MENG547 – CHAPTER 2 –

FUNDAMENTALS
Prof. Dr. Uğur Atikol
 CONTENTS
• Mechanisms of heat transfer
Heat transfer • Thermal comfort example

• Science of energy its transfer and performance

Thermodynamics • Second law and definitions

• Thermal systems
Thermal systems • Electric motors and pumps

• Thermal systems
Performance • Electric motors and pumps

• Fuels and combustion

Fuels • Environmental impact of combustion
THERMODYNAMICS
The science of energy
 DEFINING A THERMODYNAMIC
SYSTEM
• By defining a system we establish the surroundings of the system.
• The surface that separates the system from the surroundings is known as the
boundary.

Surroundings
SYSTEM
or Environment

System
Boundary
 DEFINING A THERMODYNAMIC
SYSTEM

Closed system (control mass) Open system (control volume)

Heat exchange
Q Q
mass in mass out
Control mass Control volume
(mass is constant) (volume constant)
Work exchange
W W

System Surroundings System

Boundary or Environment Boundary
 DEFINING A THERMODYNAMIC
SYSTEM: ENERGY EXCHANGE WITH
SURROUNDINGS
System Boundary
z  (m/s)
Heat exchange
SYSTEM
Q x
(Total Energy E) SURROUNDINGS
Work exchange
W

E = the sum of all forms of energy

m 2
𝑸 − 𝑾 = E = U + KE + PE = U + + mgz (kJ)
2
 Distance
ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
m
Force

• The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance is

called Work
• Work = Force x Distance
• Unlike heat it is an energy interaction which is not caused by a temperature
difference between a system and its surroundings
• A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system
boundaries are all associated with work interactions
• Moving a positive charge from one place to another requires work (i.e.,
electrical work)

+
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
• When a thermodynamic system undergoes a process from one equilibrium
state to another, a finite amount of heat energy is exchanged with the
surroundings.
• Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another
as a result of temperature difference.
• The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy
transfers is known as heat transfer.

Heat
Temperature is the Water
Iron
driving force of
70oC 20oC
heat transfer.
 HEAT CAPACITY OF MATERIALS:
HEAT STORAGE
• Specific heat capacity (Cp) of a substance is a measure of
energy storage capability of a material in J/kg.oC.
• The product  Cp is known as the heat capacity of a material.
It represents energy storage capability of a material in J/m3.oC
Energy storage capability of a material

Cp  Cp

Energy Energy
storage per storage per
unit mass unit volume
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• It is also known as the conservation of energy principle
• Energy is converted from one form into another form; it can not be created
from nothing, nor destroyed

Energy
Form 3

Energy
Form 1 Energy
Form 2

Total of initial forms of energy = Total of final forms of energy

 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
CLOSED SYSTEMS
• Energy can cross the boundary in two forms:
Heat and work.
Q
• Mass of the system is constant. System

Net energy transfer Net increase (or decrease)

W
to (or from) the system = in the total energy
as heat and work of the system Surroundings

𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸
(𝒱2 )2 −(𝒱1 )2
= 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 +𝑚 + 𝑚𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
OPEN SYSTEMS
• Energy can cross the boundary in two forms: 𝑄ሶ
Heat and work. exit

• Mass can enter or leave the system.

inlet
CV
Ẇ

Total energy  Total energy of  Total energy of   Net change 

       
crossing boundary + mass entering the − mass leaving the = in Energy of 
as heat and work  control volume  control volume  control volume
       

Q − W +  Ein −  Eout = Ecv

 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
OPEN SYSTEMS
Total energy  Total energy of  Total energy of   Net change  𝑄ሶ
       
crossing boundary + mass entering the − mass leaving the = in Energy of  exit
as heat and work  control volume  control volume  control volume
       

inlet
CV
Q − W +  Ein −  Eout = Ecv Ẇ

Steady flow energy equation (SFEE)

ECV = constant or ECV = 0

𝒱𝑒 2 𝒱𝑖 2
 𝑄ሶ − 𝑊ሶ = σ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 ℎ𝑒 + + 𝑔𝑧𝑒 − σ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 ℎ𝑖 + + 𝑔𝑧𝑖
2 2

