1

Explain the operation of an ideal transformer on

load with phasor diagram and equivalent circuit

Ideal transformer with load is a type of transformer where a

load is connected to secondary winding of the ideal
transformer. When current flows through the secondary
section a magnetic field is created around it, by the principle
of electromagnetic induction the changing magnetic field
induces a voltage in the primary part of the transformer.

Let’s consider a load of ZL is connected to the

secondary part of the transformer. This will induce an
EMF E2 along with current I2.

So, we can write, I2=E2 / ZL= V2 / ZL

(E 2 =V 2 in case of ideal transformer)

Cont…..
 2
I2 current flowing in the secondary part creates a
magnetomotive force. This force produces a flux which
is in the opposite direction of the main flux. This flux
will make some changes in the core flux. to
counterbalance the flux the primary current should be

N1 I1 = N2 I2

I1=N1/N2∗I2

The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer with load

is given below where, the current I2 will lag behind the
EMF E2 because we assumed the load to be inductive.
The lagging angle will be ϕ2 Also, we will not consider
the load current as the transformer is in ideal condition.
 3
Operation of an ideal transformer with No-load
condition

The voltage source V1 is applied across the primary

winding of the transformer. Their secondary winding is
kept open. The N1 and N2 are the numbers of turns of
their primary and secondary winding.

The current Im is the magnetizing current flows through

the primary winding of the transformer. The
magnetizing current produces the flux φm in the core of
the transformer.

As the permeability of the core is infinite the flux of the

core link with both the primary and secondary winding
of the transformer.
Cont ….
 4
The flux link with the primary winding induces the emf
E1 because of self-induction. The direction of the
induced emf is inversely proportional to the applied
voltage V1. The emf E2 induces in the secondary
winding of the transformer because of mutual induction.

Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer

The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in

the figure below. As the coil of the primary transformer
is purely inductive the magnetizing current induces in
the transformer lag 90º by the input voltage V1.
 5
Operation of an practical transformer with ON-load
condition
When the secondary winding of a practical transformer is
open circuited, the transformer is said to be on no-load (see
the figure). Under this condition, the primary winding will
draw a small no-load current I0 from the source, which
supplies the iron losses and a very small amount of copper
loss in the core and primary winding respectively. Thus, the
primary no-load current (I0) does not lag the applied voltage
V1 by 90° but lags it by an angle φ0 which is less than 90°.

circuit diagram and phasor diagram

Therefore,
No−load input power, P0 = V1 I0 cosφ0
From the phasor diagram, it can be seen that the no-load
primary current (I0) can be resolved into two rectangular
components viz. active component and magnetising
component.
Cont…..
 6
Active Component
The component IW is in phase with the applied voltage
V1 and is known as active component or iron loss
component. This component of no-load current is
responsible for supplying iron loss and a very small
primary winding copper loss in the transformer. The IW
is given by,

IW=I0 cosφ0

Magnetising Component
The component Im is lagging behind the applied
voltage V1 by an angle of 90° and is known as
magnetising component of the no-load current. The
magnetising component is responsible for producing the
mutual flux φm in the core of the transformer and is
given by,

Im=I0 sinφ0
 7
Operation of an practical transformer with NO -
LOAD condition

When the transformer is on no-load, no current flows in the

secondary winding. Although, the primary winding draws a
small no-load current (I0), which supplies the magnetising
current (Im) to produce flux in the core and the current IW to
supply the core losses. Therefore, the noload primary current
is divided into two components and hence it can be
represented by two parallel braches which composed of a
parallel circuit R0 – Xm in parallel with the primary winding.

The resistance R0 is called core-loss resistance which

represents the iron losses (i.e., hysteresis and eddy current
losses), thus the current IW flows through the R0 branch. The
inductive reactance Xm is known as magnetising reactance
which represents a loss-less coil that produces the magnetic
flux in the core, thus the magnetising current Im passes
through it
Cont….
 8
The core loss resistance (R0) is given by,

R0=V1 IW

The magnetising reactance (Xm) is given by,

Xm=V1 Im

It should be noted that, in a practical transformer the current

IW is very small as compared to current Im. Therefore, the
no-load power factor (cosφ0) of a practical transformer is very
small.
 9
Explain briefly the open circuit and short circuit tests of a
transformer

Open circuit test

The open circuit test is performed on a transformer to
determine the following:

● No-load current (Io): This is the current that flows

through the primary winding of the transformer when the
secondary winding is open circuited.

