Thermochemistry Unit Review Mat (Advanced Topics Chemistry 30/AP/IB)

Thermochemistry Theory and Communication Thermochemistry Calculations/Formulas

Molar Enthalpy: ∆rHm Balanced Equation with Energy term Q=mcΔt ∆rH=n∆rHm
written inside the equation
Endothermic: Endothermic: Heating or cooling substances (∆KE), change in Energy in chemical reactions; combustion, formation,
∆rHm >0 positive, heat absorbed Reactants + energy Products motion decomposition, neutralization, heat of dissolving or
energy break bonds>energy to make bonds solution etc.
Exothermic: “c” represents specific heat capacity of a
Exothermic: Reactants Products + energy 𝑱 𝒌𝑱 𝒌𝑱 Units: ∆rH in kJ ∆rHm in kJ/mol
substance in 𝟎 or 𝟎 or 𝟎
𝒈 𝑪 𝒌𝒈 𝑪 𝑳 𝑪
∆rHm<0 negative, heat released
energy to break bonds< energy to make bonds
Potential Energy Diagram (Ep) Balanced Equation with ∆rH term Calorimetry: Calorimeter Equipment and Theory
outside of equation n∆Hr=mcΔt
Endothermic Endothermic: Heat loss = Heat gain Assumptions:
Reactants Products ∆rHm >0 (+)  Rearrange the equation to solve for  heat loss equals heat gain
Ep required quantity if needed  calorimeter contents have the same specific
heat absorbed
(kJ Exothermic:  The calorimeter is the environment! heat as pure water 4.19 J/g0C,and density of 1.0
) Reactants Products ∆rHm<0 (-)  If calorimeter/water increases in g/mL
temperature the chemical reaction  calorimeter and environment do not absorb
Reaction progress Calorimeter/Thermometer Reading is exothermic (add (-) into final heat from the reaction (minimal heat Ioss to the
Endothermic: answer) surroundings)
Temperature reading decreases; heat from the  If the calorimeter/water decreases
Exothermic calorimeter goes into and is absorbed by the in temperature, the chemical
Ep chemical system reaction is endothermic (add (+)
heat released
(kJ) into final answer)
Exothermic:
Temperature reading increases due to the Bomb Calorimetry:
production of heat from the chemical system n∆Hr=CΔt
Reaction progress
Hess Law; Method #1 to Predict Enthalpy Changes Hess’ Law; Method #2 to Predict Enthalpy Changes:
Using separate equations: Steps to Use: Using Hf values:
1. Use balanced equation and coefficients
1. Use desired net as a guide 2. Enthalpy change=Total sum of products minus Total sum of reactants
2. If reaction is flipped, flip the sign of the enthalpy change 3. ΔrH0=∑nΔfPRODUCTSHm0-∑nΔfREACTANTSHm0
3. If coefficient is altered in any way, alter the enthalpy change also 4. Calculate molar enthalpy for further multi-step calculations is needed
4. Cancel out substances found on both sides of equation
5. Gather reactant and product terms left over (Net Equation)
Multi-step Energy Calculations
6. Add all enthalpy changes to determine final enthalpy change for the net equation (quadrant 1, Steps to Use:
2 and 3, 4) 1. Calculate the enthalpy change for a specific reaction using Hess’ Law or it may be given
7. Determine molar enthalpy for a specific reactant or product if necessary for further multi-step 2. Calculate the molar enthalpy of reaction for the substance required in the question
𝚫𝐫𝐇
calculations ∆𝒓𝑯𝒎 = Then Use: 𝚫𝐫𝐇 = 𝐧𝚫𝐫𝐇𝐦
𝒏

Terms and Key Concepts Chemical Reaction Review:

 Enthalpy change or heat of chemical reaction (formation, decomposition, combustion, Formation Reaction Decomposition
neutralization etc.), Molar enthalpy change or molar heat of reaction, ElementsCompound CompoundElements
 Thermal stability comparison Combustion Reactions: All combustion reactions exothermic, release/produce heat
 Potential energy diagrams and communication methods Fuel + O2(g)  common oxides + energy (Common oxides include: H2O, CO2, CO, NO2, N2O, SO2, SO3)
 Calorimetry, bomb calorimetry, Hess’ Law and predicting enthalpy changes H2O (l) or H2O (g)? Combustion open system water vapour formed, Combustion in a calorimeter/cellular
respiration liquid water formed