Where i = inlet, e = exit

 APPLICATION EXAMPLE FOR SFEE:
STEAM TURBINE
One inlet-one exit Conservation of mass principle for steady flow:
(single stream flow)

Mass (and → 𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2 = 𝑚ሶ
energy) in
Steady flow energy equation (SFEE) for single stream flow:

Work
Steam 𝒱2 2 −𝒱1 2
Turbine → 𝑄ሶ − 𝑊ሶ = 𝑚ሶ ℎ2 − ℎ1 + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2
1 = inlet, 2 = exit
∆𝐸𝐶𝑉 = 0
Heat Heat loss, kinetic energy and potential energy changes
Mass (and
are negligible, therefore:
energy) out
→ 𝑄ሶ − 𝑊ሶ = 𝑚ሶ (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
 SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
First Law says:
Potential energy lost = Kinetic energy gained

Can he fly backwards?

According to First Law:
Kinetic energy lost = Potential energy gained

We need a second
First Law Satisfied!?!? law!
Processes can only
happen in one
direction and not in
the other.
 WHY SECOND LAW NEEDED?
A cup of hot coffee does not Transferring heat to a paddle Transferring heat to a
get hotter in a cooler room. wheel will not cause it to wire will not generate
rotate. electricity.

Heat

It is clear from the above examples that processes take place in a certain direction and not in the reverse
direction. First law alone is not enough to determine if a process will actually occur.

Another principle is needed: Second law of Thermodynamics

 SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Clausius Statement of the 2nd Law
It is impossible for any device to
Warm environment
operate in such a manner that it
produces no effect other than the QH = 5kJ
transfer of heat from one body to
Device
another body at a higher
temperature. QL = 5kJ

Cold environment
 SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Kelvin-Plank Statement of the 2nd Law
It is impossible for any device to
operate in a cycle and produce
Thermal energy reservoir
work while exchanging heat
only with a single reservoir (i.e.
Q H = 100 kW
no engine can have 100%
efficiency). Heat
engine
Wout = 100 kW
HEAT TRANSFER
Essential basics
 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS

Modes of heat transfer Convection

• conduction
• convection
• radiation
All modes of heat transfer require the
existence of a temperature
difference
Flame
 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS:
CONDUCTION

Thermal Condutivity, k Thermal Diffusivity, 𝛼

𝑇 −𝑇 ∆𝑇 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑘
𝑄ሶ cond = 𝑘𝐴 1 2 = −𝑘𝐴 (W) 𝛼= = (m2/s)
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝜌𝐶𝑝

• Represents how fast heat diffuses

Thermal conductivity through a material
• A small value of thermal diffusivity
The thermal conductivity of a means that heat is mostly absorbed
material is a measure of the by the material and a small amount
ability of the material to of heat will be conducted
conduct heat.
 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS:
CONVECTION

Convection Newton’s Law of cooling

• Convection is the mode of heat
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ × 𝐴𝑠 × 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ (W)
transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas
that is in motion. Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.°C)
• It involves the integrated effects of
both conduction and fluid motion.
• If the fluid adjacent to a solid is
not moving the heat transfer
mode is pure conduction.
 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS:
RADIATION

Radiation Net rate of radiation

• The heat energy emitted by
𝑄ሶ rad = 𝜀𝜎𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 4−𝑇𝑜 4)
objects in the form of photons (or
Emmisivity Stefan–Boltzmann constant
electromagnetic waves) is known (𝜎 = 5.67x108 W/m2·K4)
as radiation
• Radiation heat transfer between a Surrou
nd
ing
surface and a very large (black) T0 s
surface surrounding it is shown in

ur
fa
ce
the diagram. Air

sa
t To
• Air in between does not intervene
with radiation Area, As
Temperature, Ts
 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS:
THERMAL COMFORT EXAMPLE

Example for winter

Air
𝑸ሶ 𝐫𝐚𝐝
20oC

29oC
𝑸ሶ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯
10oC

𝑸ሶ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝
 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS:
THERMAL COMFORT EXAMPLE

