2.2.

1 The Renewed Interest in supervision- Sierra Leone Perspective

It is indicated that in the last two decades Sierra Leone have not been publishing any data or
statistics on supervision and support services. Not only do they not publish them they are
often simply not available. Even more serious is the fact that the MOE is not able to answer
and apparently simple question such as: How much is being spent on the provision of
supervision and support services? This is an important question if MoE is interested in
spotting critical and probably small investments that could have a proportionally important
impact on school efficiency.

Nevertheless, since the beginning of the new direction promising to provide free quality
education to al school going children both basic and secondary school, there has undoubtedly
been renewed national interest in issues of quality and therefore in quality monitoring and
supervision. The free quality education has not only attracted renewed national interest but
also an international one too. Some Countries that had dismantled their supervision services
earlier have re established them such as the Philippines, whileothers that did not have them in
the past have created them such as China and Sweden. More impotently, the number of
countries that initiate a process of reorganizing and strengthening supervision services is
increasing every year (Benard and Good year , 1998)
In most countries, there is a feeling that the rapid expansion, if not mass production, of
education has led to the deterioration of quality. Consequently for Sierra Leone, quality
improvement has become a top priority in current government policy formulation, which has
in turn reinforced its preoccupation with quality control. This policy interest in quality
improvement has in fact earlier been endorsed and amplified by the EFF (Education for All)
world conferences of 1990 and 2000, at the same time various studies have shown that one
important determinant of the deterioration of the quality of schools precisely relates to the
weakening of quality monitoring devices, including the professional supervision and support
services.
This explains why some countries that had dismantled their inspectorate services in the 1970s
or a little latter including Sierra Leone have re-established them and also why the general
interest in efficient supervision procedures has been increasing.

22
2.3. Definition of Supervision
There is no single unifying definition of supervision in the literature (Alfonso & Firth, 1990).
Supervision can be defined according to different aspects of the notion, but from an
educational administration perspective, of great interest are the definitions which reveal
supervision as a collaborative action aimed at developing effective instruction.
Etymologically, based on Echols (1983) the supervision word derived from the English
language, which means inspection. In addition, oteng (1983) it is an interaction between at
least two persons for the improvement of an activity. It is also a combination or integration of
processes procedures and conditions that are consciously designed to advance the work
effectiveness of individuals and group. According to Harris (1975) in order to measure the
performance of a worker a supervisor has to observe the worker on the job over a period of
time. It is inferred that the supervisor is familiar with the individual with regard to
performance and the fact that he has had the opportunity to observe the actual performance
for a long time.
In a morphological way, supervision derived from two English words, which is super and
vision. Super meaning above and the vision means to see the same as inspection, examination
and supervision, and supervision activities put more emphasis on the value of humanity.
Elements of coaching are a major good in supervision activities, not looking for faults, but to
be able to provide information in order to repair the parts which are lacking in the event or
the implementation process of supervision (Mufida 2009)
Semantically many experts define the tern supervision, but the principal has the same
meaning and understand. According to Willes (1955) supervision is assistance in the
development of a better teaching-learning situation. Neagley (1980, as a cited in pidarta, 1986
p.2) stated that supervision is a service to teachers in school with the purpose to produce
instructional improvement, learning and curriculum.
Nerney as cited in Sahertian (182) defined supervision as procedures to give directions and
conduct critical assessment of the teaching process.

23
While, Poewanto (1987) said supervision is an activity of coaching designed to help teachers and
other school officials to do their jobs effectively.

Mantja (2007) said supervision is defined as an activity of supervisor that is carried out to repair the
teaching and learning process. There are two purposes to be realized by supervision:
repairing the learning process and improving the quality of education. Rosa ( 1980), defined that
supervision is service to teachers aimed at generating improvement of teaching, learning and
curriculum.

The opinions above show that the term of supervision implies many meanings, but it contains the
same meaning, such as helping, caring, giving direction, assessing, coaching, improving, developing
and repairing. In other words, the meaning of the term supervision is opposed to supervising,
checking, punishing, prosecuting, inspecting, correcting, and blaming. Thus the term supervision
"does not equal" the terms of controlling, inspecting and directing.

