V- SEM/III B.E. CSE (CS) Prepared By: R.

Reshma/AP/CSE

CS3591: COMPUTER NETWORKS

LECTURE NOTES
UNIT I INTRODUCTION AND APPLICATION LAYER 10
Data Communication - Networks – Network Types – Protocol Layering – TCP/IP Protocol suite – OSI Model – Introduction
to Sockets - Application Layer protocols: HTTP – FTP – Email protocols (SMTP - POP3 - IMAP - MIME) – DNS – SNMP
INTRODUCTION
A computer network is a system connecting two or more computing devices for transmitting and sharing information.
Computing devices include everything from a mobile phone to a server. These devices are connected using physical wires
such as fiber optics, but they can also be wireless.
It is also defined as a group of nodes connected through wires, optical fibers, or optical links so that various devices can
interact with each other through a network. The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various
nodes through links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving the data. The
links connecting the nodes are known as communication channels. The working of Computer Networks can be simply
defined as rules or protocols which help in sending and receiving data via the links which allow Computer networks to
communicate. Each device has an IP Address, that helps in identifying a device.

Computer Network uses distributed processing in which a task is divided among several computers. Instead, a single
computer handles an entire task, each separate computer handles a subset. In recent computer network technology, several
types of networks vary from simple to complex level. The distributed processing gives the advantages as follows:
o Security: It provides limited interaction that a user can have with the entire system. For example, a bank allows
users to access their accounts through an ATM without allowing them to access the bank's entire database.
o Faster problem solving: Multiple computers can solve the problem faster than a single machine working alone.
o Security through redundancy: Multiple computers running the same program at the same time can provide
security through redundancy. For example, if four computers run the same program and any computer has a
hardware error, then other computers can override it.
Computer Networking is the practice of connecting computers to enable communication and data exchange.

Main Components of a Computer Network

1. Network Devices
Network devices or nodes are computing devices that need to be linked in the network. Some network devices include:
• Computers, mobiles, and other consumer devices: These are end devices that users directly and frequently access.
For example, an email originates from the mailing application on a laptop or mobile phone.

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• Servers: These are application or storage servers where the main computation and data storage occur. All requests
for specific tasks or data come to the servers.
• Routers: Routing is the process of selecting the network path through which the data packets traverse. Routers are
devices that forward these packets between networks to ultimately reach the destination. They add efficiency to
large networks.
• Switches: Repeaters are to networks what transformers are to electricity grids—they are electronic devices that
receive network signals and clean or strengthen them. Hubs are repeaters with multiple ports in them. They pass on
the data to whichever ports are available. Bridges are smarter hubs that only pass the data to the destination port. A
switch is a multi-port bridge. Multiple data cables can be plugged into switches to enable communication with
multiple network devices.
• Gateways: Gateways are hardware devices that act as ‘gates’ between two distinct networks. They can be firewalls,
routers, or servers.
2. Links
Links are the transmission media which can be of two types:
• Wired: Examples of wired technologies used in networks include coaxial cables, phone lines, twisted-pair cabling,
and optical fibers. Optical fibers carry pulses of light to represent data.
• Wireless: Network connections can also be established through radio or other electromagnetic signals. This kind of
transmission is called ‘wireless’. The most common examples of wireless links include communication
satellites, cellular networks, and radio and technology spread spectrums. Wireless LANs use spectrum technology
to establish connections within a small area.
3. Communication protocols
A communication protocol is a set of rules followed by all nodes involved in the information transfer. Some common
protocols include the internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), IEEE 802, Ethernet, wireless LAN, and cellular standards. TCP/IP is
a conceptual model that standardizes communication in a modern network. It suggests four functional layers of these
communication links:
• Network access layer: This layer defines how the data is physically transferred. It includes how hardware sends
data bits through physical wires or fibers.
• Internet layer: This layer is responsible for packaging the data into understandable packets and allowing it to be
sent and received.
• Transport layer: This layer enables devices to maintain a conversation by ensuring the connection is valid and
stable.
• Application layer: This layer defines how high-level applications can access the network to initiate data transfer.
Most of the modern internet structure is based on the TCP/IP model, though there are still strong influences of the similar
but seven-layered open systems interconnection (OSI) model.
IEEE802 is a family of IEEE standards that deals with local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area networks (MAN).
Wireless LAN is the most well-known member of the IEEE 802 family and is more widely known as WLAN or Wi-Fis.
4. Network Defense
While nodes, links, and protocols form the foundation of a network, a modern network cannot exist without its defenses.
Security is critical when unprecedented amounts of data are generated, moved, and processed across networks. A few
examples of network defense tools include firewall, intrusion detection systems (IDS), intrusion prevention systems (IPS),
network access control (NAC), content filters, proxy servers, anti-DDoS devices, and load balancers.
Types of Computer Networks
Computer networks can be classified based on several criteria, such as the transmission medium, the network size, the
topology, and organizational intent. Based on a geographical scale, the different types of networks are:
1. Nanoscale networks: These networks enable communication between minuscule sensors and actuators.
2. Personal area network (PAN): PAN refers to a network used by just one person to connect multiple devices, such
as laptops to scanners, etc.

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3. Local area network (LAN): The local area network connects devices within a limited geographical area, such as
schools, hospitals, or office buildings.
4. Storage area network (SAN): SAN is a dedicated network that facilitates block-level data storage. This is used in
storage devices such as disk arrays and tape libraries.
5. Campus area network (CAN): Campus area networks are a collection of interconnected LANs. They are used by
larger entities such as universities and governments.
6. Metropolitan area network (MAN): MAN is a large computer network that spans across a city.
7. Wide area network (WAN): Wide area networks cover larger areas such as large cities, states, and even countries.
8. Enterprise private network (EPN): An enterprise private network is a single network that a large organization
uses to connect its multiple office locations.
9. Virtual private network (VPN): VPN is an overlay private network stretched on top of a public network.
10. Cloud network: Technically, a cloud network is a WAN whose infrastructure is delivered via cloud services.
Based on organizational intent, networks can be classified as:
1. Intranet: Intranet is a set of networks that is maintained and controlled by a single entity. It is generally the most
secure type of network, with access to authorized users alone. An intranet usually exists behind the router in a local
area network.
2. Internet: The internet (or the internetwork) is a collection of multiple networks connected by routers and layered
by networking software. This is a global system that connects governments, researchers, corporates, the public, and
individual computer networks.
3. Extranet: An extranet is similar to the intranet but with connections to particular external networks. It is generally
used to share resources with partners, customers, or remote employees.
4. Darknet: The darknet is an overlay network that runs on the internet and can only be accessed by specialized
software. It uses unique, customized communication protocols.
Key Objectives of Creating and Deploying a Computer Network
There is no industry—education, retail, finance, tech, government, or healthcare—that can survive without well-designed
computer networks. The bigger an organization, the more complex the network becomes. Before taking on the onerous task
of creating and deploying a computer network, here are some key objectives that must be considered.