Example for winter 𝑸ሶ 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝜺𝝈𝑨𝒔 𝑻𝒔 𝟒 − 𝑻𝒐 𝟒

= 0.95 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K 4 1.6 m2

Air × (3024 −2834 )K 4
𝑸ሶ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ 20oC 𝑸ሶ 𝐫𝐚𝐝 = 164 W
= 6 W/m2 ℃ 1.6m2 29 − 20 ℃ 29oC
= 86.4 W 𝑸ሶ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯 10oC

𝑸ሶ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝

Heat conduction through the feet is negligible

 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS: HEAT
LOSS THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL
T ,1 − T , 2
𝑄ሶ 
Q=
Rtotal
T1
Wall 1 Wall 2
Rtotal = Rconv ,1 + Rwall ,1 + Rwall , 2 + Rconv , 2
T1 h2
T2 1 L L 1
= + 1 + 2 +
Wall area, A h1 A k1 A k 2 A h2 A
k1 k2 T3
h1 1
T2 𝑈=
L1 L2 𝐴 × 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

 𝑄ሶ = 𝑈 × 𝐴 × (𝑇∞1 − 𝑇∞2 )

Overall heat transfer

coefficient
(also known as U-value)
PERFORMANCE OF ENGINEERING DEVICES
Indicators of Efficiency
 DEFINITION OF PERFORMANCE

Required Input System Desired Output

or Device

Desired Output
Performance =
Required Input
 BOILER EFFICIENCY
Burned
gases

Combustion of
fuel-air mixture Heat
exchanger

Water out
Burner
Boiler efficiency can be defined as:

Fuel 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Water in 𝜂𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
 PERFORMANCE OF HEAT ENGINES
Heat in Rankine Cycle

Pump Boiler
Steam Work out
Work in
Turbine
Condenser

Heat out
 PERFORMANCE OF HEAT ENGINES
Rankine Cycle (steam power plant)
High Temperature
Reservoir

𝑸ሶ 𝒊𝒏
First Law:
Boiler
Net power out = 𝑾ሶ 𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑾ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑾ሶ 𝒊𝒏
𝑾ሶ 𝒊𝒏 Steam = 𝑸ሶ 𝒊𝒏 −𝑸ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕
Pump Turbine 𝑾ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕

Condenser

𝑸ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕
Low Temperature Do you know
Reservoir
any other
heat engines?
 PERFORMANCE OF HEAT ENGINES:
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
High Temperature Reservoir at TH Desired output What I Get
Performance = =
required input What I pay for
QH In heat engines:

the desired output = net work output = Wnet ,out

Heat
Engine the required input = heat supplied to system = Qin
Wnet,out = th x QH
Wnet ,out Qin − Qout Qout
Thermal efficiency th =
QL
= = 1−
Qin Qin Qin
Wnet ,out QL
Low Temperature Reservoir at TL or th = = 1−
QH QH
 PERFORMANCE OF
COGENERATION SYSTEMS
Brayton Cycle Qout
Fuel in
Qin
Energy Utilization Factor: Combustion
Chamber Quseful
Wnet, out + Quseful
= Air intake
QH
Wnet,out

or Wu
Generator
Compressor Gas Turbine
 REFRIGERATORS, AIR
High-
temperature
CONDITIONERS & HEAT PUMPS
reservoir 𝑸ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕

𝑾ሶ 𝒊𝒏 Chillers Air-to- Varible Split unit Single

water refrigerant AC package
heat volume system (rooftop)
pumps (VRV) units
𝑸ሶ 𝒊𝒏 AC
Low-
system
temperature
reservoir
 PERFORMANCE MEASURE OF AC:
High-
temperature COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
reservoir
• The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of
the coefficient of performance (COP).
• The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (QL)
from the refrigerated space.

Desired output QL Q
For a refrigerator COPR = = (or L
)
Required input Wnet , in 
Wnet , in

Wnet ,in = QH − QL QL 1
 COPR = =
QH − QL QH −1
QL
Low-
temperature
reservoir
 PERFORMANCE MEASURE OF HEAT
PUMP: COEFFICIENT OF
High- PERFORMANCE
• The efficiency of a het pump is expressed in terms of
temperature
reservoir the coefficient of performance (COP).
• The objective of a heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to
a heated space.