● Core losses (Pc): These are the losses that occur in the
transformer's iron core, even when there is no load on the
secondary winding.

Short circuit test

The short circuit test is performed on a transformer to
determine the following:

● Full-load copper losses (Pcu): These are the losses that

occur in the transformer's windings when the transformer
is loaded to its full capacity.

● Transformer impedance (Z): This is a complex number

that represents the opposition to AC current flow through
the transformer.
 10
Why is the rating of a transformer given is KVA? What
are the advantages and disadvantage of three units of
1-phase transformer used as 3-phase transformer

In transformer Iron loss on voltage and copper loss of a

transformer depends on current. Hence, total transformer heat
loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and independent of phase
angle among voltage and current i.e., it is independent of
power factor. That is why the rating of the transformer is in
kVA and not in kW.

Advantages and disadvantage of three units of 1-phase

transformer used as 3-phase transformer

Advantages

● Flexibility: Individual transformers can be easily

replaced or repaired in case of failure, minimising
downtime.

● Scalability: The system can be easily scaled up or down

by adding or removing transformers as needed.

● Redundancy: Having multiple transformers provides

redundancy in case of failures.

● Lower initial cost: Three single-phase transformers may

initially be cheaper than a single three-phase transformer.
Cont….
 11
Disadvantage of three units of 1-phase transformer
used as 3-phase transformer

● Increased complexity: Requires proper wiring and

synchronisation to function correctly as a three-phase
system, increasing complexity and installation time.

● Larger footprint: Requires more space compared to a

single three-phase transformer.

● Higher losses: Three single-phase transformers

generally have higher losses compared to a single
three-phase transformer, leading to reduced efficiency.

● Increased maintenance: Requires maintenance of three

individual transformers instead of one.
 12
Name the different types of connection of 3-phase
transformer and describe any one.
There are four different types of connections for a three-phase
transformer:

1) Delta-Star (Δ-Y)

2) Star-Delta (Y-Δ)
 13
3) Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ)

Describe below 👇 page number : 14

 14

4) Star-Star (Y-Y)

The star-star connection of transformer is shown in the figure.

Here, the one terminal of three windings on each of the
primary and the secondary sides being connected at a
common point (called neutral point) and the other end of each
winding is taken out as the line terminal.

In the case of star-star connection, the phase current is equal

to the line current and they are in phase. The line voltage is √3
times of the phase voltage. Also, there is a phase difference of
30° between the line voltages and phase voltages.
 15
Why DC motor (series) never be started on No-load ?
Derive the torque equation of DC motor.
A DC series motor should always be started with some load
because at no load it will rotate with dangerously high speed.

When the motor is connected across the supply mains without

load, it draws small current from the supply mains.This
current will flow through the series field and armature, the
speed tends to increase so that back emf may approach the
applied voltage in magnitude.The increase in back emf
weakens the armature current and hence the field current.This
cause again increases the speed so the back emf.Thus, the
field continues to weaken and speed continues to increase
until the armature produced such centrifugal force that it is
coming out from its shaft and gets damaged.

Torque equation of DC motor

When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a
generator, the rotor conductors carry current. These
conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap.

When the current-carrying current is placed in the magnetic

field, a force is exerted or it which exerts turning moment or
torque F x r. This torque is produced due to the
electromagnetic effect, hence is called Electromagnetic
torque.
 16
Cont…..
Since

Multiplying the equation (1) by Ia we get

We know that,
Total electrical power supplied to the armature = Mechanical
power developed by the armature + losses due to armature
resistance

Now, the mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm,

Also, the mechanical power that rotates the armature can be

given regarding torque T and speed n.

Where n is in revolution per seconds (rps) and T is in

Newton-Meter.

Hence,

Cont…
 17
But,

Where N is the speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and

Where n is the speed in (rps).

Therefore,

So, the torque equation is given as:

For a particular DC Motor, the number of poles (P) and the

number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A) are constant.

Where

Thus, from the above equation (5) it is clear that the torque
produced in the armature is directly proportional to the flux
per pole and the armature current.
 18
Describe the speed control of DC motor.