Objectives of Deploying a Computer Network

1. Resource sharing
Today’s enterprises are spread across the globe, with critical assets being shared across departments, geographies, and time
zones. Clients are no more bound by location. A network allows data and hardware to be accessible to every pertinent user.
This also helps with interdepartmental data processing. For example, the marketing team analyzes customer data and product
development cycles to enable executive decisions at the top level.
2. Resource availability & reliability

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A network ensures that resources are not present in inaccessible silos and are available from multiple points. The high
reliability comes from the fact that there are usually different supply authorities. Important resources must be backed
up across multiple machines to be accessible in case of incidents such as hardware outages.
3. Performance management
A company’s workload only increases as it grows. When one or more processors are added to the network, it improves the
system’s overall performance and accommodates this growth. Saving data in well-architected databases can drastically
improve lookup and fetch times.
4.Cost savings
Huge mainframe computers are an expensive investment, and it makes more sense to add processors at strategic points in
the system. This not only improves performance but also saves money. Since it enables employees to access information in
seconds, networks save operational time, and subsequently, costs. Centralized network administration also means that fewer
investments need to be made for IT support.
5. Increased storage capacity
Network-attached storage devices are a boon for employees who work with high volumes of data. For example, every
member in the data science team does not need individual data stores for the huge number of records they crunch.
Centralized repositories get the job done in an even more efficient way. With businesses seeing record levels of customer
data flowing into their systems, the ability to increase storage capacity is necessary in today’s world.
6. Streamlined collaboration & communication
Networks have a major impact on the day-to-day functioning of a company. Employees can share files, view each other’s
work, sync their calendars, and exchange ideas more effectively. Every modern enterprise runs on internal messaging
systems such as Slack for the uninhibited flow of information and conversations. However, emails are still the formal mode
of communication with clients, partners, and vendors.
7. Reduction of errors
Networks reduce errors by ensuring that all involved parties acquire information from a single source, even if they are
viewing it from different locations. Backed-up data provides consistency and continuity. Standard versions of customer and
employee manuals can be made available to a large number of people without much hassle.
8. Secured remote access
Computer networks promote flexibility, which is important in uncertain times like now when natural disasters and
pandemics are ravaging the world. A secure network ensures that users have a safe way of accessing and working on
sensitive data, even when they’re away from the company premises. Mobile handheld devices registered to the network
even enable multiple layers of authentication to ensure that no bad actors can access the system.

Features of Computer Network

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Communication speed
Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For example, we can do video
conferencing, email messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore, the computer network is a great way to share our
knowledge and ideas.
File sharing
File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network provides us to share the files with
each other.
Back up and Roll back is easy
Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to take the back up from the
main server.
Software and Hardware sharing
We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can access the applications centrally. So, we do not
need to install the software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared.
Security
Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the certain files and applications.
Scalability
Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must be scalable so that we can extend the
network by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed of the connection and data of the transmission speed also
decreases, this increases the chances of error occurring. This problem can be overcome by using the routing or switching
devices.
Reliability
Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case of any hardware failure.

Advantages of Computer Network

• Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which helps to easily access and available
to everyone.
• Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing devices.
• Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices which helps in easily communicating
among the organization.
• Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional security and protection of
information in the system.

Disadvantages of Computer Network

• Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by modifying them. Viruses
and Malware can corrupt the whole network.
• High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive because it consists of a lot of wires
and cables along with the device.
• loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.
• Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a person, it requires training for its
proper use.

Data Communication – Definition, Components, Types, Channels

Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer transfers information, instructions to each other
and for sharing resources. Or in other words, communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data. A
network of computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. Autonomous means no computer
can start, stop or control another computer.

Components of Data Communication

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A communication system is made up of the following components:

Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to another. It could be a text file, an
audio file, a video file, etc.
Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or
workstation, etc.
Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the medium that connect two or more
workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media.
Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable to the receiver also
otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot
understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer connected to the internet and they are:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into packets on the source computer and
reassembling the received packet at the destination or recipient computer. It also makes sure that the packets have the
information about the source of the message data, the destination of the message data, the sequence in which the message
data should be re-assembled, and checks if the message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
IP (Internet Protocol): It is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and addressing packets of data so that they can travel
across networks and arrive at the correct destination. IP is responsible for handling the address of the destination computer
so that each packet is sent to its proper destination.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP): It is a communications protocol for time-sensitive applications like gaming, playing
videos, or Domain Name System (DNS) lookups. UDP results in speedier communication because it does not spend time
forming a firm connection with the destination before transferring the data.

Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from one device to another.
The data communication is divided into three types:

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Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional communication in which one
device only receives and another device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For example,
IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.
Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or we can say that it is a bidirectional communication in
which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the same time. When one device is sending data then another
device is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional communication in which
both the devices can send and receive data at the same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

Communication Channels
Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either
wired media or wireless media. It is also known as a transmission medium. The transmission medium or channel is a link
that carries messages between two or more devices. We can group the communication media into two categories:
• Guided media transmission
• Unguided media transmission

1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using wires or cables between two or more
computers or devices, and then the data is transmitted using these cables in terms of signals. Guided media transmission of
the following types:
1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In a twisted-pair cable, two
identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The twisting of the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is known
as the leaking of a signal from one wire to another due to which signal can corrupt and can cause network errors.
The twisting protects the wire from internal crosstalk as well as external forms of signal interference.