Desired output QH
For a heat pump COPHP = =
Required input Wnet ,in

Wnet ,in = QH − QL
QH 1
 COPHP = =
Low- QH − QL 1 − QL
temperature QH
reservoir
 AIR-TO-WATER HEAT PUMP FOR
CENTRAL HEATING
Indoor Unit

Wall
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 =

Condenser
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛
Refrigerant

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛
E.V.

Outdoor Unit
Evaporator

𝑄𝐿
Compressor
 OBTAINING BETTER PERFORMANCE
IN HEAT PUMPS
𝑊ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛

Pump

Heated
space Heat
𝑄ሶ 𝐻 pump 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 Lake

Lakes or ground
have higher
𝑸ሶ 𝑳 = 𝒎ሶ 𝒘 × 𝑪𝒑 × (𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝑹 ) temperatures than
air
 PERFORMANCE AND UPPER LIMIT:
CARNOT EFFICIENCY & COP
Heat engine Refrigerator (or AC) Heat Pump
Thermal efficiency for any heat Coefficient of performance for any Coefficient of performance for any
engine: refrigerator: heat pump:

Q 1 1
th = 1 − L COPR = COPHP =
QH QL
QH −1 1−
QL QH
Obtain Carnot efficiency by Obtain Carnot COP by replacing Obtain Carnot COP by replacing
replacing QL/QH by TL/TH : QL/QH by TL/TH : QL/QH by TL/TH :

1 1
T  COPR ,rev =  COPHP,rev =
 th ,rev =1− L TH
−1 1−
TL
TH TL TH
*Carnot efficiency is the maximum *Carnot COP is the maximum theoretical
theoretical efficiency obtained for a COP obtained for a reversible refrigerator *Carnot COP is the maximum theoretical
reversible heat engine COP obtained for a reversible heat pump
 ELECTRICITY

• Direct Current: The current that is obtained

from photovoltaic panels, batteries and the
power supplies in the computers.
• Alternating Current: The current that is used
in homes, offices and other facilities.
• Photovoltaic systems, fuel cells and most
wind turbines produce direct current.
• In order to convert direct current to
alternating current an inverter is utilized.
 ELECTRICITY
Direct Current Alternating Current Photovoltaics and
(DC) (AC) Wind
Electric current flowing in one Direction of current switches Photovoltaic systems,
direction only. Typically, back and forth at regular electrochemical batteries
battery-operated devices, intervals or cycles (and some wind turbines)
such as a flashlight or generate DC. An inverter
photovoltaic panels utilize can be used to convert DC
direct current. to AC.
+
Current

0
time

–
 ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
Alternatif akım voltajı

1
cycle/second 1 Hz = 1 s-1
= 1 Hertz (Hz)

Voltage
completes 1 Frequency =
cycle 50 times 50 Hz
in 1 second
 WHY ALTERNATING CURRENT?
Transformer

One of the advantages

of AC is that high voltage
To reduce the can be reduced to lower
losses the AC voltage
voltage is increased 𝑉1 𝐼2 𝑁1
= =
by transformers 𝑉2 𝐼1 𝑁2
400 kV
13 kV

12 kV 240 V

Step up High Step down Step down

Power
transformer voltage transformer transformer
plant
lines
 PHASES IN ELECTRIC SYSTEM
➢ Based on the number of sine waves in an electric
power system
✓ One sine wave in a single-phase system,
✓ Three sine waves in three-phase systems
➢ Voltages:
✓ Single-phase: 230 V
✓ Three-phase: 415 V
 SINGLE-PHASE ELECTRIC SYSTEMS
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
Magnetic Force (acting on the charge)

Velocity

Electric charge

Magnetic field

230 V

Generator
Source https://e-magnetica.pl/doku.php/right-hand_rule
SINGLE-PHASE ELECTRICITY OF AC
SYSTEMS

