Lecture #1

EEEG 320
Digital Circuit and System Design

Unit 1: Review of Digital Logic and Electronics

Engineering

Course Instructor: Associate Prof. Dr. Ram Kaji Budhathoki

EEEG 320 Digital Circuit and System Design 1

 Outline
Basic Logic Gates
Boolean Algebra
Simplification of Boolean Algebra
Combinational Logic
Sequential Logic

EEEG 320 Digital Circuit and System Design 2

 Objectives
• To provide an understanding of modern techniques used in the design
and analysis of very large scale digital circuits.
• Understand the relationships between Boolean logic and digital
circuits.
• Learn how to design simple logic circuits.
• Understand how digital circuits work together to form complex
computer systems.

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 NOT Gate  Inverter
NOT Truth Table
Y = ~X (Verilog)
X Y X Y Y = !X (ABEL)
0 1 Y = not X (VHDL)
1 0 Y = X’
Y=X
Y = ~X Y = 𝑋ത (textbook)
not(Y,X) (Verilog)
The NOT operation is
most often designated by X ഥ
𝑿 ന
𝑿
an overbar. It is sometimes X 𝑋ത ധ X
𝑋= 0 1 0
indicated by a prime mark
1 0 1
(‘) or an “elbow” ̅

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 AND Gate
Truth Table
AND Gate
X Y Z  X&Y ( Verilog and ABEL)
 X and Y (VHDL)
X  X ˄Y
0 0 0
Z  X ∩Y
 X*Y
0 1 0
Y  XY (textbook)
 and(Z,X,Y) (Verilog)
1 0 0
Z = X AND Y
1 1 1

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 OR Gate
Truth Table

A B Q  A|B ( Verilog)
OR Gate  A#B (ABEL)
 A or B (VHDL)
0 0 0
 A +B (Textbook)
 AvB
0 1 1
 AᴜB
 OR (Q,A,B) (Verilog)
1 0 1
Q = A OR B
1 1 1

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 NAND Gate
Truth Table

A B Y
NAND Gate NOT-AND
0 0 1

0 1 1
W Z
1 0 1
Y = 𝐴. 𝐵 W= A & B
1 1 0 Z = ~W = ~(X & Y)
Y = not (A.B)

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 NOR Gate
Truth Table NOT-OR
NOR Gate
A B Z X W
Z
X 0 0 1 Y
Z X Y W Z
Y 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
W=X|Y 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 Z = ~W = ~(X | Y)
Z = X nor Y 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Z = ~ (X | Y)
Z= nor (Z,X,Y)

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 Exclusive-OR Gate
Truth Table

X Y Z
XOR
0 0 0
X Boolean Expression
Z
Y 0 1 1 Z = 𝑋 ഥ𝑌 +𝑋ത 𝑌

1 0 1

1 1 0 Note the special symbol  for

Z= xor (Z,X,Y) the XOR operation.

The output of the XOR operation is true only when the values of the inputs differ.

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 Exclusive-NOR Gate
Truth Table

XNOR X Y Z

X 0 0 1
Z Boolean Expression
Y
0 1 0 Z = X.Y + 𝑋ത 𝑌ത
Z= xnor (Z,X,Y)
1 0 0
Z= X ʘ Y
1 1 1

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 Logic Gates
• NAND and NOR are known as
universal gates because they are
inexpensive to manufacture and
any Boolean function can be
constructed using only NAND or
only NOR gates.

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 Multiple Input Gate
• Gates can have multiple inputs and
more than one output. Z1 Z2
• A second output can be provided AND Gate
OR Gate
for the complement of the
operation.
• We’ll see more of this later. Z3 Z4

NOR Gate
NAND Gate

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 Boolean Algebra
• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for the manipulation of variables that can have
one of two values.
• In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
• In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,” 1 and 0, or “high” and “low.”
• Boolean expressions are created by performing operations on Boolean variables.
• Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and NOT.
• The AND operator is also known as a Boolean product. The OR operator is the Boolean sum.
• A Boolean function has:
• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set {0,1}.
• It produces an output that is also a member of the set {0,1}.
Now you know why the binary numbering
system is so handy in digital systems.
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 Boolean Algebra
• The truth table for the Boolean function:

is shown at the right.