Types of Twisted Pair Cable:

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones widely. As the name
suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not protects from external interference. It is
cheaper than STP.
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to shield. Due to
shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and costlier as compare to UTP.
2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields. The inner
core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer shield provides the ground. It is widely used for television
signals and also used by large corporations in building security systems. Data transmission of this cable is better
but expensive as compared to twisted pair.
3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts of data at very high speeds
due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries data as a light that travels inside a thin glass fiber. The
fiber optic cable is made up of three pieces:
• Core: The core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally created using glass or plastic.
• Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.
• Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the environment.
2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in which the signals are propagated from
one device to another device wirelessly. Signals can wave through the air, water, or vacuum. It is generally used to transmit
signals in all directions. Unguided Media is further divided into various parts :

1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables. Microwave signals are just like radio
and television signals. It is used in long-distance communication. Microwave transmission consists of a transmitter,
receiver, and atmosphere. In microwave communication, there are parabolic antennas that are mounted on the
towers to send a beam to another antenna. The higher the tower, the greater the range.

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2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is termed radio waves transmission.
It offers mobility. It consists of the transmitter and the receiver. Both use antennas to radiate and capture the radio
signal.
3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is generally used in TV remotes,
wireless mouse, etc.
Network Architecture and Its Types
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software, hardware, protocols, and
media for the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the
computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

1. Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-to-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-to-Peer network are useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the
computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up the
data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

2. Client/Server Network

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o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the resources such as
songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to send some data to
client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1
to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very
high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

Types of Computer Networks- Detailed Explanation

A computer network is a cluster of computers over a shared communication path that works to share resources from one
computer to another, provided by or located on the network nodes. In this article, we will discuss computer networks and
their types.
There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to connect devices within a short range,
typically around one person. It allows your personal devices, like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearables, to

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communicate and share data with each other. PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing
communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost. This
uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology. Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

Types of PAN
• Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are created by simply utilising wireless
technologies such as WiFi and Bluetooth. It is a low-range network.
• Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed using a USB.
Advantages of PAN
• PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
• It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
• It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
• It is easy and portable.
• Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages of PAN
• Low network coverage area/range.
• Limited to relatively low data rates.
• Devices are not compatible with each other.
• Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Applications of PAN
• Home and Offices
• Organizations and the Business sector
• Medical and Hospital
• School and College Education
• Military and Defense
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers through a common
communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers connected
over a server. The two important technologies involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km &
transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school,
library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

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Local Area Network (LAN)

Advantages of a LAN
• Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it, giving it a privacy.
• High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data transfer rate comparatively to WAN.
• Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of communications transmission medium such
as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber and wireless transmission.
• Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and maintenance and LAN
installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.
Disadvantages of LAN
• The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is special software required to make
a server.
• Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are costly.
• LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as Internet history of each and every LAN user.
Hence, the privacy of the users are violated
• LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
• Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed by an unauthorized user, can cause a
serious data security threat.
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually used in places like
a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads across several buildings within the
campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range from 1km to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a
moderate maintenance cost and moderate cost. Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

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Advantages of CAN
• Speed: Communication within a CAN takes place over Local Area Network (LAN) so data transfer rate between
systems is little bit fast than Internet.
• Security: Network administrators of campus take care of network by continuous monitoring, tracking and limiting
access. To protect network from unauthorized access firewall is placed between network and internet.
• Cost effective: With a little effort and maintenance, network works well by providing fast data transfer rate with
multi-departmental network access. It can be enabled wirelessly, where wiring and cabling costs can be managed.
So to work with in a campus using CAN is cost-effective in view of performance
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that connects computers over
a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly
uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is
difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a
large area within multiple buildings, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Advantages of MAN
• MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
• The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
• It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.
• MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.
• MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to monitor and manage
network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN
• The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.
• This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.
• It provides less fault tolerance.
• The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance through a shared
communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many locations. WAN can also be defined as
a group of local area networks that communicate with each other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line &
Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost. The
most common example of WAN is the Internet.

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Wide Area Network (WAN)

Advantages of WAN
• It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to transmit data quickly and cheaply.
• The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data provided by WAN.
• The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be minimised.
• WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows to exchange data and do
business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
• Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
• The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
• Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
• The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high number of connected
system within the network.

Comparison between Different Computer Networks

Parameters PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

Full Name Personal Area Local Area Campus Area Metropolitan Wide Area Network
Network Network Network Area Network
Technology Bluetooth, IrDA, Ethernet & Wifi Ethernet FDDI, CDDi. Leased Line, Dial-
Zigbee ATM Up
Range 1-100 m Upto 2km 1 – 5 km 5-50 km Above 50 km
Transmission Very High Very High High Average Low
Speed
Ownership Private Private Private Private or Public Private or Public
Maintenance Very Easy Easy Moderate Difficult Very Difficult

Cost Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Other Types of Computer Networks

• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
• Storage Area Network (SAN)
• System-Area Network (SAN)
• Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
• Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
• Virtual Private Network (VPN)
• Home Area Network (HAN)

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1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use of wireless network technology like
Wi-Fi. This network doesn’t allow devices to communicate over physical cables like in LAN but allows devices to
communicate wirelessly. The most common example of WLAN is Wi-Fi.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

There are several computer networks available; more information is provided below.
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of storage devices to several servers. This
network does not depend on LAN or WAN. Instead, a SAN moves the storage resources from the network to its high-
powered network. A SAN provides access to block-level data storage. Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by
a network of servers.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

3. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN uses optical splitters to split an optical
signal from a single strand of single-mode optical fiber to multiple signals to distribute users and devices. In short, POLAN
is a point to multipoint LAN architecture.

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Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

4. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
EPN is a type of computer network mostly used by businesses that want a secure connection over various locations to share
computer resources.

Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the internet and lets the user send and receive
data as if they were connected to a private network even though they are not. Through a virtual point-to-point connection
users can access a private network remotely. VPN protects you from malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives
you a protected network connection.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

6. Home Area Network (HAN)
Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those computers and with other peripheral devices,
a network should be established similar to the local area network (LAN) within that home. Such a type of network that
allows a user to interconnect multiple computers and other digital devices within the home is referred to as Home Area
Network (HAN). HAN encourages sharing of resources, files, and programs within the network. It supports both wired and
wireless communication.

