CHAPTER Two[2]

Research Design

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A research design:
• The arrangement of conditions for the collection and analysis of data
in a manner that aims to address the research problem.
• The research design should be inline with:
o What is the study about? (Problem definition)
o Why is the study being made? (Justification)
o Where will the study be carried out? (Location)
o What type of data is required? (Quanti, Qual. )
o Where can the required data be found (target population)
o What will be the sample design (technique chosen)
o What techniques of data collection will be used? (observation,
interview, questionnaire, or document analysis).
o How will the data be analyzed (Data analysis techniques & tools
to be employed).
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• Research methodology involves such general activities as:

o Identifying problems

o Review of the literature

o Formulating hypotheses

o Procedure for testing hypotheses

o Measurement , data collection, analysis of data, interpreting

results and drawing conclusions.

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• We may split the overall research design into three:
Sampling design:
• Which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed
for the given study.

Statistical design:
• Which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analysed.

Operational design:
• Which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, Statistical and observational designs
can be carried out.

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• Important concepts in research design Variable:
• A concept which can take on different values.
• Continuous variable:
o A variable which can assume any numerical value within a
specific range. (e.g. Age, weight).
• Discrete variable:
o A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only
with distinct gaps. (e.g. Number of children).

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• Dependent variable: A consequence of another variable (effect).

• Independent variable: The presumed cause of the dependent

variable.
Example
o Behavioral changes: dependent variable
o Films, lectures, …: independent variable
• Extraneous variables: Those uncontrolled variables that may have
a significant influence on the dependent variable.

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• Research design can be:
Quantitative
Qualitative
Quantitative Research Design:
• Aim:
o Determine relationship between quantitative variables or
compare groups.
• Types of Quantitative design:
Descriptive
Experimental
Quasi-experiment

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 Qualitative Research Design

• Qualitative research methods goes through participant

observation, in-depth interviewing that yield descriptive data.

• Qualitative research notions:

• Are concerned with the meanings people attach to things in

their lives.

• Qualitative researches develop concepts, insights and

understandings from patterns in the data rather than
collecting data to assess preconceived models, hypothesis or
theories.

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• Qualitative research are concerned with how people think and
act in their everyday lives.

o In qualitative interviewing, researchers model their

interviews after a normal conversation rather than a formal
question and answer exchange

o For the qualitative researcher, there is something to be

learned in all settings and groups

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Research setting
• The ideal research setting is one in which the observer obtains
easy access.
Literature
• You can not be sure what literature might be relevant to your
study until you have completed your research.

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 Research method and methodology
• Research method describes the specific technique used in a given study.
• Research methodology
o A science of studying how research is done scientifically.
o A way to systematically solve the research problem by logically
adopting various steps.
o Methodology helps to understand not only the products of scientific
inquiry but the process itself.
o Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their
limitations and resources, clarify their presuppositions and
consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at the
‘frontiers of knowledge’

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 Sampling Design

Sampling:

• The act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample.

• Representative part of a population for the purpose of determining

parameters or characteristics of the whole population.

• The process of finding a representative sample (or subset) of

population.

Population:

• The entire group under study as defined by research objectives.

• Sometimes called the “universe.” or Reference population

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• Researchers define populations in
specific term such as heads of
households, individual person types,
families, types of retail outlets, etc.

• Population, geographic location and

time of study are also considered.

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Sample:
• A subset of the population that should represent the entire group.
• “A smaller collection of units from a population used to determine
truths about that population” (Field, 2005).
Sample unit:
• The basic level of investigation…consumers, store managers, shelf-
facings, adolescence, etc.
• The research objective should define the sample unit.
• A sampling frame which has the property that we can identify every
single element and include any in our sample.

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• The sampling frame is the list from which the potential
respondents are drawn.

• Registrar’s office

• Class rosters

• Must assess sampling frame errors

• The sampling frame must be representative of the population.

• Census: is the counting of the complete population.