• To make evaluation of the Boolean function easier, the truth
table contains extra (shaded) columns to hold evaluations of
subparts of the function.
• As with common arithmetic, Boolean operations have rules of
precedence.
• The NOT operator has highest priority, followed by AND and
then OR.
• This is how we chose the (shaded) function subparts in our
table.

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 Boolean Algebra
• Digital computers contain circuits that implement Boolean functions.
• The simpler that we can make a Boolean function, the smaller the circuit
that will result.
• Simpler circuits are cheaper to build, consume less power, and run faster than
complex circuits.
• With this in mind, we always want to reduce our Boolean functions to their
simplest form.
• There are a number of Boolean identities that help us to do this.

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 Useful Laws and Theorems
Identity Name OR Form AND Form
Identity X+0=X X•1=X
Null X+1=1 X•0=0
Idempotent X+X=X X•X=X
Involution/Double complement law (X')' = X
Complementarity/ Inverse X + X' = 1 X • X' = 0
Commutative X+Y=Y+X X•Y=Y•X
Associative (X+Y)+Z=X+(Y+Z) (X•Y)•Z=X•(Y•Z)
Distributive X•(Y+Z)=(X•Y)+(X•Z) X+(Y•Z)=(X+Y)•(X+Z)
Uniting X•Y+X•Y'=X (X+Y)•(X+Y')=X
Absorption X+X•Y=X X•(X+Y)=X
Absorption (#2) (X+Y')•Y=X•Y (X•Y')+Y=X+Y
De Morgan's (X+Y+...)'=X'•Y'•... (X•Y•...)'=X'+Y'+...
Duality (X+Y+...)D=X•Y•... ( X•Y•...)D=X+Y+…
Multiplying & factoring (X+Y)•(X'+Z)=X•Z+X'•Y X•Y+X'•Z=(X+Z)•(X'+Y)
Consensus (X•Y)+(Y•Z)+(X'•Z)= X•Y+X'•Z (X+Y)•(Y+Z)•(X'+Z)=(X+Y)•(X'+Z)

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 Proving Theorems
• Example 1: Prove the uniting theorem  X•Y+X•Y'=X
Distributive X•Y+X•Y' = X•(Y+Y')
Complementarity  = X•(1)
Identity  =X
• Example 2: Prove the absorption theorem X+X•Y=X
Identity  X+X•Y = (X•1)+(X•Y)
Distributive = X•(1+Y)
Null = X•(1)
Identity =X
• Example 3: Prove the consensus theorem (XY)+(YZ)+(X'Z)= XY+X'Z
Complementarity XY+YZ+X'Z = XY+(X+X')YZ + X'Z
Distributive = XYZ+XY+X'YZ+X'Z
Use absorption {AB+A=A} with A=XY and B=Z

= XY+X'YZ+X'Z
Rearrange terms = XY+X'ZY+X'Z
• Use absorption {AB+A=A} with A=X'Z and B=Y
 XY+YZ+X'Z = XY+X'Z
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 Example

• We can use Boolean identities to simplify the function:

as follows:

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 De Morgan’s Theorem
• Two most important theorems of Boolean Algebra were contributed by
De Morgan.
• Extremely useful in simplifying expression in which product or sum of
variables is inverted.
• The two theorems are:
• 𝑋 + 𝑌 =𝑋.ത 𝑌ത
• 𝑋. 𝑌 =𝑋ത + 𝑌ത

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 De Morgan’s Theorem Conversion
• Step1: Change all OR’s to ANDs and all ANDs to OR's
• Step2: Complement each individual variable (short overbar)
• Step3: Complement the entire function (long overbars)
• Step4 :Eliminate all groups of double overbars

ത 𝑌ത
• Example: 𝑋.
=𝑋ത + 𝑌ത
=𝑋ധ + 𝑌ധ
=𝑋ധ + 𝑌ധ
=𝑋+𝑌

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 Examples De Morgan’s
• Sometimes it is more economical to build a circuit using the complement of a function (and
complementing its result) than it is to implement the function directly.
• De Morgan’s law provides an easy way of finding the complement of a Boolean function.
• Recall De Morgan’s law states:

• De Morgan’s law can be extended to any number of variables.