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Home Area Network (HAN)

Internetwork
An internet network is defined as two or more computer network LANs, WANs, or computer network segments that are
connected by devices and configured with a local addressing system. The method is known as internetworking. There are
two types of Internetwork.
• Intranet: An internal network within an organization that enables employees to share data, collaborate, and access
resources. Intranets are not accessible to the public and use private IP addresses.
• Extranet: Extranets extend the intranet to authorized external users, such as business partners or clients. They
provide controlled access to specific resources while maintaining security.

Protocol Layering
A protocol is a set of rules and standards that primarily outline a language that devices will use to communicate. There are
an excellent range of protocols in use extensively in networking, and they are usually implemented in numerous layers.
What does a protocol tell us?
Syntax of a message of a message
what fields does it contain? what fields does it contain?
in what format? in what format?
Semantics of a message
what does a message mean? what does a message mean?
for example, not-OK message means receiver got a corrupted file for example, not-OK message means receiver
got a corrupted file
Actions to take on receipt of a message
for example, on receiving not-OK message, retransmit the entire file
It provides a communication service where the process is used to exchange the messages. When the communication is
simple, we can use only one simple protocol.
When the communication is complex, we must divide the task between different layers, so, we need to follow a protocol at
each layer, this technique we used to call protocol layering. This layering allows us to separate the services from the
implementation.
Each layer needs to receive a set of services from the lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer. The modification
done in any one layer will not affect the other layers.

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Scenarios
Let us develop two simple scenarios to better understand the need for protocol layering.
First Scenario
In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer. Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors
with a lot of common ideas. Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same
language

Single-Layer Protocol Scenario

Second Scenario
In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her company, but needs to move to another
branch located in a city very far from Maria. The two friends still want to continue their communication and exchange ideas
because they have come up with an innovative project to start a new business when they both retire. They decide to continue
their conversation using regular mail through the post office. However, they do not want their ideas to be revealed by other
people if the letters are intercepted. They agree on an encryption/decryption technique. The sender of the letter encrypts it
to make it unreadable by an intruder; the receiver of the letter decrypts it to get the original letter.

A Three-Layer Protocol Scenario

Basic Elements of Layered Architecture
The basic elements of the layered architecture are as follows −
• Service − Set of actions or services provided from one layer to the higher layer.
• Protocol − It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with its peer entity. It is concerned
with both the contents and order of the messages used.
• Interface − It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.
Reasons
The reasons for using layered protocols are explained below −

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• Layering of protocols provides well-defined interfaces between the layers, so that a change in one layer does not
affect an adjacent layer.
• The protocols of a network are extremely complicated and designing them in layers makes their implementation
more feasible.

Advantages
The advantages of layered protocols are as follows −
• Assists in protocol style, as a result of protocols that operate at a particular layer have outlined information that they
work and a defined interface to the layers on top of and below.
• Foster’s competition because products from completely different vendors will work along.
• Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from touching different layers above and below.
• Provides a typical language to explain networking functions and capabilities.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of layered protocols are as follows −
• The main disadvantages of layered systems consist primarily of overhead each in computation and in message
headers caused by the abstraction barriers between layers. Because a message typically should pass through several
(10 or more) protocol layers the overhead of those boundaries is commonly more than the computation being done.
• The upper-level layers cannot see what is within the lower layers, implying that an application cannot correct where
in an exceedingly connection a problem is or precisely what the matter is.
• The higher-level layers cannot control all aspects of the lower layers, so that they cannot modify the transfer system
if helpful (like controlling windowing, header compression, CRC/parity checking, et cetera), nor specify routing,
and should rely on the lower protocols operating, and cannot specify alternatives when there are issues.

ISO/OSI Reference Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection, where open stands to say non-proprietary. It is a 7-layer architecture with
each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one
person to another across the globe. The OSI reference model was developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for
Standardization‘, in the year 1984.
The OSI model provides a theoretical foundation for understanding network communication. However, it is usually not
directly implemented in its entirety in real-world networking hardware or software.

Instead, specific protocols and technologies are often designed based on the principles outlined in the OSI model to
facilitate efficient data transmission and networking operations

The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that explains the process of transmitting data between
computers. It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing for a
more systematic approach to networking.

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OSI Model
Data Flow In OSI Model
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels
down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
• Application Layer: Applications create the data.
• Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
• Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
• Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
• Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
• Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
• Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and these steps are reversed upon
arrival.

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Let’s look at it with an Example:

Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro.
Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his email to send. (This happens in Layer
7: Application layer)

Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for transmission. (This
happens in Layer 6: Presentation Layer)

Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the internet. (This happens in Layer 5:
Session Layer)

Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and error-checking information to maintain
the reliability of the information. (This happens in Layer 4: Transport Layer)

Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer. (This happens in Layer 3: Network
Layer)

Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for local devices and then it checks for
error using error detection. (This happens in Layer 2: Data Link Layer)

Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over a physical network medium like
ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Zoro, the process will reverse and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email
will be shown on Zoro’s email client.

What Are The 7 Layers of The OSI Model?

The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between
the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits
from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus,
star, or mesh topology.

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• Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The
various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
• Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
• Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make
sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is
the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network
Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking
“Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that
are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end
of the frame.
• Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the
data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

Note:
• Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
• Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
• Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

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Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also takes
care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This function
of the network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Note:
• Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
• Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The data in the
transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport
layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also
adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a web application
requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many
applications have default ports assigned.
• At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the message
into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header includes a type
of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes
sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
• Connection-Oriented Service
• Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes:
• Connection Establishment
• Data Transfer
• Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or
group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission, the
receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication between
devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.

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Note:
• Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
• Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the Application
Layer by making system calls.
• The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
• Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures
security.
Functions of the Session Layer
• Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and
terminate a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the
data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends
of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex or
full-duplex.
Note:
• All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP model as the
“Application Layer”.
• Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known as Upper Layers
or Software Layers.
• Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application running in their
browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data.
This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s
and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF.

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Application Layer – Layer 7

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is implemented by the
network applications. These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a
window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
Device or Protocol Use : SMTP.
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
• Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
• File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services: Provide email service.
• Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.

Note: The OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because of its late invention. The
current model being used is the TCP/IP model.