Chemistry Review Mats PAu February 2015

 Redox Theory Balancing Redox Reactions
Using the Number Line: (prevents errors) Oxidation No. Method Half-Reaction Method
1. Assign oxidation numbers elements 1. Split Reaction into two half-reactions
2. Determine LEO/GER, OA/RA 2. Balance each half reaction separately by
-2 -1 0 +1 +2
3. Balance electrons by determining a. Balance all atoms except H and O
the constant (Total LEO #e- = Total b. Balance O with H2O
anions atoms cations GER #e-) c. Balance H with H+ *if basic,
4. Balance all atoms except H, O neutralize with OH- then put equal
non-metal ions net charge=0 metal ions 5. Balance charge on both sides using OH- on opposite side)
H+ (Acidic Conditions) or OH- (Basic d. Add e- to each side (LEO-right
GERC- OA LEOA-RA Conditions) side/GER-left side)
e->p+ p+=#e- e-<p+ 6. Balance oxygen using H2O if 3. Multiply half-reactions by constants to balance
needed total LEO/total GER
7. Check H (Balance H and O last) 4. Collect all terms into a Net Equation
Determining Oxidation Numbers: General Rules Steps to Predict Redox Reactions
1. Sum of the oxidation numbers are equal to the net charge of the species
(CO32- has negative 2 net charge) 1. List all entities present:
2. Individual atoms in molecular elements have zero oxidation states ( eg. S8, P4, H2….) a. Acids contain H+ (aq), Bases contain OH- (aq)
3. Hierarchy in Compounds: b. All solutions contain H2O(l)
a. Fluorine always -1 (high electronegativity of 4.0) c. Complex ions exist as combos (e.g. H+(aq)with MnO4-(aq))
b. Group 1; Alkali metals always +1 (low electronegativity) Group 2; Alkaline Earth d. Some substances can be both OA and RA: H2O, Sn2+, Fe2+
Metals always +2 2. Label all entities as OA or RA
c. Hydrogen always +1 except in metal hydrides where it is -1 3. Determine the reaction between SOA and SRA
d. Oxygen always -2 except in H2O2 (-1)or with fluorine (+2) a. Write SOA reaction as a Reduction (GER)
e. All monatomic ions have the same oxidation number as their ion charge in a b. Write SRA reaction as an Oxidation (LEO)-flip!
compound (ZnCl2Zn2+ + 2Cl- zinc’s charge and oxidation state are +2) 4. Balance e-, gather and cancel terms
f. Some ionic compounds need to be dissociated first to determine their oxidation 5. Check spontaneity of redox reaction: OA/RA (spontaneous) OR RA/OA (non-spontaneous)
numbers (FeCl2 vs. FeCl3) 6. Determine Evidence of chemical change
All other elements need to have their oxidation states or oxidation numbers determined!
Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Redox Terms
Spontaneity Rule GER-reduction occurs when a substance gains electrons or has a lower oxidation state
𝑂𝐴 𝑅𝐴 state
spontaneous reaction non-spontaneous reaction Oxidizing agent(OA)-a substance that causes oxidation to occur (it undergoes reduction)
𝑅𝐴 𝑂𝐴
LEO-oxidation occurs when a substance loses electrons or has a higher oxidation state
In a reduction ½ reaction table: Reducing Agent (RA)-a substance that causes reduction to occur (It undergoes oxidation)
a spontaneous reaction occurs when the oxidizing agent is above the reducing agent Disproportionation-when a substances is both oxidized and reduced in a redox reaction (OA and RA); aka
A non-spontaneous reaction results when the RA is above the OA auto-oxidation
Building Redox ½ Reaction Tables Electrochemical Cells: Terms
From Data Given: (X) spontaneous reaction From Reactions: Determine the WOA and GERC/SOA: the strong oxidizing agent reacts Inert electrode-conduct electrons; weak reducing agents
WRA by gaining electrodes at the cathode such as Pt (s)or metalloids like C(s);(not SOA/SRA)
Determine the SOA and SRA: LEOA/SRA: strong reducing agent reacts by Electrolyte-ionic solutions which conduct electricity
losing electrons at the anode Salt Bridge-solution that maintains electrical neutrality,
Mg2+(aq(
Mg(s) Zn(s)
-- --
Cu(s)
--
#reactions
Br2 + 2I1-  2Br1- + I2 KNO3(aq) in a U-tube is an example
Zn2+(aq) X -- -- 2Cl1-+ Br2  no reaction Electrodes: solid metal conductors of Direction of ion/cation/anion flow: anions move towards
electrons (also Si and C); cathode-solid the anode, cations move towards the cathode
Cu2+(aq) X X -- F2+ 2Cl1-  2F1- + Cl2 conductor where reduction occurs, anode- Voltmeter-device that measures potential difference
#reactions
solid conductor where oxidation occurs Power supply-device that supplies electricity to a cell
SOA: Cu2+(aq) WOA: I2 Direction of electron flow-electrons move Connecting Wires-metal wires that conduct electrons from
SRA: Mg(s) WRA: 2F- from anode to cathode (LEO to GER) anode to cathode