• Replace each variable by its complement and change all ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs.
• Thus, we find the complement of:

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 De Morgan’s Theorem
• Use De Morgan’s Theorem to find complements
• Example: F=(A+B)•(A’+C), so F’=(A’•B’)+(A•C’)
A B C F A B C F’
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

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One more example of logic simplification
• Example:
Z = A'BC + AB'C' + AB'C + ABC' + ABC
= A'BC + AB'(C’ + C) + AB(C' + C) distributive
= A'BC + AB’ + AB complementary
= A'BC + A(B' + B) distributive
= A'BC + A complementary
= BC + A absorption #2
Duality(X •Y')+Y=X+Y with X=BC and Y=A

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 Boolean Algebra
• Through our exercises in simplifying Boolean expressions, we see that there are numerous
ways of stating the same Boolean expression.
• These “synonymous” forms are logically equivalent.
• Logically equivalent expressions have identical truth tables.
• In order to eliminate as much confusion as possible, designers express, Boolean functions
in standardized or canonical form.
• There are two canonical forms for Boolean expressions: sum-of-products and product-of-
sums.
• Recall the Boolean product is the AND operation and the Boolean sum is the OR operation.
• In the sum-of-products form, ANDed variables are ORed together.
• For example:

• In the product-of-sums form, ORed variables are ANDed together:

• For example:

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 Boolean Algebra
• It is easy to convert a function to sum-of-products form using its truth table.
• We are interested in the values of the variables that make the function true (=1).
• Using the truth table, we list the values of the variables that result in a true
function value.
• Each group of variables is then ORed together.
• It is easy to convert a function to sum-of-products form using its truth table.
• We are interested in the values of the variables that make the function true (=1).
• Using the truth table, we list the values of the variables that result in a true
function value.
• Each group of variables is then ORed together.
• The sum-of-products form for our function is: We note that this function is not
in simplest terms. Our aim is
only to rewrite our function in
canonical sum-of-products form.

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 SOP Standard Form
• In SOP standard form, every variable in the domain must appear in each
term. This form is useful for constructing truth tables or for implementing
logic in PLDs.
• You can expand a nonstandard term to standard form by multiplying the
term by a term consisting of the sum of the missing variable and its
complement.
• Example: Convert X = 𝐴ҧ𝐵ത + ABC to standard form.
ҧ
• The first term does not include the variable C. therefore, multiply it by the (C + 𝐶),
which is 1.
X = 𝐴ҧ𝐵(𝐶ത + 𝐶)ҧ + ABC
= 𝐴ҧ𝐵𝐶
ത + 𝐴ҧ𝐵ത 𝐶ҧ +ABC

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 POS Standard Form

• In POS standard form, every variable in the domain must appear in

each sum term of the expression.
• You can expand a non-standard POS expression to standard form by
adding the product of the missing variable and its complement, which
states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC.
• EXAMPLE: Convert X = (𝐴ҧ + 𝐵) ത (A + B + C) to standard POS form.
• The first sum term does not include the variable C. therefore, add C𝐶ҧ
and expand the result.
X = (𝐴ҧ + 𝐵+
ത C𝐶)ҧ (A + B + C)
= (𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶) (𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶)ҧ (A + B + C)

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 Combinational Circuits
• We have designed a circuit that implements the Boolean function:

• This circuit is an example of a combinational logic circuit.

• Combinational logic circuits produce a specified output (almost) at
the instant when input values are applied.
• In a later section, we will explore circuits where this is not the case.
• Combinational logic circuits give us many useful devices.
• One of the simplest is the half adder, which finds the sum of
two bits.
• We can gain some insight as to the construction of a half adder
by looking at its truth table, shown at the right.

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 Combinational Circuits
• As we see, the sum can be found using the XOR operation and the
carry using the AND operation.