OSI Model – Layer Architecture

Layer Layer Name Responsibility Information Form Device or Protocol
No (Data Unit)
7 Application Layer Helps in identifying the client and Message SMTP
synchronizing communication.
6 Presentation Data from the application layer is Message JPEG, MPEG, GIF
Layer extracted and manipulated in the
required format for transmission.
5 Session Layer Establishes Connection, Maintenance, Message (or Gateway
Ensures Authentication and Ensures encrypted message)
security.
4 Transport Layer Take Service from Network Layer and Segment Firewall
provide it to the Application Layer.
3 Network Layer Transmission of data from one host to Packet Router
another, located in different networks.
2 Data Link Layer Node to Node Delivery of Message. Frame Switch, Bridge
1 Physical Layer Establishing Physical Connections Bits Hub, Repeater, Modem,
between Devices. Cables

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers. Its advantages include:
• It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand and troubleshoot.
• It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and protocols.
• Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.
• It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.
Disadvantages of OSI Model
• Complexity: The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand for beginners.

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• Not Practical: In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP), so the OSI Model isn’t always directly applicable.
• Slow Adoption: When it was introduced, the OSI Model was not quickly adopted by the industry, which preferred
the simpler and already-established TCP/IP model.
• Overhead: Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can make the process more
time-consuming and less efficient.
• Theoretical: The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great for understanding concepts but
not always practical for implementation.

TCP/IP Model
• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of communication protocols used
to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in a private
computer network -- an intranet or extranet.
• The entire IP suite -- a set of rules and procedures -- is commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP and IP are the two
main protocols, though others are included in the suite. The TCP/IP protocol suite functions as an abstraction layer
between internet applications and the routing and switching fabric.
• TCP/IP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet by providing end-to-end communications that identify
how it should be broken into packets, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. TCP/IP requires
little central management and is designed to make networks reliable with the ability to recover automatically from
the failure of any device on the network.
• Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the primary version used on the internet today. However, due to a limited
number of addresses, a newer protocol known as IPv6 was developed in 1998 by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF). IPv6 expands the pool of available addresses from IPv4 significantly and is progressively being
embraced.

How are TCP and IP different?

The two main protocols in the IP suite serve specific functions and have numerous differences. The key differences between
TCP and IP include the following:

TCP
• It ensures a reliable and orderly delivery of packets across networks.
• TCP is a higher-level smart communications protocol that still uses IP as a way to transport data packets, but it also
connects computers, applications, web pages and web servers.
• TCP understands holistically the entire stream of data that these assets require to operate and it ensures the entire
volume of data needed is sent the first time.
• TCP defines how applications can create channels of communication across a network.
• It manages how a message is assembled into smaller packets before they're transmitted over the internet and
reassembled in the right order at the destination address.
• TCP operates at Layer 4, or the transport layer, of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI model).
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means it establishes a connection between the sender and the receiver
before delivering data to ensure reliable delivery.
• As it does its work, TCP can also control the size and flow rate of data. It ensures that networks are free of any
congestion that could block the receipt of data. An example is an application that wants to send a large amount of
data over the internet. If the application only used IP, the data would have to be broken into multiple IP packets.
This would require multiple requests to send and receive data, as IP requests are issued per packet.
• With TCP, only a single request to send an entire data stream is needed; TCP handles the rest.
• TCP runs checks to ensure data is delivered. It can detect problems that arise in IP and request retransmission of
any data packets that were lost.

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• TCP can reorganize packets so they're transmitted in the proper order. This minimizes network congestion by
preventing network bottlenecks caused by out-of-order packet delivery.

IP
• IP is a low-level internet protocol that facilitates data communications over the internet.
• IP delivers packets of data that consist of a header, which contains routing information, such as the source and
destination of the data and the data payload itself.
• It defines how to address and route each packet to ensure it reaches the right destination. Each gateway computer
on the network checks this IP address to determine where to forward the message.
• IP is limited by the amount of data it can send. The maximum size of a single IP data packet, which contains both
the header and the data, is between 20 and 24 bytes. This means that longer strings of data must be broken into
multiple data packets that have to be sent independently and then reorganized into the correct order.
• It provides the mechanism for delivering data from one network node to another.
• IP operates at Layer 3, or the network access layer, of the OSI model.
• IP is a connection-less protocol, which means it doesn't guarantee delivery nor does it provide error checking and
correction.

Other components in a TCP/IP network

Other components present in a TCP/IP network include subnet masks, network address translation (NAT) and various
protocols.
A subnet mask tells a computer, or other network device, what portion of the IP address is used to represent the network and
what part is used to represent hosts, or other computers, on the network. A NAT is the virtualization of IP addresses. It helps
improve security and decrease the number of IP addresses an organization needs.
Common TCP/IP protocols include the following:
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol. HTTP handles the communication between a web server and a web browser.
• HTTP Secure. HTTP Secure handles secure communication between a web server and a web browser.
• File Transfer Protocol. FTP handles transmission of files between computers.
• Domain name system. DNS translates domain names into IP addresses.
• Simple mail transfer protocol. SMTP is used for email communications and is responsible for the transmission of
emails between mail servers.
• User datagram protocols. UDP is a connectionless protocol that offers faster but less dependable data delivery.
It's widely used in real-time applications such as video streaming and online gaming.

How does TCP/IP work?

TCP/IP uses the client-server model of communication in which a user or machine -- a client -- is provided a service, such
as sending a webpage, by another computer -- a server -- in the network.
Collectively, the TCP/IP suite of protocols is classified as stateless, which means each client request is considered new
because it's unrelated to previous requests. Being stateless frees up network paths so they can be used continuously.
The transport layer itself, however, is stateful. It transmits a single message and its connection remains in place until all the
packets in a message have been received and reassembled at the destination.
The TCP/IP model differs slightly from the seven-layer OSI networking model designed after it. The OSI reference model
defines how applications can communicate over a network.

Why is TCP/IP important?

TCP/IP is the fundamental protocol suite that enables data transfer and communication across the internet and other
networks. It's nonproprietary and, as a result, isn't controlled by any single company. Therefore, the IP suite can be modified
easily. It's compatible with all operating systems (OSes), so it can communicate with any other system. The IP suite is also
compatible with all types of computer hardware and networks.

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TCP/IP is highly scalable and, as a routable protocol, can determine the most efficient path through the network. It's widely
used in current internet architecture.