Chemistry Review Mats PAu February 2015

 Redox Applications
Electrochemical Cells- Redox Titration/Stoichiometry
Voltaic Cells: Voltaic Cell Using A Porous Cup Titration Analysis Concepts Titration Analysis
Chemical to electrical energy -anions move towards anode, cations towards Titration analysis-experimental design to 1. Balanced Redox Reaction SOA/ SRA
Spontaneous, Enet >0, positive, OA/RA cathode through the porous cup determine concentrations of solutions 2. Calculate moles given (n=cv) or given mass
Two electrolytes, two electrodes, salt bridge or porous (maintains electrical neutrality in the cell) Titrant-solution added to sample (in burette) 3. Use mole ratio (Required over Given)
cup, connecting wires, load Sample-solution in Erlenmeyer Flask 4. Answer Question: c=n/v
Electrolytic Cells: Trials-repeated several times to improve the
Electrical to chemical energy accuracy and precision of the titration Cell Stoichiometry
Non-spontaneous, Enet <0, negative, RA/OA Endpoint-point titration is complete 1. Balanced ½ Reaction at anode or cathode
One electrolyte, two electrodes, power supply, Equivalence Point-volume of titrant used to 2. Calculate moles or given mass
connecting wires reach the endpoint 3. Use Faraday’s Constant:
Net Cell Potential: Equipment: Erlenmeyer flask, burette, (9.65 x 10 4 C/mol e-)
potential difference between the anode and cathode: beakers, meniscus finder, pipet, pipet 4. Use mole ratio (Required over Given).
dispenser, waste beakers, volumetric flasks,
Enet=𝐄𝐫𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐝𝐞 − 𝐄𝐫𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐨𝐝𝐞 Answer Question (mass, time, charge, moles)
funnel
Aluminum/Lead Voltaic Cell Fuel Cells Corrosion of Metals
Which direction do electrons move? (Pb to Al or Al to  An electrochemical process where a metal reacts with a substances in the environment, returning
Pb? Which direction do anions and cations flow? the metal to an ore-like state
 Corrosion involves the oxidation of a metal (LEO/RA). The strong oxidizing agent in the
environment are O2(g) and H2O(l) (GER/OA)
 Metals such as gold, platinum and are considered “noble” and are weak reducing agents
Galvanizing
 Chemical process where iron is covered with a protective layer of zinc metal
 Galvanized iron is used in making metal buckets, nails, chain-link fencing
*½ reactions depend on acidic or basic  Zinc acts as protective layer from air and water, and zinc is more readily oxidized compared to iron
conditions: Zinc completely covers the metal being protected
*H2(g) and O2(g) reactants, H2O(g) product
***Chloride Anomaly and the Silver-plating Cathodic Protection/Sacrificial Anode
Chlor-Alkali Process What half reaction occurs at the cathode to  chemical method to protect metals from corrosion
 Exception to the rules of predicting redox produce silver metal? Predict the mass of  to protect a certain metal from corrosion, a second metal which is a stronger reducing agent is
reactions silver deposited when a 3.6 A current is run for attached physically and oxidizes instead of the protected metal.
 SRA for the electrolysis of brine is 2Cl-(aq) 60 minutes.  protected metal becomes the cathode and the second metal the anode
rather than H2O(l), Cl2(g) is produced  metal being protected is not completely covered by the second metal as in galvanizing
 SOA is H2O(l), H2(g) and OH-(aq) produced Physical Methods to Protect Metals from Corrosion
 Chemical engineers ensure the  keep metals away from SOA: water and oxygen gas
concentration of chloride ions remain high  cover/coat metals, store away from moisture (wrap, bag, store in garage etc.)
 paint, wax, coat metals to provide a physical barrier from the moist environment
 use alternative materials rather than metal (plastic, ceramics etc.)