230 V
 ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS)
VOLTAGE
Power

Voltage

Current
ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS)
VOLTAGE
 ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS)
VOLTAGE
AC Voltage
1
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = × 𝑉𝑝𝑘 = 0.7071 × 𝑉𝑝𝑘
𝑉𝑝𝑘 = 339V 2
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 240V
1
180o 360o 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = × 𝑉𝑝−𝑝 = 0.3536 × 𝑉𝑝−𝑝
0 Time 2 2
Half cycle
𝜋
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = × 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 1.11 × 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
Full cycle 2 2
Average value of half-sine equals to
0.637x peak value
THREE PHASE SYSTEM

Advantages:
More stable power distribution
Less energy losses
Less vibration
 THREE PHASE SYSTEM
𝑉∠0°
𝑉∠ − 120° Vphase=240 V Vline=415 V 415 V
3 Phase
𝑉∠ − 240°
generator
240 V
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 415 V
240 V
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 120)
3-Phase
Load 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 240)

Star connection three phase system

 EXAMPLE: CALCULATE PHASE
VOLTAGE, LINE AND PHASE CURRENTS
Q: Three 25-ohm resistors star-connected to a 415 V source.
IP = 9.58 A Calculate phase voltage, line and phase currents.

Vp = 239.6 V R = 25 Ω Given: Equations: Calculations:

𝑉𝐿 415
VL = 415 V R = 25 Ω 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉𝑃 = = 239.6 V
3 3
VL = 415 V
𝑉𝑃 239.6
Vp = ? 𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 = = 9.58 A
𝑅 25
IL = ?
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝐿 = 9.58 A
Ip = ?

Note: In star-connected systems line and phase currents

are equal to each other.
 POWER FACTOR
Voltage
Incandescent
lights, ovens, Current
coffee makers,
electric elements
etc.

Electric motors
(pumps,
compressors, fans Voltage leads the current
etc), transformers. (or current lags the voltage)

Voltage lags the current (or

current leads the voltage)
 POWER FACTOR
Generate Real power
electromagnetic
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙 =
Apparent power
Φ
fields for the
operation of
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 inductive loads

Reactive power
This is known as
the power factor
(kVAR) (PF)

Phase angle (𝜙)

kW
𝑃𝐹 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙 =
Real power, P (kW) kVA

𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
 SINGLE-PHASE ELECTRIC MOTORS
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
Magnetic Force

Current

Electric charge

Magnetic field

230 V

Motor
Source https://e-magnetica.pl/doku.php/right-hand_rule
 PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC
Efficiency of electric motors (EFF)
MOTORS
Desired Output Mechanical Power Output
EFF = =
Required input Electrical Power Input

Electrical Mechanical
power input power
output
 PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC
Efficiency of electric motors (EFF)
MOTORS
Desired Output Mechanical Power Output
EFF = =
Required input Electrical Power Input

EXAMPLE
A motor delivers a shaft output power of 10 kW, and
has an electrical power input of 12 kW. What is its
efficiency?
Solution:
10 kW
𝐸𝐹𝐹 = = 0.833 (or 83.3%)
12 kW
 PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC
MOTORS: POWER FACTOR
• Power factor (PF) is caused by the inductive load in a motor
• The power factor is an electrical operating parameter of a motor, and is
found from the ratio of the real power input in kW to the total power input in
kVA

Reactive Power,
kVAR

Real Power, kW

PF = Cos = kW / kVA
 PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC
MOTORS: POWER FACTOR
• Larger motors usually have higher PF than smaller motors. Larger motors will
usually have power factors around 85%
• Sometimes, electrical capacitors are installed on motors to provide “power
factor correction.” This may be cost-effective for the facility if their utility
charges a substantial penalty for low power factor.

