INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

A. Qualitative Research Defined

❑ is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry

that explore a social or human problem (Creswell, 1994).

❑ is a type of research that focuses on “how people interpret their experiences, how they
construct their experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to
their experience” (Merriam, 2009).

❑ is a “way of knowing in which a researcher gathers, organizes, and interprets information

obtained from humans using his or her eyes and ears and filters” (Lichtman, 2013).

B. Quantitative vs Qualitative Research

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE

Thought of as Objective Thought of as Subjective

Research Questions include “How many” and Research Questions include “What,” “How” and
“Strength of association” “Why”

To quantify the data and generalize the results To gain a broad qualitative understanding of
from the sample to the population of interest; underlying reasons and motivations; as a first
recommend a final course of action step in multi-stage research

Tests a Theory Develops a Theory

Measurable Interpretive

Researcher is separate from the process Researcher is part of the process

Strives for generalization – leads to prediction Strives for uniqueness – leads to understanding
Generalizable Non-generalizable

Basic element of analysis is numbers Basic element of analysis is words/ideas

Context free Context dependent

“Counts the beans” Provides information as to "which beans are

worth counting“

Large number of representative cases Small number of non-representative cases

Typically a probability-based sample (Usually) Non-probability based sample –

purposive sampling

Data are more efficient, but may miss contextual

details Data are “rich” and time-consuming to analyze

Design decided in advance Design may emerge as study unfolds

Various tools, instruments employed Researcher is the instrument

Data Collection: Structured Data Collection: Unstructured

Statistical Data Non statistical data

Some aspects of the study design are flexible

(addition, exclusion, or wording of interview
Study design is stable from beginning to end questions

Participant responses do not influence or Participant responses affect how and which
determine how and which questions researchers questions researchers ask next
ask next

Study design is subject to statistical assumptions Study design is iterative, that is, data collection
and conditions and research questions are adjusted according to
what is learned

Setting for data collection is “theory-driven” Setting for data collection is “informant driven”
(investigator assumes ignorance of the culture/
experience being studied; informant teaches the
investigator
C. Myths in Qualitative Research (Source: Wa-MBaleka, 2017)

1. Qualitative research is criticized for being too subjective (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Reality
is experienced subjectively by different people. Objectivity may not always be the golden standard
when it comes to human life (Lichtman, 2013; Miles et al., 2014). While the idea of objectivity
seems quite enticing, the complex problems of human beings sometimes requires subjective
solutions depending on the situation and the context of the problem (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007).
2. Qualitative research is not considered generalizable (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The
problem with this myth is that those trained primarily in quantitative research have only one view
of generalizability; that is, generalization to a certain population. Qualitative research uses
generalizability in two major ways (Merriam, 2009; Miles et al., 2014). One is the theoretical
generalization. It means that instead of generalizing the findings over the population (because
random sampling is not used in qualitative research, generalization is over the concept, the
theory, or the phenomenon under exploration.
3. it is easy to collect and analyze qualitative research data (Harper & Kuh, 2007). While
this may eventually become true as one gains experience, in general, this myth has no solid
foundation. The researcher must be meticulous in planning a qualitative study, collecting, and
analyzing data (Flick, 2006; Lichtman, 2013; Miles et al., 2014; Saldaña, 2015a; Yin, 2014, 2015).
Those who approach qualitative research from the perspective of this myth can easily end up
doing poor quality research thus perpetrating the myth of qualitative research not being of high
scholarly quality.
4. The reverse of the third. Many people are hesitant to be involved in qualitative research
because they believe it is too labor-intensive (Yin, 2014). Indeed, if the researcher fails to plan the
study well, qualitative research can come in all different shapes that may make it quite
labor-intensive in the management, analysis, and interpretation of the data (Miles et al., 2014).
Proper training through personal readings, seminars, workshops, and courses can help build the
needed qualitative research skills that can cut down the time needed to collect, manage, analyze,
and interpret qualitative research data. Additionally, for people interested in large or several
qualitative research/studies, the integration of qualitative research computer software can save
tremendous amounts of time (Creswell, 2013).
5. It is not a scientific undertaking (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) although this myth is probably
fading away. The adjective “scientific” refers to whatever is “done in an organized way that agrees
with [specific] methods and principles” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Scientific). Qualitative
research, when well done, follows specific methods and principles that have already been
established. Qualitative research done from simple commonsense can easily lead to poor quality.