There are three main methods of speed control of DC motors:

1. Armature resistance control: This method involves

connecting a variable resistor in series with the armature
winding. When the resistance is increased, the current through
the armature decreases, which reduces the back EMF and
increases the speed. This method is simple and inexpensive,
but it is also inefficient and can cause the motor to overheat.

2. Field flux control: This method involves connecting a

variable resistor in series with the field winding. When the
resistance is increased, the current through the field winding
decreases, which reduces the magnetic field strength and
increases the speed. This method is more efficient than
armature resistance control, but it is also more complex and
expensive.

3. Applied voltage control: This method involves connecting

the motor to a variable voltage source. When the voltage is
increased, the speed increases. This method is the most
efficient and precise, but it is also the most complex and
expensive.
 19
Describe the armature reaction in brief. Derive the
condition for the maximum efficiency of DC generator.
The current flowing through the armature conductors creates a
magnetic field, which is called as armature flux. This
armature flux distorts and weakens the magnetic flux
produced by the main poles. This effect of armature flux on
the main flux is known as armature reaction.

Effects :
● As the total field flux produced by each pole is slightly
reduced, which reduces the generated EMF.

● Due to the shifting of the resultant flux axis, the MNA is

also shifted in the direction of rotation of the generator.

Condition for Maximum Efficiency of DC generator :

The efficiency of a DC generator is not constant but changes
with the change in load.

Let, for a shunt generator,

● IL = loadcurrent
● V = terminal voltage

Then, the output power of the DC generator is given by,

● Output Power, = Po = VIL
● Total Input Power ,Pi = Po + Losses
⇒Pi = VIL + I2aRa + Wc
⇒Pi = VIL + (IL + Ish)2Ra + Wc
Cont….
20
 21
Testing of Transformer
Transformer Testing Defined: Transformer testing involves
various procedures to confirm the specifications and
performance of transformers before and after installation.

● Type Tests: These tests validate the transformer’s design

and its ability to meet specified criteria through a series
of rigorous checks.

● Routine Tests: Routine testing ensures that every

transformer unit performs correctly under normal
operational conditions.

● Magnetizing Current Test: This test locates defects in

the magnetic core structure, essential for maintaining
transformer reliability and effectiveness.

● Insulation Testing: Insulation tests, such as the Megger

test, are critical for verifying the health of the
transformer’s insulation system, ensuring safety and
functionality.
 22
Back EMF
Back EMF, or counter-electromotive force (CEMF), is an
electromotive force (EMF) that opposes the current that is
causing it. It is a phenomenon that occurs in electric motors
and generators.In a motor, back EMF is generated by the
rotating armature conductors cutting through the magnetic
field produced by the field coils or permanent magnet. This
induces an EMF in the armature conductors, which opposes
the current flowing through them.

The amount of back EMF generated depends on the speed of

the motor and the strength of the magnetic field. As the motor
speeds up, the back EMF increases, which reduces the current
flowing through the motor. This helps to keep the motor
running at a constant speed.
 23
Auto transformer
an autotransformer is an electrical transformer with only one
winding. In an autotransformer, portions of the same winding
act as both the primary winding and secondary winding sides
of the transformer. In contrast, an ordinary transformer has
separate primary and secondary windings that are not
connected by an electrically conductive path between them.

The autotransformer winding has at least three electrical

connections to the winding. Since part of the winding does
"double duty", autotransformers have the advantages of often
being smaller, lighter, and cheaper than typical dual-winding
transformers, but the disadvantage of not providing electrical
isolation between primary and secondary circuits. Other
advantages of autotransformers include lower leakage
reactance, lower losses, lower excitation current, and
increased VA rating for a given size and mass
 24
What are the function of Buchholz relay, conservator and
Transformer oil in transformer.

Buchholz relay
● Function: To detect and isolate internal faults in oil-filled
transformers.

Conservator
● Function: To provide a reservoir of oil for the
transformer and to protect the transformer from
overpressure.

Transformer oil
● Function: To insulate and cool the transformer windings.

Combined function

The Buchholz relay, conservator, and transformer oil work

together to protect the transformer from internal faults. The
Buchholz relay detects the gases produced by the fault, the
conservator provides a reservoir of oil to absorb the gases and
reduce pressure, and the transformer oil cools the transformer
windings and prevents overheating.
 25
Write down two applications of each series and shunt
motor.