Supervision has been defined in several ways by different authors to suit their specific purposes,
(Bernard & Goodyear 1992, 2004) defined supervision as a relationship between senior and junior
members of a professional that (a) is evaluative (b) extend over time, (c) serves to enhance the skills
of the junior person. (d) monitors the quality of services offered by the junior person and, (e) act as
gate keeping to profession. In effect it is managing others through leadership and personal influence.
Loganbil et al, (1982) perceive supervision as an intense interpersonal relationship in which one
individual is responsible for facilitating the development of another individual. Glickman, et la, (2004,
p 6.) assert that supervision has traditionally been perceived as an act of controlling teachers
instructional behavior, the term supervision portrays a system where teachers deliver instructions on a
way and manner designed by higher authorities or set of principles and procedures. It involves direct
and indirect inspection and control of teachers" instructional activities. This concept seems to place
emphasis on teachers" compliance with laid down procedures rather than allowing them to develop
innovative abilities to work.

As Wanzare and Da Costa (200) stated, a survey of the literature revealed many definitions of
supervision - each one unique in it's focus and purpose - ranging from a custodial orientation to a
humanistic orientation.

24
Drake and Roe (1999) noted that in a custodial context, supervision can mean general overseeing and
controlling, managing, administering, evaluating, or any activity on which the Head Teacher is
involved in the process or running the school.

A whole-school approach suggested, "Supervision is the function in schools that draws together all the
discrete elements of instructional effectiveness into whole-school action" (Glickman et al., 1998, p.
6). A more humanistic definition suggested that supervision of instruction is a multifaceted,
interpersonal process that deals with teaching behavior, curriculum, learning environments, grouping
of students, teacher utilization, and professional development (Pfeiffer & Dunlap, 1982).

Beach and Reinhartz (2000) regarded instructional supervision as a process that focuses on instruction
and provides teachers with information about their teaching so as to develop instructional skills to
improve performance. The focus of this improvement, according to Sergiovanni and Starratt (1998),
may be on a teacher's knowledge, skills, and ability to make more informal professional decisions or
to solve problems better, or it may be to inquire into his or her teaching. Such a focus on teacher's
instructional improvement permits to achieve higher quality learning. Fostering this point of view,
Alfonso, Firth, and Neville (1981) defined instructional supervision as "behavior officially designated
by the organization that directly affects teacher behavior in such a way as to facilitate pupil learning
and achieve the goals of the organization" (p. 43).
Glatthorn (1990) added that supervision is “the comprehensive set of services provided and processes
to help teachers facilitate their own professional development so that the goals of the school district or
the school might be better attained" (p.84). The Dictionary of Education (as cited in Goldhammer et
al, 1980) provided the most extensive definition of supervision:

All afforts of designated school officials directed toward providing leadership to teachers and other
educational workers in the improvement of instruction involves the stimulation of professional growth
and development of teachers, the selection and revision of education objectives, materials of
instruction, and methods of teaching, and the evaluation of instruction.
(p. 17).
As the literature review shows, definitions of instructional supervision which focus on the
improvement of instruction are the most widespread (Goldhammer, Anderson, & Krajewski,
1993; Hoy & Forsyth, 1986)

25
Intrinsic to these definitions is that supervision is viewed as a set of services and processes aimed at
improving the effectiveness of instruction and the professional development of the teachers.

Teachers and the administrators must actively engage in the process of supervision. Both parties must
understand the characteristics of effective supervision and enthusiastically enter into the process
(Glatthorn, 1990). Beach and Reinhartz (2000) stated that the challenge for supervisors is to integrate
what is known about supervision into a process that helps remove obstacles in working with teachers
to foster their professional growth and promote quality teaching and learning. Teachers should then
have the opportunity to reflect on all aspects of the teaching process and to participate in professional
development activities that foster instruction.

2.7. Concept of Supervision

Supervision is a way of stimulating, guiding, improving, refreshing, encouraging and overseeing

certain group with the hope of seeking their cooperation in order for the supervisors to be successful
in their task of supervision. Ogunsaju (1983.) Supervision is essentially the practice of monitoring the
performance of workers or staffs, nothing the merit and demerits and using befitting and amicable
techniques to correct the flaws while still improving on the merits thereby increasing the standard of
staff performance and achieving the ultimate goals.

It is believe that an effective supervision can be a business" most valuable asset. The well trained
supervision who be excels at managing employees can make everyone around him or her more
effective and efficient. Several supervisory skills directly affects employee's development, helping
them to achieve their potential while gaining skills that are valuable to the organization.