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Calculating sample frame error (SFE):
• Subtract the number of items on the sampling list from the total
number of items in the population.
• Take this number and divide it by the total population.
• Multiply this decimal by 100 to convert to percent (SFE must be
expressed in %)
• If the SFE was 40%, this would mean that 40% of the population
was not in the sampling frame.
Practical considerations such as:
• Cost and population size
• Nature & purpose of the study
• Inability of researcher to analyze large quantities of data
potentially generated by a census
• Samples can produce sound results if proper rules are followed for the
draw.
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 Why is sampling?
Economy:
• Save resources such as, money and manpower
Timeliness :
• It will Save time.
• A sample provides more timely data than a census.
Completeness and accuracy
• It is possible to collect more detailed information, because more time
can be spent in asking respondents.
Destructiveness of the observation/study:
• When Experiments are to result in the destruction of the materials
that undergo the experiment.
• When population size is very large
• Inaccessibility of some of the population: In cases of inaccessible
population.
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The three factors that influence sample
representativeness
o Sampling procedure
o Sample size
o Participation (response)

When might you sample the entire population?

o When your population is very small.
o When you have extensive resources.
o When you don’t expect a very high
response.

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SAMPLING BREAKDOWN

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• Two Types of Sampling Methods/Designs:
Probability sampling scheme:
• It is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater
than zero) of being selected in the sample, and
• This probability can be accurately determined.
• When every element in the population does have the same probability
of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of selection'
(EPS) design.
• Such designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting' because all
sampled units are given the same weight.
• Each members of the population have a known chance (probability) of
being selected.
– Each unit of population will be represented in the sample.
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Probability sampling includes:

1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Proportional stratified sampling
5. Cluster Sampling

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Non-probability sampling:
• Instances in which the chances (probability) of selecting members
from the population are unknown.
• The researcher has no way of forecasting that each member of the
population will be represented in the sample.
• Some member of the population have little or no chance of being
selected.
• Any sampling method where some elements of population have no
chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'under covered'), or where the probability of selection can't
be accurately determined.

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Non-probability sampling includes:
1. Convenience sampling
2. Judgment or purposive sampling
3. Quota sampling

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Simple random sampling:

• Each element of the population has an equal, known and

independent chance of being included in the sample.

• The least sophisticated of all sampling designs.

• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily

available/known.

• Impractical for very large populations.

• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine

which units are to be selected.
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• In this sampling all subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability.

• Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection.

• This is done by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling

frame.

• Some of examples are:

o Lottery Method

o Throwing a dice/cube

o Tossing a coin

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 Replacement of Selected Units
Sampling schemes may be

• Without replacement ('WOR‘): no element can be selected more

than once in the same sample) or

• With replacement ('WR‘): an element may appear or select

multiple times in the one sample).
For example:
• If we catch fish, measure them, and immediately return them to the
water before continuing with the sample, this is a WR design, because
we might end up catching and measuring the same fish more than
once.
• However, if we do not return the fish to the water (e.g. if we eat the
fish), this becomes a WOR design.
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Systematic sampling:
• Relies on arranging the target population according to some
ordering scheme and
• Then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered
list.
• This method is at times more efficient than simple random
sampling.
• Selecting elements of the population in predetermined sequence.

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• Randomness element is in picking up the starting point.
• Involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of
every kth element from then onwards.
• In this case, k=(population size/sample size).
• A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the
telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as
'sampling with a skip of 10').

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 Stratified random sampling

• Where population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame

can be organized into separate "strata."
• Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population, out
of which individual elements can be randomly selected.
• Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being selected.
• Applied when the population has different layers (strata).

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• The researcher samples from each one of the layers (stratum) equally.

• Examples:

• Sampling of school children from grades 4, 5 and 6

o Sampling of customers (customer frame)

o Corporate customers

o Residential customers, etc.

• Since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different

sampling approaches can be applied to different strata.

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 Proportional stratified sampling

• It is preferable sampling technique when number of the elements of

the strata are different in size.
• 2,000 corporate customers
• 400,000 residential customers
• Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can be
ensured by stratification & varying sampling fraction between strata
as required.

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 Cluster sampling:

• Once clusters are established, a random draw is done to select one (or
more) clusters to represent the population.

• Any of which (cluster) can be considered a representative sample.

• Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based

on geographical contiguity.

• Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.

• A sample of such clusters is then selected.

• All units from the selected clusters are studied.

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• Grouping the population into clusters and then select members of
clusters.

Population Random selection

of clusters

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5

C5 C6 C7 C8 C8
C9 C10 C11 C12 C11

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• Two types of cluster sampling methods.

One-stage sampling:

• All of the elements within selected clusters are included in

the sample.

Two-stage sampling:

• A subset of elements within selected clusters are randomly

selected for inclusion in the sample.

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 Difference Between Strata and Clusters

• Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping subsets of

the population, they differ in several ways.

o All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset of

clusters are in the sample.

o With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when

elements within strata are internally homogeneous.

o However, with cluster sampling, the best results occur when

elements within clusters are internally heterogeneous.

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 Summary

Population characteristics • Appropriate sampling technique

1. Homogeneous members •Simple random sampling

•Systematic random sampling
2. Stratified population with Stratified random sampling
approximately equal in size
3. Stratified population, strata Proportional stratified
different in size sampling
4. Population with discrete Cluster sampling
clusters with similar
characteristics
 Non-probability Sampling Methods
Convenience sampling:
• Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or
haphazard sampling.
• A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That
is, readily available and convenient.
• Taking People/sample who are available, volunteer, or can be easily
recruited.
Example:
o Those that arrive on a scene by coincidence
• Appropriate for some less demanding research.
• Use results that are easy to get
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The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically
make generalizations about the total population from
this sample because it would not be representative
enough.
For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at
a shopping center early in the morning on a given day,
the people that he/she could interview would be limited
to those given there at that given time, which would not
represent the views of other members of society in such
an area, if the survey was to be conducted at different
times of day and several times per week.

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Judgment or purposive sampling:
• The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study.
• This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that
have expertise in the area being researched.
• This involves the selection of a group/ individuals from the
population on the basis of available information thought.
• Samples require a judgment or an “educated guess” on the part of the
interviewer.

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• Also, “judges” (informed individuals) may be asked to suggest
who should be in the sample.
• Subjectivity enters in here, and certain members of the
population will have a smaller or no chance of selection
compared to others.
• A sampling technique to pick out the sample in relation to some
criterion.
• Which are considered important for the particular study.
• Units of the sample are chosen purposively.
• Choosing people who we have decided are “typical” of a group;

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Quota sampling:
• A variation of convenience sampling.
• Elements are selected in the same proportion as in the population.
• Example:
• There are equal number of IT and CS students.
o Quota sampling would choose 20 IT and 20 CS students without
any attempt to random selection.
Size of Sample
• The size of the sample depends upon the precision the
researcher desires in estimating the population parameter at
a particular confidence level.
• There is no single rule that can be used to determine sample
size.
• The best answer to the question of size is to use as large a
sample as possible.
• A larger sample is much more likely to be representative of
the population.

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• Furthermore with a large sample the data are likely to be more
accurate (value) and precise (sample error).
• It was pointed out in that the larger the sample, the smaller
the standard error (high precision). And
• The larger the sample, the higher representative (high
accuracy)
• In general, the standard error of a sample mean is inversely
proportional to the square root of n.
• Thus, in order to double the precision of one’s estimation, the
sample size would need to be quadrupled.

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 • Defining the population
• Specifying the sampling unit
• Specifying the sampling frame ( the
means of representing the elements of
the population). i.e. a set of items or
Steps in events possible to measure.
Sampling • Specifying the sampling method for
Process selecting items or events from the
frame.
• Determining the sampling size.
• Specifying the sampling plan.
• Selecting the sample.
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 Measurement & Measurement Scales
• Measurement can be defined as a process through which researchers
o Describe
o Explain, and predict the phenomena and constructs of our daily
existence.
• Measurement is often viewed as being the basis of all scientific
inquiry, and
• Measurement techniques and strategies are therefore an essential
component of research methodology.
For example:
• We measure how long we have lived in years, our financial success in
dollars, and the distance between two points in miles.