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 Combinational Circuits
• We can change our half adder into to a full adder by including
gates for processing the carry bit.
• The truth table for a full adder is shown at the right.
• How can we change the half adder shown below to make it a full
adder?
• Here’s our completed full adder.

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 Combinational Circuits
• Just as we combined half adders to make a full adder, full adders can
connected in series.
• The carry bit “ripples” from one adder to the next; hence, this
configuration is called a ripple-carry adder.

Today’s systems employ more efficient adders.

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 Combinational Circuits
• Decoders are another important type of
combinational circuit.
• Among other things, they are useful in
This is a block diagram for a decoder.
selecting a memory location according a
binary value placed on the address lines of a
memory bus.
• Address decoders with n inputs can select
any of 2n locations.
• This is what a 2-to-4 decoder looks like on
the inside as shown in right side.
If x = 0 and y = 1, which output line is enabled?

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 Combinational Circuits
• This is what a 4-to-1 multiplexer looks This shifter moves the bits of a nibble one
like on the inside.. position to the left or right on the basis of S

If S0 = 1 and S1 = 0,
If S = 0, in which
which input is
direction do the
transferred to the
input bits shift?
output?
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 Simplification
Boolean
Truth
• Simplification from Boolean function Function
Table
- Finding an equivalent expression that is least
expensive to implement Unique Many different expressions exist
- For a simple function, it is possible to obtain
a simple expression for low cost implementation
- But, with complex functions, it is a very difficult
task
Truth
• Karnaugh Map (K-map) is a simple procedure for Table
simplifying Boolean expressions. Simplified
Karnaugh Boolean
Map Function
Boolean
function

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 KARNAUGH MAP
• Karnaugh Map for an n-input digital
logic circuit (n-variable sum-of-
products form of Boolean Function, or Karnaugh Map
Truth Table) is x
• Rectangle divided into 2n cells x Identification value

• Each cell is associated with a Minterm

x F
0 0 of the cell 0 0 of F
0 1
1 1 1
• An output(function) value for each input value 1 0 1
associated with a minterm is written in the cell F(x) =  (1)
representing the minterm
x0 1 1-cell
• → 1-cell, 0-cell x y F x
y
• Each Minterm is identified by a 0 0 0 0 0 1 y 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
decimal number whose binary 1 2 3
1
1
0
1
1
1
1 1 0
representation is identical to the binary F(x,y) =  (1,2)
interpretation of the input values of the
minterm.
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 Karnaugh Map
x y z F
0 0 0 0 yz yz
0 0 1 1 x 00 01 11 10 x 00 01 11 10
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 3 2 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 4 5 7 6 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 F(x, y, z) =  (1,2,4)
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
u v w x F
wx wx
uv 00 01 11 10
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 00 01 11 10
uv 00 0 1 1 0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1 00 0 1 3 2
0 1 0 0 0 01 4 5 7 6 01 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 11 12 13 15 14 11 0 0 0 1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
10 8 9 11 10 10 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 F(u, v, w, x) =  (1,3,6,8,9,11,14)
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

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 Sequential Circuit
• Combinational logic circuits are perfect for situations when we require the immediate
application of a Boolean function to a set of inputs.
• There are other times, however, when we need a circuit to change its value with
consideration to its current state as well as its inputs.
• These circuits have to “remember” their current state.
• Sequential logic circuits provide this functionality for us.
• As the name implies, sequential logic circuits require a means by which events can be
sequenced.
• State changes are controlled by clocks.
• A “clock” is a special circuit that sends electrical pulses through a circuit.
• Clocks produce electrical waveforms such as the one shown below.

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 Sequential Circuit
• State changes occur in sequential circuits only when the clock ticks.
• Circuits can change state on the rising edge, falling edge, or when the clock pulse
reaches its highest voltage.
• Circuits that change state on the rising edge, or falling edge of the clock pulse are
called edge-triggered.
• Level-triggered circuits change state when the clock voltage reaches its highest or
lowest level.

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 Sequential Circuits
• To retain their state values, sequential circuits rely on feedback.
• Feedback in digital circuits occurs when an output is looped back to
the input.
• A simple example of this concept is shown below.
• If Q is 0 it will always be 0, if it is 1, it will always be 1. Why?