Typically, the performance of each individual should create an impression in the entire organization
and like the business organizations, staffs if Sierra Leone Education Service are supposed to
contribute effectively in their performance. The performance that each staff might contribute
represents the various factors such as the functions and roles assigned to them; the organizational
structure in which they operate; their workload; and work management. In addition, the performance
of the staff can be supervised according to the tasks or responsibilities given to them (Henderson &
Gysbers, 2006). The research is in support of this concept in that each individual's work adds up to
achieving goals of the organization.

26
It is therefore crucial for administrators to set standards for the staff to keep them aligned in their field
of work or to formulate the kind of motivational approaches to increase the performance of the
individual. Therefore, supervision of the Sierra Leone Education Service staff is the most effective
way that the current administration perceives to successfully aim their targets of improvement among
their staffs.

In support of this, it is clear that the attitudes and competences of supervisors can influence the staff
through training and support provided in their profession.

Staff supervision, also known as staff coaching, is described to be one of the components of
professional development. This includes the variety of education, training, and development activities.
The common goal of staff supervision is to increase the knowledge and skills of the staff in order to
facilitate the improvement in their performance (Burkhauser & Met, 2009).

According to Circuit Supervisor's Handbook (2002) the performance of an individual lies in his ability
to cope with changes and adopt the working conditions. But one cannot be successful without the
direction or guidance coming from their supervisor. The most common presentation of supervising is
guiding the subordinates to achieve the expected outcome. Supervision of staff has its own unique
procedures that are equally influential in the career opportunities. However, the supervision services
coming from the superiors or other GES officials might be difficult, for it has to be with a direct
contact on the daily of the staff. Still, the supervisors are looking forward to deliver the appropriate
outcome for the staff and create a positive on the staff performance.
There are many questions that can be asked on the efficacy of supervision, but in the examination on
the school settings from various countries, the supervision and the associated actions or concern on
Supervision services depends on the situation of the country or their traditions, the specific roles and
function of the supervision, control and support of Supervision. The Supervisors" roles are also
changed and sometimes called as the "advisors" of the staff. The contribution of supervisors in staff
performance creates an impact, especially in organizing the different services (UNESCO, 2007).

Based on the various coaching theories, the supervisor should have the knowledge in the area of the
staff and have to build the relationship. This is the reason for which supervisors should build respect,
trust, and collegiality that increase the interaction abilities of the staff. Both the staff and the
supervisor should engage in wide variety of activities.

27
Through the help of the guidance and supervision program, the staffs are allowed to experiment,
practice, and learn through their mistakes. All of the experience that the staff can gather is effective
reference or sources for his sole decision making.

The school administration should thereby, promote the supervision initiatives with the aim of long-
term professional development strategy (Burkhauser & Metz, 2009) If all supervisors will guide and
develop employees or staff, it will go a long way to improve performance.

Apprising the performance of the staff is the duty of the supervisor to determine the improvement on
the staff performance as well as the involving complexity. The appraisals are set in order to supervise
the accomplishment of the job, goals, and standards. This can also be done in day-by-day basis, as far
as it is responding on the changing needs of the staff and their phases of improvement (PATH, 2003).

Ryan (2004), states that supervision is an enquiry into practice. It is a compassionate, appreciative
inquiry. He further states "in supervision we re-write the stories of our own practice, it wakes us up to
what we are doing. When we are alive to what we are doing, we wake up to what is, instead of falling
asleep in the comfort stories of our clinical routines"

According to Lane and Corrie (2006) supervision is a form of experimental learning. Supervision is
reflection on action or indeed, reflection-in-action to result in reflect for action. In the present we
consider the past to effect the future. They continue to summarize their claim into these benefits of
supervision. They are of the view that supervision offers reflective space to practitioners ( insight for
improvement). Also, it offers opportunity to keep up-to-date with professional development and lastly
helps to identify strength and weaknesses.

In the light of the above, the quality of learning can be created through the existence of a very close
relationship to the quality of education. It can be seen that one important factor in creating quality of
teaching can be determined by the quality of educators (teachers). Teachers have an important role
and are spearheads in the process of creation of a good education. Again, teachers have a great
responsibility in the success or failure of the learning process. In practice, teachers often have faults in
teaching, both in pedagogy and content. Therefore, teachers need help to solve the problems of
teaching. One assistance that might be given to the teacher is through teaching supervision services.