D. Steps in Qualitative and Quantitative Studies

E. Sources of Qualitative Research Problems

Research Problem. One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the
study

General characteristics

– Implies the possibility of empirical investigation

– Identifies a need for the research
– Provides focus
– Provides a concise overview of the research

Two ways of stating the problem

– Research problems: typically a rather general overview of the problem with just
enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial
understanding of the research
– Research statements and/or questions: more specific, focused statements and
questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study

Quantita Qualitati
tive ve

Specific General

Closed Open

Static Evolving

Outcome Process
oriented oriented

Use of
specific
variables

● Sources of research problems

○ Personal interests and experiences

▪ The use of formative tests in a statistics class

 ▪ The use of technology in a research class
● Deductions from theory

▪ The effectiveness of math manipulatives

▪ The effectiveness of a mastery approach to learning research
● Replication of studies

▪ Checking the findings of a major study

▪ Checking the validity of research findings with different subjects
▪ Checking trends or changes over time
▪ Checking important findings using different methodologies
● Clarification of contradictory results
● Qualitative Research Problems

▪ Identifies a central phenomena (i.e., an issue or process) being investigated

▪ Examples of issues
● Drug abuse in high schools
● Teacher burnout
● Alienation of children with special needs
▪ Examples of processes
● How teachers change to standards-based curricula
● How students react to high stakes testing programs
● How students incorporate teachers’ expectations into their studies
o Characteristics
o Includes a single, central phenomena
o Open-ended
o General in nature
o Evolving, that is, problems change as data is collected and reflected upon
▪ Foreshadowed problems
▪ Emerging and reformulated questions
o Neutral with respect to what will be learned
▪ No predictions
▪ No expected outcomes

o Criteria for evaluating qualitative research problems

o The problem should not be too general or too specific
o The problem should be amenable to change as data are collected and analyzed
o The problem should not be biased with restrictive assumptions or desired findings
o The problem should be written in “how” and “what” forms to focus on describing
the phenomena
o The problem should include a central question as well as the participants and the
site

F. Approaches to Qualitative Research

 ❑ Narrative Inquiry. A relatively new qualitative methodology, is the study of
experience understood narratively; it is a way of thinking about, and studying,
experience. Narrative inquiry follows a recursive, reflexive process of moving
from field (with starting points in telling or living of stories) to field texts (data) to
interim and final research texts (Clandinin and Connelly, 2000).
❑ Phenomenology. The reflective analyses of life-world experiences
(Moustakas, 1994).
❑ Grounded Theory. A qualitative strategy of inquiry n which the researcher
derives a general, abstract theory of process, action, or interaction grounded in
the views of participants in a study (Creswell, 2009).
❑ Ethnography. A strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies an intact
cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting,
primarily, observational and interview data (Creswell, 2009).
❑ Case Study. A type of design in qualitative research that may be an object of
study, as well as a product of iquiry; the study of a case within real-life
contemporary context (Creswell, 2009).

Contrasting Characteristics of Five Qualitative Approaches

Characteristic Narrative Phenomenolo Grounded Ethnography Case Study

s Research gy Theory

Focus Exploring the life Understanding the Developing a Describing the Developing an
of an individual essence of the theory grounded interpreting a in-depth
experience in data from the culture-sharing description and
field group analysis of a case
or multiple cases

Type of Problem Needing to tell Needing to Grounding a Describing and Providing an

best suited for stories of describe the theory in the interpreting the in-depth
design
 individual essence of a lived views of shared patterns of understanding of a
experiences phenomenon participants culture of group case or cases

Discipline Drawing from the Drawing from Drawing from Drawing from Drawing from
background humanities philosophy, sociology anthropology and psychology, law,
including psychology and sociology political science,
anthropology, education medicine
literature, history,
psychology and
sociology

Unit of Analysis Studying one or Studying several Studying a Studying a group Studying an event,
more individuals individuals that process, action, that shared the a program, an
have shared the or interaction same culture activity, more than
experience involving many one individual
individuals

Data Collection Using primarily Using primarily Using primarily Using primarily Using multiple
Forms interviews and interviews with interviews with observations and sources, such as
documents individuals, 20-60 individuals interviews, but interviews,
although perhaps collecting observations,
documents, other sources documents,artifact
observations, and during extended s
art may also be time in field
considered

Data Analysis Analyzing data Analyzing data for Analyzing data Analyzing data Analyzing the data
Strategies from stories, significant through open through through
“restorying” statements, coding, axial description of the description of the
stories, meaning units, coding, selective culture-sharing case and themes
developing textural and coding groups, themes of the case as well
themes, often structural about the group as cross-case
using a description, themes
chronology description of the
essence