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 Sequential Circuits
• You can see how feedback works by examining the most basic
sequential logic components, the SR flip-flop.
• The “SR” stands for set/reset.
• The internals of an SR flip-flop are shown right side, along with its
block diagram.
• The behavior of an SR flip-flop is described by a characteristic table.
• Q(t) means the value of the output at time t. Q(t+1) is the value of Q
after the next clock pulse.
• The SR flip-flop actually has three inputs: S, R, and its current
output, Q.
• Thus, we can construct a truth table for this circuit, as shown at the
right.
• Notice the two undefined values. When both S and R are 1, the SR
flip-flop is unstable.

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 Sequential Circuits
• If we can be sure that the inputs to an SR flip-flop
will never both be 1, we will never have an
unstable circuit. This may not always be the case.
• The SR flip-flop can be modified to provide a
stable state when both inputs are 1.
• This modified flip-flop is called a JK flip-flop,
shown at the right.
• The “JK” is in honor of Jack Kilby.
• At the right, we see how an SR flip-flop can be
modified to create a JK flip-flop.
• The characteristic table indicates that the flip-flop
is stable for all inputs.

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 Sequential Circuits
• Another modification of the SR flip-flop is the D flip-flop,
shown right side with its characteristic table.
• You will notice that the output of the flip-flop remains the
same during subsequent clock pulses. The output changes
only when the value of D changes.
• The D flip-flop is the fundamental circuit of computer
memory.
• D flip-flops are usually illustrated using the block diagram shown
below.
• The characteristic table for the D flip-flop is shown at the
right.

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 Sequential Circuits
• The behavior of sequential circuits can be expressed
using characteristic tables or finite state machines
(FSMs).
• FSMs consist of a set of nodes that hold the states of the
machine and a set of arcs that connect the states.
• Moore and Mealy machines are two types of FSMs that
are equivalent. Moore Machine
• They differ only in how they express the outputs of the machine.
• Moore machines place outputs on each node, while
Mealy machines present their outputs on the transitions.
• The behavior of a JK flop-flop is depicted below by a
Moore machine (right up) and a Mealy machine (right
down).
Mealy Machine

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 Sequential Circuits
• Although the behavior of Moore and Mealy
machines is identical, their
implementations differ. This is our
Mealy
machine.
This is our
Moore
machine.

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 Sequential Circuits
• It is difficult to express the complexities of actual implementations using only Moore and
Mealy machines.
• For one thing, they do not address the intricacies of timing very well.
• Secondly, it is often the case that an interaction of numerous signals is required to advance a machine from
one state to the next.
• For these reasons, Christopher Clare invented the algorithmic state machine (ASM).
• Sequential circuits are used anytime that we have a “stateful” application.
• A stateful application is one where the next state of the machine depends on the current state of the
machine and the input.
• A stateful application requires both combinational and sequential logic.
• The following slides provide several examples of circuits that fall into this category.

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 Sequential Circuits
• This illustration shows a 4-bit register consisting of D flip-flops. You will usually see its
block diagram (below) instead.

A larger memory configuration

is shown on the right side of
slide.

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 Sequential Circuits
• A binary counter is another example of a
sequential circuit.
• The low-order bit is complemented at each
clock pulse.
• Whenever it changes from 0 to 1, the next
bit is complemented, and so on through the
other flip-flops.

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 Designing Circuits
• We have seen digital circuits from two points of view: digital analysis and digital synthesis.
• Digital analysis explores the relationship between a circuits inputs and its outputs.
• Digital synthesis creates logic diagrams using the values specified in a truth table.
• Digital systems designers must also be mindful of the physical behaviors of circuits to
include minute propagation delays that occur between the time when a circuit’s inputs are
energized and when the output is accurate and stable.
• Digital designers rely on specialized software to create efficient circuits.
• Thus, software is an enabler for the construction of better hardware.
• Of course, software is in reality a collection of algorithms that could just as well be
implemented in hardware.

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 THANK YOU

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