28
According 6 Daresh (1989) Supervision is used to help the teacher in developing the ability to manage
learning and to reach the purpose of learning, called academic supervision. Sergiovanni (1987) stated
that reflecting on practical assessment the performance of teachers in academic supervision is seeing
the real conditions of work of teachers to answer the questions, for example: What actually happened
in the class?

What were students and teachers doing in the classroom? Based on these questions information about
the teacher's ability to manage learning will be obtained. After conducting supervision, follow-up
program development is required. Supervision is not only completed after the assessment of teacher
performance, but the follow-up process is to resolve the problems during the implementation process
of supervision.

According to Nolan and Hoover (2004) the functional organization of teacher supervision is to
develop teacher growth, thus improving teaching and encouraging more active student learning.
Enhancing the educational experience and the learning of all students is a basic objective of the
process of teacher supervision (Nolan and Hoover, 2004).

2.8 The Purpose of Supervision

Basically, the purpose of supervision is to provide services and assistance for improving teachers’
professionalism in order to achieve their main tasks of classroom teaching, so it can improve the
quality of student learning. The main objective of supervision is to repair teaching processes (Neagly
& Evans, 1980; Olivia, 1984; Hoy & Forsyth, 1986; Wiles and Bondi, 1986; Glickman, 1990). Based
on Nurnalisa; et al (2005) there are two purposes of supervision, general and specific purpose. The
general purpose of supervision is to provide assistance to the teachers in the form of both technical
assistance and purpose in the form of guidance to the teacher and other school staff in order to raise
the quality of work. For general purpose to reached easily it must be explained in detail, so that it
becomes a specific purpose with clear targets (Nurnalisa, 2015).

According to Wanzare and Da Costa (2000, as cited in Kutsyuruba, 2003) the purposes of
Supervision are:

29
1. To repair instruction (Beach & Reinhartz, 2000; Glickman et al, 1998; Golds berry, 1997;

Nolan, 1997; Sergiovanni $ Starrat, 1998; Waite, 1997)

2. Professional development of effective teachers (Acheson & Gall, 1997; Beach & Reinhartz ,

200; Glatthorn, 1984; Waite, 1997)

3. To help teachers to be aware of their teaching and its consequences for learners (Glickman et
al, 1997)

4. To enable teachers to try new instructional techniques in a safe, supportive environment

(Nolan, 1997)

5. Fostering the development of the curriculum (Nolan, 1997; Olivia & Pawlas, 1997; Wiles and
Bondi, 1996)

6. Inspiring human relations (Wiles & Bondi, 1996).

7. To foster motivation of teachers (Glickman et al., 1998).

8. To monitor the learning process to get the best result with students (Schain, 1988)

9. To provide a mechanism for teachers and supervisors to improve their understanding of the
teaching and learning process through collective investigation with other professionals (Nolan
& Francis, 1992). Based on Daresh as a cited in Ambarita; et al (2016) the purpose of
academic supervision is to help teachers to improve the ability to achieve learning goals, and
Sahertian and Mataheri in (Ambarita; et al, 2016) stated that there are three objectives of
academic supervision:

1. Assisting the teachers in developing teaching and learning process

2. Helping the teachers to analyze the curriculum

3. Assisting the teachers in developing school staff

Based on the explanation above, the general purpose of academic supervision is to assist teachers
in formulating learning goals, guiding teachers in the teaching and learning experience, the use of
resources of learning, the application of teaching methods, understanding the student learning
needs, assessing the process of of student learning, the moral development of students, adjusting
to society, and building the quality of schools (Ambarita; et al, 2016).

30
Furthermore, according Sergiovanni (2003, as a cited in Ambarita; et la, 2016), the purpose academic
supervision are:

(1) Implementation of academic supervision to assist in developing and understanding

professional teachers, the teaching and learning process, and developing skills and techniques
in teaching;

(2) Monitoring the teaching and learning processes in schools;

(3) Encouraging teachers in implementing the ability to do the task of teaching, committed to
their duties and responsibilities.

McQuarrie and Wood (1991) stated that the purpose of supervision is to assist and support teachers in
adapting, adopting and improving teaching practice and applying it in the classroom. Then, Wanzare
and Da Costa (2000) said that in order to enhance the growth of professional teachers, giving
feedback on effective classroom practice is the overall objective of the supervision process.