Electrolysis of Molten NaCl(l) Electrolysis of Aqueous NaCl (aq) Cleaning Silver Tarnish Combustion of ethanol/methanol Cannon:
-SOA: Ag2S, SRA: Al(s) -Identify/Label the OA/RA, LEO/GER for the combustion of
-What is the balanced net equation for methanol or ethanol liquid. Assume gaseous products.
cleaning silver? What acts as a salt bridge? -How many electrons are involved in the transfer between
-Describe the strange smell produced the OA and RA?
1CH3OH(l) + 3/2O2(g)1CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
-2+1 -2+1 0 - +4 -2 +1 -2 (LEO/GER 6e- total)
SOA/GERC: Na+(l) producing Na(s) SOA/GERC: H2O(l),H2(g) and OH-(aq) products OA(GER): oxygen RA(LEO): methanol
SRA/LEOA: 2Cl-(l) producing Cl2(g) *SRA/LEOA: 2Cl-(aq), Cl2(g) product

Chemistry Review Mats PAu February 2015

 Chemical Equilibrium: Stages of Establishing Equilibrium Potential Energy Diagrams with Activation Energy
Equilibrium Graph Chemical Bonds:
1. Initial Concentration (I)-time zero,  Exothermic reaction
reactants high, products low (0) heat released to make bonds >heat absorbed to break bonds

2. Change in Concentration (C)-decreasing Chemical Bonds:

reactant (-), increasing product (+)  Endothermic reaction
3. Equilibrium Concentration (E)  heat absorbed to break bonds > heat released to make bonds
4. Apply “Stress” to system-Types of stress
Exothermic-heat released
include change in pressure, volume,
temperature, and concentration Endothermic-heat
5. Equilibrium re-established after stress is absorbed
applied, the reactant and product
concentration return to a constant *Enthalpy change
-reactants decrease in concentration, product constant with/without
concentration concentration increases until equilibrium reached
*Temperature only factor that changes the value of the catalyst
at time B
equilibrium constant, Kc
LeChatelier’s Principle Kinetic Molecular Theory
When a chemical system is disturbed by a change in property or stress, the equilibrium system 1. Collisions between molecules-reactants must collide with one another in order for
reactions to occur
adjusts or shifts in a way to oppose the change
2. Proper geometry/Proper orientation-reactants must also have the proper
(S): Stress Applied orientation or shape to react with one another
(S): Equilibrium Shifts in Direction to Oppose Stress 3. Sufficient Energy-reactants require a minimum amount of energy to react

(R): Result of Equilibrium Shift

Stress Factors: Equilibrium Calculation Types:
1. Concentration of reactant or product
a. Add more reactant, equilibrium shifts right to use up reactant added thus making more product
b. Increase product concentration, equilibrium shifts left to make more reactant and use up product 1. Given “E” concentrations, substitute into Kc
2. *Temperature-only factor to alter value of Kc, other factors will shift equilibrium to maintain the Kc as a 2. Given “I” and “C” or “E”, use ICE chart, solve Kc
constant value! 3. Given Kc and “I” concentration, use “x” and solve for quantities
a. If the vessel is cooled-equilibrium shifts to encourage the exothermic reaction to produce heat
b. If the vessel is heated-equilibrium shifts to encourage the reaction to use up the heat available
Possible Shortcuts:
3. Volume or Pressure Changes-changing the volume of the reaction vessel can shift equilibrium if products
and reactants have a different number of moles! a. Square Root both sides OR
a. Stress: High pressure; shift in the direction with fewer moles of gas b. Assume “x” is small (use approximation, Kc or Ka must be less than
b. Stress: Low pressure; shift in the direction with more moles of gas -3
10 )
*Pure solids and liquids are not affected by pressure or volume changes!! They are constants!
Equilibrium Constant: aA + bB ↔ dD + eE Acid Base Properties
If: Kc<1, reactants are favoured If: Kc>1, products are favoured Properties of Acids/Bases Acidosis vs. Alkalosis
• Higher concentration of reactants than • Higher concentration of products than reactants Acids: sour, pH <7.00, reacts with metals to Acidosis-blood pH decreases; more acidic,
products present in the reaction vessel at present in the reaction vessel at equilibrium produce H2(g), neutralize bases higher concentration of H3O+(aq)
equilibrium • Numerator is larger in the ratio
• Denominator is larger in ratio Bases: bitter, pH>7.00, neutralize acids, Alkalosis-blood pH increases, more basic,
[𝑫𝒅 ][𝑬]𝒆 𝟏 [𝑫𝒅 ][𝑬]𝒆 𝟒 slippery, corrode higher concentration of OH-(aq)
For example: 𝑲𝒄 = = For example: 𝑲𝒄 = =
[𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃 𝟒 [𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃 𝟏