Series motor
DC Series motors are known for their extremely high starting
torque. They are used for applications where high starting
torque is required like in electric locomotives, hoists &
cranes, electric bikes and cars, etc.

Shunt motor
However, the starting torque of dc shunt motor is lower than
that of the dc series motor. For this reason, they are used in
applications where constant speed is required like in fans,
blowers, elevators, centrifugal pumps, lath machines, etc.
 26
Why series motor should never be started without some
mechanical load? Explain with respect to speed torque
characteristics.
The DC series motor attains dangerously high speed when we
run it on no load. The main reason for overspeeding is that at
no load, the flux produced by the field winding is much less,
and the reduced flux causes overspeeding of the motor. The
speed of the motor is inversely proportional to the flux.The
speed of the DC motor is proportional to the back EMF(Eb)
and inversely proportional to the flux. The flux is proportional
to the field current.

Speed torque characteristics of a Series Motor

The speed torque characteristics of a DC series motor can be

obtained from its speed-armature current and torque-armature
current characteristics as follows

For a given value of Ia determine Ta from the torque-armature

current curve and N from the speed-armature current curve.

This will give a point (T,N) on speed-torque curve. Repeat

this procedure for different values of armature current and
determine the corresponding values of speed and torque (T1,
N1), (2, N2) etc

When these points are plotted on the graph, we obtain the

speed and torque characteristics of a DC series motor as
shown in the figure. Cont…….
 27

It is clear from the characteristics that the series motor has

high torque at low speed and vice-versa. Thus, the series DC
motor is used where high starting torque is required
 28
What is meant by core loss and copper loss in DC
generator? What are the methods to minimise? Explain
the working of DC generator.

Core losses : are losses that occur in the iron core of a DC

generator due to the alternating magnetic field. There are two
types of core losses:

● Hysteresis loss: This loss occurs due to the energy

required to magnetize and demagnetize the iron core as it
rotates in the alternating magnetic field.

● Eddy current loss: This loss occurs due to the currents

that are induced in the iron core by the alternating
magnetic field.

Copper losses : are losses that occur in the windings of a DC

generator due to the resistance of the windings. These losses
are proportional to the square of the current flowing through
the windings.

Methods to minimize core losses:

● Use high-quality iron core material with low hysteresis
and eddy current losses.
● Use laminated iron core sheets to reduce eddy current
losses
cont…..
 29
Methods to minimize copper losses:
● Use copper wire with low resistance.
● Reduce the winding resistance by using multiple parallel
windings.

Working of a DC generator:

A DC generator operates on the principle of Faraday’s

laws of electromagnetic induction. According to
Faraday’s law, whenever a conductor is placed in a
fluctuating magnetic field (or when a conductor is
moved in a magnetic field) an EMF is induced in the
conductor.

Cont…
 30
If the conductor is guided with a closed path, the
current will get induced. The direction of the induced
current (given by Fleming’s right-hand rule) changes as
the direction of movement of the conductor changes.

For example, consider the case, an armature rotating in

clockwise direction and conductor at the left moving in
an upward direction. As the armature completes its half
rotation the direction of movement of the conductor will
get reversed downward. The direction of the current
will be alternating. As the connections of armature
conductors get reversed, a current reversal takes place.
Thus, we get unidirectional current at the terminals
 31
Write down the function of transformer. Explain the
working of transformer with respect to it phasor
diagram and derive equation.

The function of a transformer is to transfer electric energy

from one alternating-current circuit to one or more other
circuits, either increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping
down) the voltage.

Working of a Transformer
The fundamental principle of how the transformer functions
are mutual induction between the two coils or Faraday’s Law
of Electromagnetic Induction.

The transformer primary winding produces an alternating

flux, known as the mutual flux, when an alternating voltage is
applied, in accordance with the mutual inductance principle.

Cont…..
 32
According to Faraday’s rule of electromagnetic induction, this
alternating flux links the transformer primary and secondary
windings magnetically and generates EMFs E1 in the primary
winding and E2 in the secondary winding. The EMF (E1) is
referred to as the primary EMF, while the EMF (E2) is the
secondary EMF.
Cont….

