WAVEFORM GENERATORS

• Most digital system requires some kind of

timing waveform , a source of trigger pulses is
required for all clocked sequential systems.
•In digital systems , a rectangular waveform is
most desirable.
•The generators of rectangular waveforms are
referred as multivibrators.
•Three type of Multivibrator:- Astable (free
running), monostable (one shot), bistable (flip
flop)
Square wave generator (Free Running
or Astable Multivibrator)
• The non-sinusoidal waveform generators are also
called relaxation oscillators.

• The op-amp relaxation oscillator shown in figure is

a square wave generator.
• In general, square waves are relatively easy to
produce.

• Like the UJT relaxation oscillator, the circuit’s

frequency of oscillation is dependent on the charge
and discharge of a capacitor C through feedback
resistor R,. The “heart” of the oscillator is
an inverting op-amp comparator.
• The comparator uses positive feedback that
increases the gain of the amplifier.

• comparator circuit offer two advantages.(i) the high

gain causes the op-amp’s output to switch very
quickly from one state to an­other and vice-versa. (ii)
the use of positive feedback gives the circuit
hysteresis.

• In square-wave generator circuit, the output voltage

vout is shunted to ground by two Zener diodes Z1and
Z2 connected back-to-back and is limited to either VZ
2 or –VZ 1.
• A fraction of the output is feedback to the (+)
input terminal.
• Combination of RF and C acting as a low-pass
R-C circuit is used to integrate the output
voltage Vout and the capacitor voltage vc is
applied to the inverting input terminal in place
of external signal.
• The differential input voltage is given as
vin = vc - β vout Where β= R3/(R3+R2)
When vin is positive, vout = – Vz1 and when vin is
negative vout = + Vz2.
•Consider an instant of time when vin < 0.
•At this instant vout = + Vz2 , and the voltage at the n
(+) terminal is β Vz2 , the capacitor C charges
exponentially towards Vz2, with a time constant Rf C.
The output voltage remains constant at Vz2 until
vc equal β Vz2.
•When it happens, comparator o/p reverses to -Vz1.
Now vc changes exponential towards
•(negative)Vz1 with the same time constant and a
gain the output makes a transition from -Vz1 to +
Vz2. when vc equals -βVz 1
Let Vz1 = Vz 2
• The time period, T, of the output square wave
is determined using charging and discharging
phenomena of the capacitor C.

• The voltage across the capacitor, vc when it is

charging from – B Vz to + Vz is given by
Vc = Vz[1-(1+β)]e-t/τ Where τ = RfC

• The waveforms of the capacitor voltage vc and

output voltage vout (or vz) are shown in figure.
• When t = T/2 Vc = +β Vz or + β Vout
Therefore β Vz = Vz [1-(1+β)e-T/2τ]

• e-T/2τ = 1- β/1+ β

• T = 2τ loge 1+β/1- β = 2Rf C loge [1+ (2R2/R1)]

•The frequency, f = 1/T , of the square-wave is
independent of output voltage Vout.
• This circuit is also known as free-running or
astable multivibrator because it has two quasi-
stable states.
•The output remains in one state for time T1 and
then makes an abrupt transition to the second
state and re­mains in that state for time T2.
•The cycle repeats itself after time T = (T1 +
T2) where T is the time period of the square-wave.
•The op-amp square-wave generator is useful in
the frequency range of about 10 Hz -10 kHz.
PULSE GENERATOR (MONOSTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR)
• A monostable multivibrator (MMV) has one
stable state and one quasi-stable state.
• The circuit remains in its stable state till an
external triggering pulse causes a transition to
the quasi-stable state.
• The circuit comes back to its stable state after
a time period T.
• Thus it generates a single output pulse in
response to an input pulse and is referred to
as a one-shot or single shot.
• Monostable multivibrator circuit is obtained by modifying
the astable multivibrator circuit by connecting a diode
D1 across capacitor C so as to clamp vc at vd during positive
excursion.

• Under steady-state condition, this circuit will remain in its

stable state with the output VOUT = + VOUT or + Vz and the
capacitor C is clamped at the voltage VD (on-voltage of
diode VD = 0.7 V).

• The voltage VD must be less than β VOUT for vin < 0. The
circuit can be switched to the other state by applying a
negative pulse with amplitude greater than β VOUT – VD to
the non-inverting (+) input terminal.
• When a trigger pulse with amplitude greater than β VOUT –
VD is applied, vin goes positive causing a transition in the
state of the circuit to -Vout.

• The capacitor C now charges exponentially with a time

constant τ = RfC toward — VOUT (diode Dl being reverse-
biased). When capacitor voltage vc becomes more negative
than – β VOUT, vin becomes negative and, therefore, output
swings back to + VOUT (steady- state output).

• The capacitor now charges towards + VOUT till vc attain

VD and capacitor C becomes clamped at VD. The trigger
pulse, capacitor voltage waveform and output voltage
waveform are shown in figures respectively.
• The width of the trigger pulse T must be much
smaller than the duration of the output pulse
generated i.e. TP« T.

• For reliable operation the circuit should not be

triggered again before T.

• During the quasi-stable state, the capacitor

voltage is given as
• vc = – VOUT + (VOUT + VD)e-t/τ
At instant t = T, vc = – β VOUT
So - β VOUT =- VOUT + (VOUT + vD) e-T/τ or
• T = RfC loge (1 + VD/VOUT)/ 1- β

• Usually VD << VOUT and if R2 = R3 so that if β =

R3/(R2+R3) = ½ then,

• T = RfC loge 2 = 0.693 Rf C

Triangular Waveform Generator
• The op-amp triangular-wave generator is
another example of a relaxation oscillator.
• We know that the integrator output waveform
will be triangular if the input to it is a square-
wave.
• It means that a triangular-wave generator can
be formed by simply cascading an integrator
and a square-wave generator, as illustrated in
figure.
• This circuit needs a dual op-amp, two
capacitors, and at least five resistors.
• The rectangular-wave output of the square-
wave generator drives the integrator which
produces a triangular output waveform.
• The rectangular-wave swings between
+Vsat and -Vsat with a time period determined
from equation.
• The triangular-waveform has the same period
and frequency as the square-waveform.
• Peak to-peak value of output triangular-
waveform can be obtained from the following
equation. Vout(p-p)= vin/ 4 f R5 C2
• The input of integrator A2 is a square wave and its
output is a triangular waveform, the output of
integrator will be triangular wave only
when R4 C2 > T/ 2 where T is the ( period of square
wave.
• R4C2 should be equal to T.
• It may also be necessary to shunt the capacitor
C2 with resistance R5 = 10 R4 and connect an offset
volt compensating network at the (+) input
terminal of op-amp A2 so as to obtain a stable
triangular wave.
• Since the frequency of the triangular-wave
generator like any other oscillator, is limited by the
op-amp slew-rate, a high slew rate op-amp, like LM
301, should be used for the generation of relatively
higher frequency waveforms.
SAWTOOTH WAVE GENERATOR