Chemistry Review Mats PAu February 2015

 Acid Base Theories
Regular Arrhenius A/B: dissociate/ionize into Modified Arrhenius A/B: Use H2O or HOH water! Bronsted-Lowry A/B
+/- ions
+ + Acids: proton, H+ donors
Acids ionize to form H (aq) and negative anions Acids react with water H2O(l) to produce hydronium, H3O (aq)
Bases: proton, H+ acceptors
and negative anions in solution
+ - Conjugate A/B Pairs: substances that differ by one H+
HBr (aq)H (aq) + Br (aq)
+ -
HClO4(aq) + H2O(l)H3O (aq) + ClO4 (aq) HCOO-(aq) + HOH(l) ↔ HCOOH(aq) + OH-(aq)
Bases dissociate to form positive cations and Base + Acid ↔ Acid + Base
- -
negative OH hydroxide anions Bases react with water, HOH(l) to produce OH (aq) hydroxide H+ acceptor+ H+ donor ↔ H+ donor + H+ acceptor

+ -
ions and positive cations
LiOH(s)Li (aq) + OH (aq) HCl(aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
+ - Acid + Base  Acid + Base
NH3(aq) + HOH(l)NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)
H+ donor + H+ acceptor↔ H+ donor + H+ acceptor
pH Calculations Predicting Acid/Base Reactions
Formulas: Steps to Use:  There is a competition between acids and bases for H+ protons
1.Write the ionization or  The “strongest” acid present and the “strongest” base present are the substances that are
dissociation equation for involved in the reaction
+
𝒑𝑯 = −𝐥𝐨𝐠[𝑯𝟑 𝑶 ] substance A/B  Use A/B table on p. 8 and 9 of data booklet to rank the substances
𝒑𝑶𝑯 = −𝐥𝐨𝐠[𝑶𝑯− ] 2. Determine whether the Steps to Follow:

[𝑯𝟑 𝑶+ ] = 𝟏𝟎−𝒑𝑯 substance is STRONG or WEAK List all reactants present in solution
o 6 strong acids contain-H30+ and negative anion
using p. 8, 9 of Data Booklet
[𝑶𝑯− ] = 𝟏𝟎−𝒑𝑶𝑯 3. If STRONG, assume 100% o Leave WA/WB in molecule form (Ka and Kb values are <1, reactants favored)
𝒑𝑯 + 𝒑𝑶𝑯 = 𝟏𝟒.00 ionization/dissociation and o Aqueous solutions contain water H2O(l)
o Amphoteric/amphiprotic species-HCO3-, H20, H2PO4-, HSO3-, HS04- can act as both acids
[𝑯𝟑 𝑶+ ][𝑶𝑯− ] = 𝟏. 𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 calculate the concentration of
[H+(aq)] or [OH-(aq)] and and bases!
corresponding pH and pOH o Use solubility chart on p.6 Data booklet to dissociate ionic compounds!
pH pOH [H3O+] [OH-] A/B 4. If WEAK, use Ka or Kb value  Determine SA, SB from the table p. 8, 9 Data Booklet
and “x” to determine the  Write equation showing one H+ transfer at a time
4.867 9.133 1.36 x 10-5 7.36 x 10-10 A [H+(aq)] or [OH-(aq)] using  Determine the extent of the reaction; whether the reaction is:
approximation method o 100% Quantitative Reaction
8.160 5.840 6.92 x 10-9 1.45 x 10-6 B 5. Calculation % ionization if If H30+ (STRONG ACID)reacts with a base stronger than NO2-(aq) (below) OR
needed If OH-(aq) (STRONG BASE) reacts with an acid stronger than HSO3-(aq)
𝒙 If not, equilibrium favouring products (equilibrium, more than 50%)
12.799 1.201 1.59 x 10-13 6.29 x 10-2 B %𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 o At equilibrium
If both substances are WEAK, WA/WB equilibrium favouring products (>50%)
If both substances are WEAK, WB/WA equilibrium favours reactants (<50%)
pH of SA (100%) pH of SB (100%) pH of WA (<50%), use Ka value pH of WB (<50%), use Kb value
What is the pH of a 0.025 mol/L HBr? What is the pH of a 0.025 mol/L What is the pH for a 0.025 mol/L What is the pH of a 0.025 mol/L NaHCO3(aq)?
NaOH(aq)? HNO2(aq)? Dissociate first: Na+ + HCO3-
(100%) (100%) (< 50%) (< 50%)
+ - + HNO2(aq) + H2O(l)NO2-(aq) + H3O+(aq) HCO3-(aq) + HOH(l)H2CO3(aq) + OH-(aq)
HBr(aq)H (aq) + Br (aq) NaOH(aq)Na (aq) + OH-(aq)
E: 0.025-x x x
Assume “x” is small: Use “x” and Kb=Kw/Ka to solve for [OH-]
[H+(aq]=0.025 mol/L [OH-]=0.025 mol/L 𝑲𝒂 =
𝒙𝟐
= 𝟓. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝑲𝒃 =
𝒙𝟐
= 𝟐. 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖
𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓−𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓−𝒙
𝒙 = √𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 − 𝒙(𝟓. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒) 𝒙 = √(𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 − 𝒙)(𝟐. 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 )
pH=1.60 pOH=12.40 pOH=1.60 pH=12.40 x=[ H3O+(aq)]=3.7 x 10-3 mol/L x=[ OH-(aq)]=2.4 x 10-5 mol/L
pH=2.43 pOH=11.57 pOH=4.63 pH=9.37