Dividing above equations, to obtain the ratio as:

From the expression above, it is clear that the size of

EMFs E1 and E2 is dependent on the number of turns in
the transformer primary and secondary windings,
respectively. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1, and the
transformer will be a step-up transformer; if N2 < N1,
then E2 < E1, and the transformer will be a step-down
transformer.
 33
EMF equation of a Transformer
The derivation of the EMF Equation of the transformer is
shown below. Let

● ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber

● f be the supply frequency in Hz
● N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
● N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm

to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.

By Faraday’s Law
Let E1 be the emf induced in the primary winding

Where ϕ = N1 ϕ

Cont……
 34
Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm Sinwt

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2πf

Root mean square RMS value

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get

the value of E1 as

Cont…..
 35
Similarly

Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

 36
What is the application of Autotransformer

Autotransformers are used in a variety of applications,

including:

● Power transmission and distribution:

Autotransformers can be used to interconnect systems
operating at different voltage classes, such as 132 kV to
66 kV for transmission, or 480 V to 600 V for industrial
applications. They are also used to provide variable
voltage control at the end of long distribution circuits to
compensate for voltage drop.

● Motor starting: Autotransformers can be used to

provide reduced voltage starting for induction motors,
which can help to reduce startup currents and torque.

● Voltage regulation: Autotransformers with multiple taps

can be used to adjust the voltage at a specific point in a
circuit to compensate for voltage fluctuations.

● Laboratory testing: Autotransformers are often used in

laboratories to provide variable voltage for testing
electrical equipment.
 37
How three units of 1-phase transformer can be using as
single unit of 3-phase transformer? Explain with
appropriate figure.

Star - Delta connection

In case of the delta-star connection of a 3-phase transformer,
the primary winding is connected in delta while the secondary
winding is connected in star (see the

● Primary Winding − As the primary winding is

connected in delta. Hence, the line voltage and the phase
voltage on the primary side are the same and the line
current is √3 times of the phase current.

● Secondary Winding − The secondary winding is

connected in star fashion. Thus, the secondary line
voltage is √3 times of the phase voltage and the line
current is equal to the phase current.
 38
Star - Delta connection
In case of the star-delta connection of a transformer, the
primary winding of the transformer is connected in star while
the secondary winding is connected in delta (see the figure).

● Primary Winding – Since the primary winding is

connected star fashion. Therefore, the primary line
voltage is equal to the √3 times of the primary phase
voltage and the primary line current is same as the
primary phase current.

● Secondary Winding – The secondary winding is

connected in delta manner. Therefore, on the secondary
side of the transformer, the line voltage will be the same
as the phase voltage whereas the line current is √3 times
of the phase current.
 39
What is the function of DC motor? Write down the
applications of DC Shunt and series motor.

Function of DC motor:
A DC motor is an electric motor that uses direct current (DC)
electricity to produce rotary motion. DC motors are used in a
wide variety of applications, including fans, pumps, elevators,
hoists, cranes, and machine tools.
 40
Define the terms

i) voltage regulation
Voltage regulation is a measure of how well a power system
or component can maintain a constant voltage under varying
load conditions. It is typically expressed as a percentage of the
full-load voltage. A high voltage regulation indicates that the
voltage is relatively constant, while a low voltage regulation
indicates that the voltage fluctuates more significantly with
load changes.

Voltage regulation is important for a number of reasons. it

helps to ensure that electrical equipment operates at the
correct voltage. If the voltage is too low, equipment may not
operate properly or may even fail. If the voltage is too high,
equipment may overheat and be damaged.
 41
ii) why transformer is rated in KVA

Transformers are rated in kVA because the losses that occur in

transformers are independent of the power factor of the load.
This means that the transformer will generate the same
amount of heat regardless of whether the load is resistive,
inductive, or capacitive.

The losses in a transformer are due to two main factors:

● Iron losses: These losses are caused by the

magnetization of the transformer core. The iron losses
are proportional to the square of the voltage.

● Copper losses: These losses are caused by the resistance

of the transformer windings. The copper losses are
proportional to the square of the current.

Since the iron losses and copper losses are independent of the
power factor, the total losses in a transformer are also
independent of the power factor.

By rating transformers in kVA, manufacturers can ensure that

the transformer will be able to handle the maximum load
current, regardless of the power factor of the load.
 42
What happens when transformer is not connected with
regard to polarity? What are the advantages of parellel
operation conditions.

If transformers are not connected with regard to polarity,

circulating currents will flow between the transformers. This
can cause the transformers to overheat and damage the
windings. In the worst case, the circulating currents can be so
high that they cause the transformers to explode.