The 4 layers of the TCP/IP model

TCP/IP functionality is divided into the following four layers, each of which includes specific protocols:
1. Application layer. The application layer is the top layer and provides applications with standardized data exchange.
Its protocols include HTTP, FTP, Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), SMTP, DNS, Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol and SNMP. At the application layer, the payload is the actual application data.
2. Transport layer. The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the network.
TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport
protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special
purposes.
3. Internet layer. The internet layer, also called the network layer, deals with packets and connects independent
networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer protocols are IP and Internet
Control Message Protocol, which are used for error reporting.
4. Network link layer. The network link layer, also known as the network interface layer or data link layer, consists
of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network.
The protocols in this lowest layer include Ethernet for local area networks and Address Resolution Protocol.

The four layers of the TCP/IP model.

Uses of TCP/IP
TCP/IP can be used for the following tasks:
• Remote login and interactive file transfer. TCP/IP provides remote login over the network for interactive file
transfer to deliver email and webpages over the network.
• Remote access to a file system. TCP/IP provides remote access to a server host's file system, enabling users to
access and manage files stored on the server from a remote location.
• Represents information flow. TCP/IP is used to represent how information changes form as it travels over a
network from the concrete physical layer to the abstract application layer. It details the basic protocols, or methods
of communication, at each layer as information passes through.
• End-to-end data transmission. It outlines how end-to-end communications should be achieved by dividing data
into packets, addressing them, transmitting them, routing them and receiving them at the destination.
• Cloud computing. TCP/IP is used in cloud computing to facilitate communication between cloud-based services,
applications and virtual machines. TCP/IP ensures that cloud resources and clients communicate reliably and
securely across the internet.

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Pros and cons of TCP/IP

The advantages of using the TCP/IP model include the following:
• It helps establish a connection between different types of computers.
• It works independently of the OS.
• TCP/IP supports many routing protocols.
• It uses a client-server architecture that's highly scalable.
• TCP/IP can be operated independently.
• It supports several routing protocols.
• It's lightweight and doesn't place unnecessary strain on a network or computer.
The disadvantages of TCP/IP include the following:
• It's complicated to set up and manage.
• The transport layer doesn't guarantee the delivery of packets.
• It isn't easy to replace protocols in TCP/IP.
• It doesn't clearly separate the concepts of services, interfaces and protocols, so it isn't suitable for describing new
technologies in new networks.
• It's especially vulnerable to synchronization attacks, which are a type of denial-of-service attack in which a bad
actor uses TCP/IP.
Protocol Stacks
A protocol stack is a group of protocols that all work together to allow software or hardware to perform a function.
The TCP/IP protocol stack is a good example. It uses four layers that map to the OSI model as follows:
• Layer 1: Network Interface - This layer combines the Physical and Data layers and routes the data between
devices on the same network. It also manages the exchange of data between the network and other devices.
• Layer 2: Internet - This layer corresponds to the Network layer. The Internet Protocol (IP) uses the IP address,
consisting of a Network Identifier and a Host Identifier, to determine the address of the device it is
communicating with.
• Layer 3: Transport - Corresponding to the OSI Transport layer, this is the part of the protocol stack where
the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) can be found. TCP works by asking another device on the network if it is
willing to accept information from the local device.
• Layer 4: Application - Layer 4 combines the Session, Presentation and Application layers of the OSI model.
Protocols for specific functions such as e-mail (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP) and file transfer (File
Transfer Protocol, FTP) reside at this level.

OSI vs TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP protocol ( Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol ) was created by U.S. Department of Defense’s Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1970s.
Some key differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP Model are:
• TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers but OSI model has 7 layers. Layers 5,6,7 of the OSI model are combined into
the Application Layer of TCP/IP model and OSI layers 1 and 2 are combined into Network Access Layers of
TCP/IP protocol.
• The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model, hence it is a foundational protocol that defines how should data be
transferred online.
• Compared to the OSI model, the TCP/IP model has less strict layer boundaries.
• All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data transmission but in the OSI model, some applications can skip
certain layers. Only layers 1,2 and 3 of the OSI model are necessary for data transmission.

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OSI vs TCP/IP
Why Does The OSI Model Matter?
Even though the modern Internet doesn’t strictly use the OSI Model (it uses a simpler Internet protocol suite), the OSI
Model is still very helpful for solving network problems. Whether it’s one person having trouble getting their laptop online,
or a website being down for thousands of users, the OSI Model helps to identify the problem. If you can narrow down the
issue to one specific layer of the model, you can avoid a lot of unnecessary work.
Imperva Application Security
Imperva security solutions protect your applications at different levels of the OSI model. They use DDoS mitigation to
secure the network layer and provide web application firewall (WAF), bot management, and API security to protect the
application layer.
To secure applications and networks across the OSI stack, Imperva offers multi-layered protection to ensure websites and
applications are always available, accessible, and safe. The Imperva application security solution includes:
• DDoS Mitigation: Protects the network layer from Distributed Denial of Service attacks.
• Web Application Firewall (WAF): Shields the application layer from threats.
• Bot Management: Prevents malicious bots from affecting the application.
• API Security: Secures APIs from various vulnerabilities and attacks.

Introduction to Sockets
A socket is one endpoint of a two way communication link between two programs running on the network. The socket
mechanism provides a means of inter-process communication (IPC) by establishing named contact points between which
the communication take place.

Like ‘Pipe’ is used to create pipes and sockets is created using ‘socket’ system call. The socket provides bidirectional FIFO
Communication facility over the network. A socket connecting to the network is created at each end of the communication.
Each socket has a specific address. This address is composed of an IP address and a port number.

Socket are generally employed in client server applications. The server creates a socket, attaches it to a network port
addresses then waits for the client to contact it. The client creates a socket and then attempts to connect to the server socket.
When the connection is established, transfer of data takes place.

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Types of Sockets: There are two types of Sockets: the datagram socket and the stream socket.

• Datagram Socket: This is a type of network that has a connectionless point for sending and receiving packets. It is
similar to a mailbox. The letters (data) posted into the box are collected and delivered (transmitted) to a letterbox
(receiving socket).
• Stream Socket: In a computer operating system, a stream socket is a type of inter-process communications socket
or network socket that provides a connection-oriented, sequenced, and unique flow of data without record
boundaries with well-defined mechanisms for creating and destroying connections and for detecting errors. It is
similar to a phone. A connection is established between the phones (two ends) and a conversation (transfer of data)
takes place.