Voltage lagging Voltage leading

current current
 PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC
MOTORS: POWER FACTOR
EXAMPLE
A three phase, 380 volt motor is drawing 80 amperes, and a real
power of 40 kW. What is the power factor of the motor?
Solution
power drawn by a general three phase load:
P = 3 × V × I × PF watts
40,000 = 3 × 380 × 80 × PF
40,000
PF = = 76 %
52,653

Do not confuse the power factor with the motor load factor defined next.
 PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC
MOTORS: LOAD FACTOR
• An electric motor is a “load driven device.”
✓ This means that the motor only provides the exact amount of power required by
the load.
✓ If the motor is forced to deliver more power than it is designed for it will heat up;
if it is called upon to deliver a lot less power, then it is used inefficiently.
• The input power to the motor will only be what is needed to drive the
actual load – and most often it will not be the full rated load power of
the motor.
Typical motor load factors on an annual basis
are in the range 40 – 60%.

Motors are typically most efficient when their

load factors are around 75%
 PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC
MOTORS: LOAD FACTOR
• The motor load factor is a mechanical operating parameter of a
motor, and is found from the ratio of the actual shaft power being
provided to the maximum shaft power that could be provided by the
motor.
✓ The maximum shaft power that can be provided is the nameplate hp rating of
the motor.
✓ The actual shaft power being provided to the load is determined by the load
itself.
✓ If the load on a 20 kW motor is a fan requiring only 10 kW to drive it, the load
factor on the motor is 10kW/20kW, or 50%.

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝐿𝐹 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
 PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC
MOTORS: LOAD FACTOR
EXAMPLE
A 40 kW motor is connected to a 25 kW fan. What is the load factor of
the motor?
Solution

25 kW
LF = = 62.5 %
40 kW

Do not confuse the motor load factor with power factor and efficiency defined before.
 PERFORMANCE OF WATER PUMPS
• Defined as the ratio of power delivered on the water by
the pump to the shaft power input for the pump

Power conveyed to water

• Such that: Pump efficiency =
Shaft power
Power
added to
water
 PERFORMANCE OF WATER PUMPS
Pump brake horse power in kW
flow rate (m 3 /s)  pressure difference (N/m 2 )
P=
1000  efficiency
The overall pumping efficiency refers to both the pump and motor
efficiencies :
Flow rate in m3/s Pump head in N/m2
V  P
P=
1000  p  m
Motor efficiency
Pump power
consumption in Pump efficiency
kW
 PERFORMANCE OF WATER PUMPS
EXAMPLE
Required flow rate is 80 L/s with a head of 150 kN/m2. What is the
saving in power if a pump efficiency of 90% is preferred instead of
78%. Assume motor efficiency to be 100%.
Solution
Pump power :
V  P
P=
1000  p  m
Saving in pump power :
(V  P )  1 1  0.08  150  103  1 1 
=  −  =  −  = 2.05 kW
1000   78% 90%  1000  0.78 0.9 
 ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF
BUILDINGS

Thermal
Solar gains insulation

Lighting
Building
services
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Environmental implications
 FUELS CONTENTS
Fuels contain one or more of the following elements

S
H
C HYDROGEN
SULPHUR

CARBON

• In reaction with oxygen during combustion these elements

produce thermal energy
• The amount of thermal energy produced during combustion is
called calorific value.
 COMBUSTION

Combustion of carbon
𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + energy Combustion of hydrogen
Carbon has an energy
2𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + energy
content of 32,793 kJ/kg
Hydrogen has an energy Combustion of sulphur
content of 142,920 kJ/kg 𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2 + energy
Sulphur has an energy
content of 9,300 kJ/kg
 CO2
H2O
COMBUSTION
CO2

O2
Oxygen

CH
CH Hydrocarbons

𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 0

Methane
 COMBUSTION
Simplest stoichiometric combustion of hydrocarbons

𝑁2 + 𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑂𝑥

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂𝑥
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
Emissions
FOSSIL FUELS

Fuel
Power plant
(Primary energy)

Fuel Calorific CO2 (kg/kg CO2/Energy CO2/Energy SO2 (kg/kg

value (MJ/kg) fuel) (kg/kWh) (kg/MJ) fuel)
Coal 26 2.361 0.309 0.091 0.018
Oil 42 3.153 0.263 0.075 0.040
Natural gas 55 2.750 0.179 0.055 0

Source: Tarik Al-Shemmeri. Energy Audits: A workbook for energy management in buildings (2011) Wiley-Blackwell.
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