Parallel operation of transformers has several advantages:

1. Increase load capacity

By increasing the number of transformers connected in
parallel, the load capacity can be increased and power
supply to large electrical equipment can be achieved.

2. Improve power utilization

Parallel operation of transformers can improve power
utilization, effectively reduce energy waste, and reduce
energy consumption.

3. Increase voltage level

Transformers operated in series can achieve a voltage
increase and can meet the requirements for high voltage
loads.

Cont …
 43
4. Improve power utilization
When transformers are operated in series, their
resistance, inductance, capacitance and other parameters
will be increased accordingly, thereby improving power
utilization and conversion efficiency.

Disadvantages of parallel operation of transformer

(1) Error problem

In parallel operation of transformers, due to large
differences in transformer parameters, large operating
errors may occur.

(2) Instability problem

Since the rated capacity and voltage level of each
transformer may be different, current imbalance or
unstable operation may occur.

(3) Unbalanced operation

Due to differences in efficiency, capacity and parameters
of each transformer, series operation may cause current
imbalance, thus affecting the stable operation of the
system

(4) Safety hazards

Since transformers working in series will produce higher
voltages, strict safety control of the system is required to
avoid safety accidents.
 44
Losses of transformer

Core losses: occur in the magnetic core of the transformer

due to the alternating magnetic flux. There are two types of
core losses:

● Hysteresis loss: This loss occurs due to the magnetic

hysteresis of the core material. The hysteresis loop
represents the energy required to magnetize and
demagnetize the core material.
● Eddy current loss: This loss occurs due to the induced
currents in the core material. These currents flow in
loops and dissipate energy as heat.

Copper losses occur : in the windings of the transformer due

to the resistance of the copper wire. These losses can be
reduced by using wire with a larger cross-sectional area.

In addition to core and copper losses, there are two other

types of losses that can occur in transformers:

● Stray loss: This loss occurs due to the leakage flux from
the transformer. The leakage flux is the magnetic flux
that does not pass through the core and links both
windings.

● Dielectric loss: This loss occurs in the insulating

material of the transformer. The insulating material can
be oil, solid insulation, or both.
 45
Potential transformer

A potential transformer (PT) is a type of instrument

transformer that is used to step down high voltage to a safe
level for measurement and protection purposes. PTs are also
called voltage transformers (VTs).

PTs work on the same principle as any other transformer, but

they are designed to be very accurate and to provide isolation
between the high voltage primary circuit and the low voltage
secondary circuit. PTs typically have a much higher turn ratio
than other transformers, which allows them to step down
voltage by a significant factor.

PTs are typically constructed with a magnetic core and two

windings of wire. The primary winding is connected to the
high voltage circuit, and the secondary winding is connected
to the measuring or protective device. The magnetic core is
designed to concentrate the magnetic flux and maximize the
voltage transformation ratio.
 46
Current transformer

A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is

used to reduce or multiply an alternating current (AC). It
produces a current in its secondary which is proportional to
the current in its primary. CTs are used extensively for
measuring current and monitoring the operation of the power
grid.

A CT consists of two coils of wire wound around a common

core. The primary coil is connected in series with the circuit
whose current is to be measured. The secondary coil is
connected to an ammeter or other measuring device.

When current flows through the primary coil, it creates a

magnetic field around the core. This magnetic field induces a
current in the secondary coil. The magnitude of the secondary
current is proportional to the magnitude of the primary
current.
 47
Transformation Ratio

● It's a fundamental concept in transformers that describes

the relationship between the input voltage (applied to the
primary winding) and the output voltage (produced at the
secondary winding).

● It's expressed as a ratio of either the voltages or the

number of turns in the windings

Importance of the transformation ratio:

● Determines the voltage transformation: It dictates how

much the transformer will increase or decrease the
voltage.

● Design and selection: It's crucial for designing and

selecting transformers for specific applications based on
their voltage requirements.

● Understanding transformer operation: It's essential

for analysing and understanding the behaviour of
transformers in circuits.
 48
Buchholz relay

Buchholz relay is a safety device used in oil-filled power

transformers and reactors. It is named after its inventor, Max
Buchholz. The relay is mounted on the transformer tank and is
connected to a conservator, which is an external tank that
holds the transformer oil.