Function Call Description

Socket() To create a socket
Bind() It’s a socket identification like a telephone number to contact
Listen() Ready to receive a connection
Connect() Ready to act as a sender
Accept() Confirmation, it is like accepting to receive a call from a sender
Write() To send data
Read() To receive data
Close() To close a connection

Application Layer Protocols

In computer networks, application layer protocols are a set of standards and rules that govern the communication between
end-user applications over a network. Specific services and functionality are provided by these protocols to support various
types of application-level communication, such as file transfers, email, remote terminal connections, and web browsing.

List of Application Layer Protocols in Computer Networks

Here is the list of commonly used application layer protocols in computer networks

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1) HTTP

HTTP is an application-level protocol that is widely used for transmitting data over the internet. It is used by the World
Wide Web, and it is the foundation of data communication for the web.

HTTP defines a set of rules and standards for transmitting data over the internet. It allows clients, such as web browsers, to
send requests to servers, such as web servers, and receive responses. HTTP requests contain a method, a URI, and a set of
headers, and they can also contain a payload, which is the data being sent. HTTP responses contain a status code, a set of
headers, and a payload, which is the data being returned.

HTTP has several important features that make it a popular choice for transmitting data over the internet. For example, it is
stateless, which means that each request and response are treated as separate transactions, and the server does not retain any
information about previous requests. This makes it simple to implement, and it allows for better scalability. HTTP is also
extensible, which means that new headers and methods can be added to accommodate new requirements as they arise.

HTTP is used by a wide range of applications and services, including websites, APIs, and streaming services. It is a reliable
and efficient way to transmit data, and it has proven to be a flexible and scalable solution for the growing demands of the
internet.

2) FTP

FTP, or File Transfer Protocol, is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of files from one host to another over a
TCP-based network, such as the Internet. FTP is widely used for transferring large files or groups of files, as well as for
downloading software, music, and other digital content from the Internet.

FTP operates in a client-server architecture, where a client establishes a connection to an FTP server and can then upload
or download files from the server. The client and server exchange messages to initiate transfers, manage data transfers, and
terminate the connection. FTP supports both active and passive modes, which determine the way the data connection is
established between the client and the server.

FTP is generally considered an insecure protocol, as it transmits login credentials and files contents in cleartext, which
makes it vulnerable to eavesdropping and tampering. For this reason, it’s recommended to use SFTP (Secure FTP), which
uses SSL/TLS encryption to secure the data transfer.

3) SMTP

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a standard protocol for transmitting electronic mail (email) messages from one
server to another. It’s used by email clients (such as Microsoft Outlook, Gmail, Apple Mail, etc.) to send emails and by mail
servers to receive and store them.

• SMTP is responsible for the actual transmission of email messages, which includes the following steps:

• The client connects to the server and establishes a secure connection.

• The client sends the recipient’s email address to the server and specifies the message to be sent.

• The server checks if the recipient’s email address is valid and if the sender has the proper authorization to send
emails.

• The server forwards the message to the recipient’s email server, which stores the message in the recipient’s inbox.

• The recipient’s email client retrieves the message from the server and displays it to the user.

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4) DNS

DNS stands for "Domain Name System," and it is an essential component of the internet that translates domain names into
IP addresses. A domain name is a human-readable string of characters, such as "google.com," that can be easily remembered,
while an IP address is a set of numbers and dots that computers use to communicate with each other over the internet.

The DNS system is a hierarchical, distributed database that maps domain names to IP addresses. When you enter a domain
name into your web browser, your computer sends a query to a DNS server, which then returns the corresponding IP address.
The browser can then use that IP address to send a request to the server hosting the website you’re trying to access.

DNS has several benefits. It makes it possible for humans to access websites and other internet resources using easy-to-
remember domain names, rather than having to remember IP addresses. It also allows website owners to change the IP
address of their server without affecting the domain name, making it easier to maintain and update their website.

DNS is maintained by a network of servers around the world, and it is constantly being updated and maintained to ensure
that it is accurate and up-to-date. This system of servers is organized into a hierarchy, with the root DNS servers at the top
and local DNS servers at the bottom. When a DNS query is made, it is passed from one server to another until the correct
IP address is found.

5) Telnet

Telnet is a protocol that was widely used in the past for accessing remote computer systems over the internet. It allows a
user to log in to a remote system and access its command line interface as if they were sitting at the remote system’s
keyboard. Telnet was one of the first widely used remote access protocols, and it was particularly popular in the days of
mainframe computers and timesharing systems.

Telnet operates on the Application Layer of the OSI model and uses a client-server architecture. The client program, which
is typically run on a user’s computer, establishes a connection to a Telnet server, which is running on the remote system.
The user can then send commands to the server and receive responses.

While Telnet was widely used in the past, it has largely been replaced by more secure protocols such as SSH (Secure Shell).
Telnet is not considered a secure protocol, as it sends all data, including passwords, in plain text. This makes it vulnerable
to eavesdropping and interception. In addition, Telnet does not provide any encryption for data transmission, which makes
it vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks.

Today, Telnet is primarily used for debugging and testing network services, and it is not typically used for accessing remote
systems for daily use. Instead, most users access remote systems using protocols such as SSH, which provide stronger
security and encryption.

6) SSH

SSH (Secure Shell) is a secure network protocol used to remotely log into and execute commands on a computer. It’s
commonly used to remotely access servers for management and maintenance purposes, but it can also be used for secure
file transfers and tunneling network connections.

With SSH, you can securely connect to a remote computer and execute commands as if you were sitting in front of it. All
data transmitted over the network is encrypted, which provides a high level of security for sensitive information. This makes
it a useful tool for securely accessing servers, especially over an unsecured network like the internet.

SSH can be used on a variety of platforms, including Windows, Linux, macOS, and UNIX. It’s widely used by system
administrators, developers, and other IT professionals to securely manage remote servers and automate tasks.

In addition to providing secure access to remote computers, SSH can also be used to securely tunnel network connections,
which allows you to securely connect to a remote network through an encrypted channel. This can be useful for accessing
resources on a remote network or bypassing network restrictions.

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7) NFS

NFS stands for "Network File System," and it is a protocol that allows a computer to share files and directories over a
network. NFS was developed by Sun Microsystems in the 1980s and is now maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA).

