1 million homes.
2. Larderello Geothermal Complex, ITALY
• The second largest plant in the world is the massive Larderello Complex, which is
comprised of 34 plants.

• The net capacity of this geothermal facility is 769 MW.

• The first plant was constructed in 1913, making it the oldest of its kind.

• This complex is responsible for 10% of all geothermal energy that is produced
worldwide, and is utilized for almost 27% of the power demands of the region.
3. Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Station, MEXICO
• Located in North Mexico, the Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Plant is the third largest
in the world, with an output of 720 MW.

• This plant, as with every Mexican power plant, is owned by the Commission Federal
de Electricidad.

• The plant is built on a somewhat unique point of geology, a spreading fault line in a
landlocked area. The phenomenon is normally found only on the ocean floor.
4. Makban Geothermal Complex, PHILIPPINES
• The fourth largest geothermal plant, with an output capacity of 458 MW, is the
Makban Geothermal Power Complex.

• Six plants make up this complex, located in both the Laguna province and Batangas
province.
• The Philippines possesses an excellent geothermal infrastructure, but would need to
increase geothermal production by a few hundred thousand to meet 100%
sustainability.
5. Calenergy Generation’s Salton Sea Geothermal Plants, USA
• Ten geothermal plants clustered together comprise this large plant, located in
southern California.

• With a total output of 340MW, this series of plants makes up the fifth largest
geothermal energy producer on Earth.

• Experts say this area has more geothermal potential than any other in the United
States, and the plant is actually helping combat soil erosion and the spread of toxic
levels of salt across the region.
6. Hellisheidi Geothermal Power Plant, ICELAND
• Iceland is riddled with hot springs, and many homes outside the capital, Reykjavik,
have secondary, private, geothermal generators.

• With a production capacity of 400MW thermal energy and 303MW electric energy,
the sixth largest geothermal plant is located on Hengill volcano in Iceland.

• It’s the largest power plant in Iceland and rests, mostly, above the plate boundary
between the North American and European tectonic plates.
7. Tiwi Geothermal Complex, PHILIPPINES
• More than ¼ of the Philippines’ power comes from geothermal plants.
• The seventh biggest geothermal plant is located in the Philippine province of Albay.

• It comprises three power plants of two units each, and provides a net capacity of 289
MW.

• This plant has been operational since 1979, and is among the oldest functional
geothermal plants in the world.
8. Malitbog Geothermal Power Station, PHILIPPINES
• With an output capacity of 232.5MW, this power station in the Philippines is the
eighth largest in the world.

• This plant is owned by the Energy Development Corporation and it supplies Luzon
island with energy.

• It has been operating since 199, and has an expected lifespan of at least 30 more
years.

• It is actually the largest single roof geothermal power plant in the world, and is
situated in an area that many people would call paradise.
9. Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant, INDONESIA
• The ninth largest plant is also located in Indonesia, in the province of West Java.
• It is operated by a subsidiary of Star Energy, and was designed and constructed by
Aecom, Sumitomo Corporation, & Fuji Electric.

• It has an output capacity of 227 MW, but spans a larger area than the Darajat station.

• Altogether, the geothermal field at Wyang Windu covers 40sq. km.

10. Darajat Power Station, INDONESIA
• The tenth largest geothermal plant in the world is located in the Pasirwangi District of
Garut in Indonesia.

• It is comprised of three plants that were created separately between 1994 and 2007.

• This plant has a capacity of 259MW, which produces about 50% more power than
the Sir Adam Beck pump generating hydroelectric station at Niagara Falls.

• Indonesia has a particularly active volcanic geology, and geothermal is increasingly

popular in all corners of the country.
Advantages of Geothermal Energy:
• Geothermal energy is cheaper.

• It is versatile in its use.

• It is the least polluting as compared to other conventional energy sources.

• It is amenable for multiple uses from a single resource.

• Geothermal power plants have the highest annual load factors of 85 per cent to
90 per cent compared to 45 per cent to 50 per cent for fossil fuel plants.
• It delivers greater amount of net energy from its system as compared to other
alternative or conventional systems.
• Geothermal energy from the earth's interior is almost as inexhaustible as solar or
wind energy, so long as its sources are actively sought and economically tapped.
Disadvantages:
• Low overall power production efficiency (about 15% as compared to 35 to
40% for fossil fuel plants).

• Drilling operation is noisy.

• Large areas are needed for exploitation of geo-thermal energy.

• The withdrawal of large amounts of steam or water from a hydro-thermal

reservoir may result in surface subsidence or settlement.
END