In promoting the objective of supervision, supervisors should use a variety of strategies and
methodologies of supervision for each teacher, thus creating an effective process of supervision and
creating fun learning for students as well. Many experts of education argued that this is caused by
some differences in teachers’ backgrounds, experience, the ability to think abstractly and level of
concern (Beach & Reinhartz, 2000; Glickman et la, 1998; Wiles and Bondi, 1996).
Therefore, the effectiveness of supervision should conform to the characteristics and contexts of
teacher differences by using the most appropriate framework. On the other hand, Sergiovanni &
Starratt (1998) found that the regulatory process can use a variety of appropriate styles, but it does not
easily fit in a short time considering the needs and preferences of different teachers in the regulatory
process.

2.9 Approaches to Educational Supervision.

Authors in the field identified six approaches for educational supervision. These are directive
supervision, alternative supervision, collaborative supervision, and non-directive supervision, self-
help-explorative and creative supervision (MoE, 1987). These models are discussed as follows:

31
In directive supervision, the supervisor shows the ‘best’ teaching methodology for the teacher and
then evaluate whether or not the teacher used this methodology in the classroom.

The drawbacks of this model are, there is no evidence that indicated methodology is best or not;
teachers remain inactive; and teachers lack self-confidence.

In alternative supervision, the supervisor conducts class observation. After class observation, the
supervisors show other alternative for the teacher, considering the method use by the teacher as one
alternative. Thus, the supervisor does not enforce the teacher to follow one best method. Rather he
/she motivate the teacher to consider other alternatives.

In collaborative supervision, both the teacher and the supervisor actively participate and discusses
together to solve the problem in the teaching learning process. In this approach, the willingness of the
teacher to work together with the supervisor is very important.

In non-direct supervision, the supervisor is expected to listen and respect the opinion of the teacher.
The supervisor should explain ideas for the teacher and seek reasonable justification from the teacher.
This model helps avoid self-defending by teachers. While using this method for inexperience teacher,
care should be taken.

In self-help-explorative supervision, the teachers and supervisor continuously work together, until the
supervisor believes that the teacher achieved and intended objective. This approach tries to narrow the
gap between the supervisor and the teacher.

The creative supervision approach believes in creativeness and use of various supervision methods.
This can be achieved by integrating various supervisory approaches; not limiting supervisory
activities for one individual (supervisor); and using methods that are effective in other fields.

Related Researches

Based on research conducted by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) he results of their findings are that the
success in the implementation of supervision is influenced by several alternative approaches that can
improve teacher professional such as mentoring , peer coaching, peer assessment, portfolios, and
action research. Kutsyurba (2003) said that the application of a different approach to supervision has a
important role, not only providing a choice to the teacher but also providing options for administrators
and schools.

32
Categories of approach are often used in supervision are clinical supervision, collaborative
supervision (peer coaching, cognitive coaching, and mentoring), self-reflection (self-direction
development), professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso & Firth, 1990; Clarke, 1995; Poole,
1994; Renihan, 2002; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007; Zepeda 2007).

2.9.1 Clinical Supervision

According to Sergiovanni and Starrtta (1998) clinical supervision is conducted to help improve their
professionalism face-to face. Clinical supervision is a process of supervision that is structured and
systematically conducted face to face directly between teachers and supervisors with the purpose of
improving the ability of teachers to teacher in the classroom (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Snow-
Gorono (2008) the purpose of clinical supervision is to give support and help teachers develop their
oen skills and gradually become more independent.
Goldhammer, Anderson and Kwrajewski (1980) suggested nine characteristics of clinical supervision
as follows:
1. Became one with technology in improving teaching
2. A deliberate intervention in the learning process

3. Focus on the goal, which is to combine the objectives of the school with teachers’ personal needs

4. The working relationship between the teacher and supervisor

5. Trusting, understanding, supporting and commitment to progress together

6. Flexible systematic effort and changing methodologies continuously

7. Creating a creative condition to sustain the discrepancy between the real and ideal situation

8. The supervisor must be competent

9. The supervisor needs training

33
According to Nola, Hawkes, and Francis (1993, as cited in Kutsyuruba, 2003) clinical
supervision can be considered effective if it includes several themes, including: (a) in order to
develop a good cooperative relationship between the teacher and the supervisor it should be
based on trust, respect, and mutuality; (b) controlling the teacher is the result of supervision;
(c) supervisor control over the selection of supervision that shows teachers’ teaching
practices; (d) the process of supervision continues developing from time to time; € the
supervisor gives instruction, information, nonjudgmental observations to the teacher; (f) both
teachers and supervisors take part in reflective practice.