NFS enables a computer to share its file system with another computer over the network, allowing users on the remote
computer to access files and directories as if they were local to their own computer. This makes it possible for users to work
with files and directories on remote systems as if they were on their own computer, without having to copy the files back
and forth.

NFS operates on the Application Layer of the OSI model and uses a client-server architecture. The computer sharing its file
system is the NFS server, and the computer accessing the shared files is the NFS client. The client sends requests to the
server to access files and directories, and the server sends back responses with the requested information.

NFS is widely used in enterprise environments and has been implemented on many operating systems, including Linux,
Unix, and macOS. It provides a simple and efficient way for computers to share files over a network and is particularly
useful for environments where multiple users need to access the same files and directories.

8) SNMP

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is a standard protocol used for managing and monitoring network devices,
such as routers, switches, servers, and printers. It provides a common framework for network management and enables
network administrators to monitor and manage network devices from a central location.

SNMP allows network devices to provide information about their performance and status to a network management system
(NMS), which can then use this information to monitor the health and performance of the network. This information can
also be used to generate reports, identify trends, and detect problems.

SNMP operates using a client-server model, where the network management system acts as the client and the network
devices act as servers. The client sends SNMP requests to the servers, which respond with the requested information. The
information is stored in a management information base (MIB), which is a database of objects that can be monitored and
managed using SNMP.

SNMP provides a flexible and scalable way to manage and monitor large networks, and it’s supported by a wide range of
network devices and vendors. It’s an essential tool for network administrators and is widely used in enterprise networks and
service provider networks.

9) DHCP

DHCP stands for "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol," and it is a network protocol used to dynamically assign IP
addresses to devices on a network. DHCP is used to automate the process of assigning IP addresses to devices, eliminating
the need for a network administrator to manually assign IP addresses to each device.

DHCP operates on the Application Layer of the OSI model and uses a client-server architecture. The DHCP server is
responsible for managing a pool of available IP addresses and assigning them to devices on the network as they request
them. The DHCP client, typically built into the network interface of a device, sends a broadcast request for an IP address
when it joins the network. The DHCP server then assigns an IP address to the client and provides it with information about
the network, such as the subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS servers.

The DHCP protocol provides several benefits. It reduces the administrative overhead of managing IP addresses, as the
DHCP server automatically assigns and manages IP addresses. It also provides a flexible way to manage IP addresses, as
the DHCP server can easily reassign IP addresses to different devices if needed. Additionally, DHCP provides a way to
centrally manage IP addresses and network configuration, making it easier to make changes to the network configuration.

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DHCP is widely used in most networks today and is supported by many operating systems, including Windows, Linux, and
macOS. It is an essential component of most IP networks and is typically used in conjunction with other network protocols,
such as TCP/IP and DNS, to provide a complete solution for network communication.

10) RIP

RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a distance-vector routing protocol that is used to distribute routing information within
a network. It’s one of the earliest routing protocols developed for use in IP (Internet Protocol) networks, and it’s still widely
used in small to medium-sized networks.

RIP works by exchanging routing information between routers in a network. Each router periodically sends its routing table,
which lists the network destinations it knows about and the distance (measured in hop count) to each destination. Routers
use this information to update their own routing tables and determine the best path to a particular destination.

RIP has a simple and straightforward operation, which makes it easy to understand and configure. However, it also has
some limitations, such as its slow convergence time and limited scalability. In large networks, RIP can become slow and
inefficient, which is why it’s often replaced by more advanced routing protocols such as OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
or EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol).

Despite its limitations, RIP is still widely used in small and medium-sized networks because of its simplicity and
compatibility with a wide range of networking devices. It’s also commonly used as a backup routing protocol in case of
failure of the primary routing protocol.

11. IMAP
The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a protocol for receiving email. Protocols standardize technical processes
so computers and servers can connect with each other regardless of whether or not they use the same hardware or software.

A key feature of IMAP is that it allows users to access their emails from any device. This is because IMAP acts as an
intermediary between email servers and email clients, rather than downloading emails from the server onto the email client.

Compare this aspect of IMAP to the differences between using Microsoft Word and Google Docs. Microsoft Word
documents are saved locally to a computer and can be transported via email attachments or USB drives, but they do not
update dynamically. If, for example, Sally makes changes to their Word document, those modifications are only saved to
Sally's computer (and not to the version Linda might have on her computer).

By comparison, Google Docs can be accessed via the Internet on different devices, and update dynamically when a user
makes changes to a file. In this scenario, any change Sally makes to a shared file would be visible to Linda, even if they use
different computers to access the same document. Similarly, using IMAP, users can access their email accounts from
different devices without any differences in experience, and do not necessarily need to be on the device where they originally
read the email.

12. POP3
Email can be retrieved from a server and delivered to a local client using this application layer protocol. Users can manage
and read email messages locally on their devices using POP. POP3 is the most recent iteration of POP. For unencrypted
transmission, it uses TCP port 110, and for encrypted communication, it uses port 995.

IMAP downloads a copy of the email and leaves the original on the server, whereas POP3 downloads and deletes it from
the server. POP3 is a text-based protocol that involves requests from the client and answers from the server.
The POP3 protocol has commands such as USER, PASS, LIST, RETR, and QUIT.

Common characteristics of the POP protocol include:

• Retrieves email from a server for local storage.
• Operates over TCP on port 110.
• Typically uses POP3 for downloading messages to a client device.
• Supports simple email retrieval and deletion.

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13. MIME
MIME stands for Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension. This protocol is designed to extend the capabilities of the existing
Internet email protocol like SMTP. MIME allows non-ASCII data to be sent via SMTP. It allows users to send/receive
various kinds of files over the Internet like audio, video, programs, etc. MIME is not a standalone protocol it works in
collaboration with other protocols to extend their capabilities.

Purpose and Functionality of MIME –

Growing demand for Email Messages as people also want to express themselves in terms of Multimedia. So, MIME another
email application is introduced as it is not restricted to textual data.

MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender side to NVT 7-bit data and delivers it to the client SMTP. The message on
the receiver side is transferred back to the original data. As well as we can send video and audio data using MIME as it
transfers them also in 7-bit ASCII data.
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