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• The concept of measurement is important in research studies in two
key areas.
First:
• measurement enables researchers to quantify abstract constructs and
Variables.
For example:
• The amount of weight lost in pounds Without measurement,
researchers would be able to do little else but make unsystematic
observations of the world around us.
Second:
• The level of statistical sophistication used to analyze data derived
from a study is directly dependent on the scale of measurement used
to quantify the variables of interest.

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 Non metric Data vs. Metric Data
Non metric data (also referred to as qualitative data):

• Which cannot be quantified and are predominantly used to

describe and categorize.

Metric data (also referred to as quantitative data):

• These are used to examine amounts and magnitudes.

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• There are four main scales of measurement subsumed
• under the broader categories of non-metric and metric
measurement:
1. Nominal scales
2. Ordinal scales
3. Interval scales, and
4. Ratio scales.
• Nominal and ordinal scales are non-numeric measurement scales.

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 Nominal scales
• These are the least sophisticated type of measurement and are
used only to qualitatively classify or categorize.
• They have no absolute zero point and cannot be ordered in a
quantitative sequence, and there is no equal unit of
measurement between categories.
• They do not imply amounts of an attribute or characteristic.
• This makes it impossible to conduct standard mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction, division, and
multiplication.
• Examples of nominal scale data include gender, religious and
political affiliation, place of birth, city of residence, ethnicity,
• Marital status, eye and hair color, and employment status

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 Ordinal scale:

• Measurement is characterized by the ability to measure a

variable in terms of both identity and magnitude.
• This makes it a higher level of measurement than the nominal
scale because the ordinal scale allows for the categorization of a
variable and its relative magnitude in relation to other variables.
• Variables can be ranked in relation to the amount of the
attribute possessed.
• In simpler terms, ordinal scales represent an ordering of
variables, with some number representing more than another.

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Distinguishing Characteristics of Ordinal Measurement Scales and
Data:
• Build on nominal measurement.
• Categorize a variable and its relative magnitude in relation to other
variables.
• Represent an ordering of variables with some number representing
more than another.
• Information about relative position but not the interval between the
ranks or categories.
• Qualitative in nature.
Example:
• Finishing position of runners in a race.
o Lack the mathematical properties necessary for sophisticated
statistical analyses.

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 Interval scale:-
• A measurement- builds on ordinal measurement by providing
information about both order and distance between values of
variables.
• The numbers on an interval scale are scaled at equal distances,
but there is no absolute zero point. Instead, the zero point is
arbitrary.
• Distinguishing Characteristics of Interval Measurement
• Scales and Data
o Quantitative in nature.
o Build on ordinal measurement.
o Provide information about both order and distance
between values of variables.
o Numbers scaled at equal distances.
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o No absolute zero point; zero point is arbitrary.
o Addition and subtraction are possible.
o Examples include temperature measured in Fahrenheit
and Celsius.
o Lack of an absolute zero point makes division and
multiplication impossible

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 Ratio scale

• The properties of the ratio scale are identical to those of the interval
scale, except that the ratio scale has an absolute zero point, which
means that all mathematical operations are possible.
Example:
• Money- It is possible to have no (or zero) money—a zero balance
in a checking account is an example of an absolute zero point.
• Characteristics:
• Identical to the interval scale, except that they have an absolute
zero point.
• Unlike with interval scale data, all mathematical operations are
possible.
• Examples include height, weight, and time.
• Highest level of measurement.
• Allow for the use of sophisticated statistical techniques.

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 Data collection Techniques/Tools

• Applying the chosen method(s).

• The means to collect data for analysis.
• There are a number of different data collection tools available and
• One should be selected which is most likely to meet the objective of
the research and
• Gather the correct type of information for your study.

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• Each technique is designed to get certain types of information
and not others.
• Viable methods/tools should be weighed up in terms of their
advantages and disadvantages.
• Some of the data collection techniques/tools with their
advantage and disadvantages are discussed here.
o Observation
o Questionnaires,
o Interviews,
o Document analysis

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 Observation

• Observation refers to the process of observing and recording events

or situations.
• Particularly useful for discovering how individuals or groups of
people or animals (and in some instances inanimate objects) behave,
act or react.
• There are two main types of observation:
• Participant and
• Non-participant

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In Participant observation:
• The researcher becomes part of the group studied and
participates in their daily life and activities:
o Observing their everyday situations and their behavior in these
situations.
o This observation is usually limited to studies of human
subjects.