Chemistry Review Mats PAu February 2015

 pH Curves and Buffer Solutions
Information Derived from pH Curves pH Titration Curves
1. Determining Endpoint- pH at which the A/B reaction is 100% quantitative(half-way between the SA with SB WA with SB WB with SA polyprotic base with SA
rapid change in the pH curve)
2. Determining Equivalence Point- volume of titrant added to reach the endpoint
3. Choosing an Indicator to identify the endpoint-the A/B indicator must change colour after the
pH endpoint! (example: endpoint pH=5.00, choose an indicator that changes colour after 5.00)
4. Determine # of proton transfers (whether acid/base is polyprotic or monoprotic)
5. Determine initial pH, pOH values
6. Calculating concentrations of acid/base solutions and % dissociation or ionization of the
acid/base
7. Determining whether the titration is: SA with SB, SB with SA, WA with SB, WB with SA
8. SA with SB pH endpoint =7 SB with SA pH endpoint =7 Compare: endpoint, equivalence points, initial pH/pOH values, # proton transfers, general shape,
WA with SB pH endpoint >7 WB with SA pH endpoint <7 titrant/sample, choice of indicator to identify endpoint
Acid/Base Buffers Acid/Base Buffer Reactions:*react SA/SB to make conjugate WA/WB
+
-Strong acid, H3O (aq) is neutralized and a WA is formed by the buffer
 +
A buffer is a solution whose pH remains relatively constant when strong acid (H30 ) or strong -
-Strong base, OH (aq) is neutralized and a WB is formed by the buffer to keep pH
base (OH-) are added
 A buffer neutralizes the strong acid or base added to make a weaker acid or base in solution relatively constant
with water CH3COOH(aq)/NaCH3COO(aq) Buffer:
A buffer is made of: Add SA H3O+(aq): H3O+(aq)+ CH3COO-(aq) H2O(l) + CH3COOH(aq)
o A mixture containing weak acid and salt of its conjugate base OR Add SB OH-(aq): OH-(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) H2O(l) + CH3COO-(aq)
o A mixture of a weak base and a salt of a conjugate acid AND
o A buffer region can also be produced in a pH titration when a weak acid reacts with H3PO4(aq)/NaH2PO4(aq) Buffer:
strong base (OH-) Add SA H3O+(aq): H3O+(aq)+ H2PO4-(aq)  H2O(l) + H3PO4(aq)
Add SB OH-(aq): OH-(aq) + H3PO4(aq) H2O(l) + H2PO4-(aq)

Summary of Determining Extent of A/B Reactions

(Use p. 8, 9 Chemistry 30 Data Booklet)
100% quantitative with SA 100% quantitative with SB Equilibrium favouring products Equilibrium favouring reactants
H3O+(aq) -
(OH (aq) (>50%) (<50%)
 If H30+ (STRONG ACID)reacts with a base  If OH- (STRONG BASE) reacts with an
stronger than NO2-(aq) (below on chart) acid stronger than HSO3-(aq) Both substances are WEAK: Both substances are WEAK:
If not, equilibrium favouring products If not, equilibrium favouring products WA is above WB WB is above WA
(equilibrium, more than 50%) (equilibrium, more than 50%)