The Buchholz relay works by detecting the presence of gas in

the transformer oil. Gas can be produced by a number of
faults inside the transformer, such as a short circuit,
overheating, or insulation breakdown. When gas is produced,
it rises to the top of the transformer oil and enters the
conservator. The Buchholz relay has a float switch that is
located in the conservator. When the gas level in the
conservator reaches a certain point, the float switch is
activated and the relay trips. This trips the circuit breaker that
is connected to the transformer, isolating the transformer from
the power supply
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Significance of back EMF

● Self regulation: Back EMF acts as a self-regulating

mechanism in motors. As the motor's speed increases, the
back EMF also increases, opposing the applied voltage.
This limits the current flowing through the motor,
preventing excessive currents and potential damage

● Improved efficiency: By limiting the current flow, back

EMF reduces energy losses due to heat generation. This
translates to improved overall efficiency of the motor,
leading to lower energy consumption and operational
costs

● Speed control: Back EMF provides a natural feedback

mechanism for controlling the motor's speed. By
adjusting the applied voltage or the magnetic field
strength, the back EMF can be manipulated to achieve
the desired operating speed. This allows for precise
speed control in various applications.

● Braking effect: When the applied voltage is removed,

the back EMF continues to act, generating a current that
opposes the motor's rotation. This provides a braking
effect, slowing down the motor and eventually bringing it
to a stop
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What are conditions to meet the parellel operation of
three phase transformer.

Mandatory Conditions

● Same Voltage Ratio and Turns Ratio: The primary and

secondary voltage ratings of the transformers must be
identical to ensure they operate at the same voltage
levels. This prevents circulating currents due to voltage
differences

● Same Phase Sequence: The phase sequence of all three

phases (ABC or ACB) must be the same for each
transformer. Connecting transformers with different
phase sequences can lead to short circuits.

● Same Polarity: The terminals of the same polarity

(either high-voltage or low-voltage) must be connected
together. Inconsistent polarities cause a phase difference,
resulting in circulating current

● Same Frequency: Both transformers must operate at the

same frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz) for proper
synchronization.
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Why DC shunt motor always starts without load
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Characteristics of Shunt Wound DC generator

Write down the factor affecting the capacity of a

Transformer

Core Losses
Core losses, also known as iron losses, occur due to the
transformer core’s magnetic hysteresis and eddy currents.
These losses can be minimized by using high-quality,
low-hysteresis, and thin laminated ferromagnetic materials for
the core.

Copper loss
Copper losses, also known as winding losses, occur due to the
resistance of the copper windings in the transformer. These
losses can be minimized by using thicker conductors with
lower resistance or high conductivity materials like copper or
aluminum.

Load Conditions
A transformer’s efficiency varies with the load applied to it.
Transformers usually operate at maximum efficiency at a
specific load, typically near their rated capacity. Operating a
transformer at loads significantly below its rated capacity can
result in reduced efficiency.
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Operating Temperature
The operating temperature affects the efficiency of a
transformer since both copper and core losses increase with
rising temperatures. Adequate cooling and ventilation systems
can help maintain optimal operating temperatures and
improve efficiency.
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What is armature reaction? Discuss the method to
reduce armature reaction

Armature reaction refers to the interaction between the

magnetic field produced by the armature current and the main
magnetic field in a DC machine (generator or motor). This
interaction affects the overall magnetic field distribution and
has both positive and negative consequences.

Here's what happens:

When current flows through the armature conductors, it

creates its own magnetic field (armature flux).
This armature flux interacts with the main field flux
(generated by field poles) in two ways:

● Distortion: The armature flux bends and weakens the

main field in certain areas.

● Shifting: The combined magnetic field (resulting flux) is

no longer symmetrical and the neutral axis (axis with no
magnetic field) shifts in the direction of rotation.
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Methods to decrease Armature reaction

● Interpoles: These are small electromagnets placed

between the main poles to create a local magnetic field
that counteracts the armature flux distortion.

● Compensating windings: These are additional windings

on the main poles that carry currents proportional to the
armature current, producing a field that opposes the
armature flux.

● Brush shifting: Adjusting the brush position closer to

the neutral axis (after considering commutation
requirements) can mitigate sparking.

● Laminated poles: Using thinner magnetic pole sections

reduces eddy current losses caused by the changing
magnetic field.
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