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In non-participant observation:
• The researchers simply observe the activities without taking part
themselves:
o Has the advantage of preventing the researcher from unduly
influencing or becoming involved in activities they may not
wish to take part in (for example dangerous or criminal
actions),
o But they are less likely to understand fully the meanings
behind behavior in the group studied.
o Beside the study of human subjects, non- participant
observation can also be used to study animal behavior.

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 Advantages and disadvantages of observation
Advantages Disadvantages
Requires little training or familiarization. Time consuming.
Can understand meanings behind Problems with recording data.
actions.
Behavior can be observed in its natural Can only study a small group.
environment, the subject is undisturbed.
Can study deviant groups. Cannot make generalizations - no
way of judging whether the group is
typical.
Flexibility - researcher may come If covert is it ethical?
across conditions and events previously
not comprehended.

Moral, legal and injury risks

associated with this method.

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 Questionnaires

• A type of survey where respondents write answers to questions

posed by the researcher on a question form.

• Questionnaires are extremely flexible and can be used to gather

information on almost any topic involving large or small numbers of
people.

• The two approaches of questionnaires are:

• Close-ended questionnaire and

• Open-ended questionnaire

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Close-ended questionnaire:
• The approach where the respondents are required to answer by
choosing an option from a number of given answers,
• Usually by ticking a box or circling an answer.
• They only gather straightforward, uncomplicated information, and
only simple questions can be asked.
The open-ended questionnaire:
• Differs in that it allows the respondent to formulate and record
their answers in their own words.
• Are more qualitative and can produce detailed answers to
complex problems.

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 Advantage and disadvantages of questioners:
Advantages Disadvantages
Quick. Limited answers only can be given.
Cheap. Lack of qualitative depth results in superficiality.
Efficient. No way of probing/searching for more information in
superficial responses.
Can reach a large number of people. Not always accurate - not possible to verify what
appears to be an inaccurate answer and little check on
honesty of responses. Questions may mean different
things to different people.
Consistent format means Predetermined boxes may not be appropriate.
there is little scope for bias
introduced by different
researchers.
Low response rate.
Construction difficult - instructions must be clear and
unambiguous and questions carefully ordered.

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 Interviews

• Are limited to cases where the subjects of study are humans.

• Are a type of survey where questions are delivered in a face-to-face
encounter by an interviewer.

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 Advantages and disadvantages of Interview

Advantages Disadvantages
High response rate. Limited sample only.
Can collect complex information. Can be difficult to analyze (especially in-depth
interviews).
High degree of researcher control May be a hostile reaction.
achieved.
Can be made more responsive to Whole process is time
early results. consuming.
Relaxed environment. Recording techniques may
cause problems.

There is room for interviewer

bias - this should be
acknowledged.

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 Document Analysis
• This refers to the process of using any kind of document, films, television
programs and photographs as well as written sources, such as books,
papers and letters, for analysis in relation to a particular research question.
• Document analysis, also referred to as content analysis, differs from the
majority of research methods in two major ways.
• It is an indirect form of research;
• it is something that has been produced, so the investigator is not
generating original data.
• It is an 'unobtrusive', or 'non-reactive' method.
• This refers to the fact that the document will not be affected in any
way by your research;
• it cannot react as a human can.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Document analysis

Advantages Disadvantages
The data never alters and Subject to bias and subjectivity - impossible to
can be subject to reanalysis. allow for biases introduced by the fact that the
document studied has been written for a
particular purpose and is the author's own
particular account; events may be
sensationalized, subject to political bias etc.
Unobtrusive. Evidence may be out of date.
Events can be compared over time and cultures. May not be accurately recorded.

Gives an expert understanding. Documents available may be limited.

Cheap. Can be laborious and time consuming.
Computers can aid analysis and lead to
complete reliability in applying the rules you set
down for coding the text.

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THANK YOU!!

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