𝐻3 𝑂 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝐻3 (𝑎𝑞) → 100% 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 100% 𝐶𝑁 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑆(𝑎𝑞) 𝐻𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑆𝑂4 −2 ↔ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
-
ammonia is below (stronger than NO2-) Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) is above HSO3 ↔ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
(stronger)
𝐻3 𝑂 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4 − (𝑎𝑞) sulfate anion is above nitrous acid
↔ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)
+ 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) hydrogen sulfide is above cyanide anion (aqueous hydrogen nitrite) on the A/B
dihydrogen phosphate anion is above (weaker) ↔ on the A/B table table
-
than NO2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
-
HOCl below HSO3 (weaker) on the A/B table

Chemistry Review Mats PAu February 2015

 Organic Chemistry; Families
Alkane CnH2n+2 Alkenes-CnH2n carbon-carbon double bond Aromatics-benzene ring and
carbon-carbon single bond, most stable, least Alkynes-CnH2n-2 , carbon-carbon triple bond most reactive, least derivatives
reactive stable, shortest bond
Nomenclature: 1. Locate longest consecutive carbon-carbon chain containing the C=C double or triple
1. Locate longest consecutive carbon-carbon chain as the bond and use as base name with ___ene or ___yne ending.
base name 2. The C=C or triple bond must have the lowest carbon number possible, indicate the
2. Identify branches to the longest chain and use prefix location of the double bond by putting the carbon number in front of the ____ene
system to name the branches (methyl, ethyl, propyl) If ending (eg. but-2-ene is a four carbon compound with the double bond between
there are more than one branches with the same number the second and third carbon)
of carbons, use di, tri, tetra prefix 3. Identify attachments to the longest chain and use prefix system to name the
3. Use numbers to identify which carbons which have branches (methyl, ethyl, propyl)
attachments. 4. If there is more than one branch with the same number of carbons, use di, tri, tetra 1. If benzene is the base compound,
4. If two valid names are possible, choose the name with the prefix etc. use _____benzene
lowest “sum” for its numbers. Count from the end of 5. Cycloalkenes have C=C as carbon #1 and #2 (numbers not required) 2. Identify branches attached
chain to give the lowest possible combo of numbers keeping carbon numbers as low as
**Diagnostic Test for the presence of double or triple bonds: Bromine water test or KMnO4 possible, name prefixes in
alphabetical order
Alkane + bromine no reaction (no colour change) 3. If benzene is an attachment or
branch itself, use phenyl-prefix!
Alkene or alkyne + bromine reaction (colour change!)
propane methane

Organic Esters Organic alcohols Carboxylic acids Organic halides

R1-COO-R2 R-OH R-COOH R-X, where R=Group 17
• Product of an alcohol and carboxylic acid  Dissolve in water effectively, • C=O carbonyl group, -OH hydroxyl • Polar molecules dissolve in water
• Shorter compounds may be slightly soluble in water but Highly polar molecules that have group, Carboxylic -COOH and are good solvents
larger compounds have higher melting points and boiling London Dispersion, Dipole-dipole, • Highly polar molecules which • Carcinogenic
points and are less soluble in water due to their high and hydrogen-bonding forces dissolve in water Environmental concerns (CFC’s and ozone
London Dispersion forces  Source of fuel; combustible! • Higher melting and boiling points depletion)
Organic derivative produced by fruit to signal the fruit is ripe and ready  React with metals to form • Taste sour, pH<7.00, Turn blue Pesticides, Coolants, Plastics, Antifreeze, Dry-
to eat! hydrogen gas litmus paper red cleaning solvent
Sweet-smelling compounds which cause the odour of ripening fruits De-icer, coolant in cars, cosmetic sprays, Used in solvents, food additive and flavouring
Used in cosmetic and food industry-perfumes, fragrances, soaps, food antifreeze, disinfectant cleaners-”lysol”, agent, cleaning metals, biological membranes, 1. Identify longest carbon chain and
additives solvents in paint and other industrial “fatty acids”. Produced by insects, mammals, number the carbons
Soap is an example of an ester supplies, drugs, and cosmetics, alcoholic and plants (butanoic, methanoic, and oxalic 2. Prefixes-fluoro, chloro, bromo,
beverages, intoxicant acids) iodo
1. Longest carbon chain containing the C=O is used as the base 1. Longest chain containing the –
name _____oate ending • Determine the location of the – COOH carboxylic group Example: 1,2 dibromoethane
2. Use a prefix for the branch of the oxygen (methyl, ethyl, OH group on the long chain 2. C=O carbon is carbon #1
propyl, butyl etc.) • Count in a direction to keep the 3. _____oic acid base name
carbon number lowest for the 4. ethaneethanoic acid,
position of the OH group propanepropanoic acid etc.
• use ____ol ending as base name Example: chlorobenzene
Example: ethanoic acid
Example: butan-2-ol

ethyl propanoate

Chemistry Review Mats PAu February 2015

 Organic Terms
crude oil fractional distillation aliphatic isomers
 mixture of hydrocarbons from oil/gas  crude oil is separated into different long-chained hydrocarbons Substances that have the same chemical formula
industry components based on boiling point cyclic but different structural formula, melting point and
 used to make other petroleum products  smaller molecules separate at the top, Aliphatic ring compounds boiling points, and other properties
(plastics, lubricants, fuel for cars, camping larger molecules are separated at the
fuel etc.) lower part
aromatic Example: pentane vs. 2 methylbutane
Compounds containing the benzene ring
(C6H6, C6H5-)
homologous series saturated/unsaturated Rank melting and boiling point Rank solubility
-substances that differ from each other by a -carbon-carbon single-bonded molecules are -Molecules with hydrogen bonding have higher -smaller molecules dissolve better
particular unit such as CH2 saturated due to complete bonding boiling points -molecules which are polar with hydrogen bonding
-unsaturated hydrocarbons contain carbon-carbon -Polar molecules have higher boiling points than have higher solubility in water
Example: CH, C2H6, and C3H8 are long-chained double and triple bonds non-polar molecules -Like dissolves like (polar molecules dissolve in
hydrocarbons which differ by a CH2 as the number of -Longer molecules have higher boiling points polar solvents; non-polar molecules dissolve in non-
carbon increases (greater surface contact) polar solvents)

Organic Reactions
Cracking and Reforming Combustion-complete Substitution Addition
Cracking: Fossil fuel + oxygen gas In the presence of UV light: Alkene + addendproduct
Long-chained hydrocarbonshorter chain hydrocarbons carbon dioxide gas+ water vapour
*Combustion-incomplete Alkane + Group 17Organic Halide + hydrogen *Different addends: hydrogen halides, water
Reforming Fossil fuel + oxygen gas halide (HOH), HOCl, Group 17
Shorter-chained hydrocarbonslonger chain hydrocarbon carbon monoxide gas+ water vapour
Elimination A/B Neutralization: Esterification Polymerization
1. Organic halide + ionic hydroxide acid + base (ionic hydroxide) alcohol +carboxylic acid Addition Polymer:
alkene + water + halide ion   Short monomer units (usually alkenes)
water + organic salt ester + water long polymer unit
2. Alcohol in acidic conditions
Condensation Polymer:
alkene +water Produce water! R1-OH +R2-COOHR2-COO-R1+H2O
Two derivatives polymer + water or other
product
Inorganic Chemistry Organic Chemistry Fractional Distillation Process
• crude oil is heated
• Study of the Earth’s Crust • Study of carbon compounds (except: CO32-, • vapours pass the openings and
CN-, oxides, and carbides of carbon) condense into liquid state
• Found in rocks and minerals (Ionic)
• Found in living material, plants, animals • components with lower boiling points
• Approx. 60 000 compounds • More than a 3.5 million compounds; more rise to higher trays above
• Solids, good conductors in aqueous or being discovered each year! • various fractions of crude separate
liquid state, tasteless, odourless, high • Solid, liquid, gaseous state, lower melting according to boiling points
0 (below 300 0C) boiling points, “smell”, have • Lighter gases are removed at the top,
melting (above 700 C) and boiling
colour or are colourless, non-conductors in medium-sized gases from the middle,
points pure or aqueous state heavier and larger molecule-gases
• Do not burn or combust with oxygen • Burn and combust with oxygen such as lubricants and waxes are
• Examples of inorganic compounds • Examples: methane, propane, ethanol, removed from the bottom
glucose, sucrose, plastic, protein, hair, skin, • Bottom residue is burned as fuel or
including ones containing carbon:
fragrances, anti-freeze, pharmaceuticals, processed to produce other
NaCl(s), Na2CO3(s), NaHCO3(s), NaCN(s) vinegar, pesticides, dry-cleaning solvent hydrocarbons

Chemistry Review Mats PAu February 2015