2.9.2 Collaborative Supervision

In modern schools in this period, collaborative and collegial work has become very
important. Based on Burke and Fessler (1983, as cited in Tesfaw TA; Hofman RH, 2012), a
collaborative approach with teachers is the main focus in the supervision process. In the
process of supervision, a collaborative approach is created to help new teacher to know a new
environment, both the school environment and teaching environment, assisted by teachers
who are experienced. So, experienced teachers have the responsibility ethically and
professionally in providing any kind supervision which is needed by beginning teachers. In
addition, Kutsyuruba (2003) said that a collaborative culture that builds the teacher at school
can increase and improve the professional growth.

According Hosack- Curlin (1993, as cited in Kutsyuruba, 2003) the guidance created by the
collaboration between supervisiors and teachers can significantly obtain chages in increasing
skills in managing the class. This collaboration can be utilized yb teachers to provide input or
support to each other through the feedback given which purposes to repair (Burke &Strarrat,
1983). The main function of supervision using a collaborative approach is specifically to help
beginning teachers through peer coaching, cognitive coaching ad mentoring (Showers &
Joyce, 1996; Sullivan &Glanz, 2002; Uzat, 1998; Sergiovanni&Starratt, 2007 etc.

2.9.3. Peer Coaching /Supervision

Giving by Beach and Reinhartz (2000 peer coaching is the process of collaboration
supervision given for the purpose of improving instruction by way of pairs or small groups
through the alternating observation of the teachers who were teaching.
34
Meanwhile, Sulliivan and Glanz (2000), argued that the process of cooperation among fellow
teachers to improve the ways in teaching and gain new skills in teaching can be generated
through acquisition and curriculum development.

For beginner teachers, the peer coaching supervision process has a very important role. The
findings that were presented by Hosack –Curlin (1993) show that assessment by a senior
teacher or experienced teacher having competence is needed in the supervision of new
teachers. Thus, peer coaching is an opportunity for beginning teachers through a collaborative
process, taking part in decision making, and providing feedback directly to improve and
repair teaching skills. (Bowman &McCorkick, 2000; Sulliven&Glanz, 2000). As explained
by Sergiovanni and Sarratt (2007), the purpose of the pocess of tranining is to develop
community learning ttthrrrough collaboration and respect for each other, studying together
and learining diligently. So when the teacher studies diligently the service for students is
more effective. In the implementation of developing professionalism, the teacher should be
ready for the implementation of peer coaching and for selecting the appropriate team to
support each other (Kutsyuruba, 2003).
2.9.4 Cognitive Coaching
According to Costa and Garmston (1994) cognitive development is a process that is built in a
non-judgmental way through conference planning, observation, and a conference that
reflects. The goal of cognitive development is improving existing practices, while the purpose
of peer coaching is more focused on innovation in the implementation of the curriculum
(Rain & Joyce, 1996). Beach and Reinhartz (2000) stated that in the implementation of
cognitive coaching, there are some techniques in pairing partners, such as a teacher paired
with teachers, the teacher with the supervisors, or a supervisor with a supervisor. However, it
can be said to be peer supervision if supervisorsare paired with a supervisor. Experts in
supervision divide three stages in cognitive development three stages: planning, supervision
of the lesson and reflections.
The basic objective of cognitive coaching according to Costa and Garmston (1994) as follow;
(1) developing and maintaining a trusting relationship; (2) fostering growth toward both
autonomous and independent behavior; and (3) promoting learning.Garmston, Linder &
Whitaker (1993) stated that the process of cognitive coaching of learning can be carried out
between the teachers with each other through trusting each other, achieving the high degree
of autonomy, ability to self-monitor and self-analysis.
35
2.9.5 Mentoring
According to Sullivan and Glanz (2000) a supervision process performed by an experienced
teacher (mentor) to the beginning teachers aims to facilitate and enhance collaborative
learning without judgment, so teacher’s performance in the classroom can be improved.
Through the mentoring process in order to help beginning teachers to know the school
environment, school culture and the real process of learning in the classroom, this is a major
focus in supervision undertaken collaboratively (Sergiovanni&Starratt, 2007). Meanwhile,
according to Murray and Mazur (2009) in the process of mentoring, senior teachers in the
same school are designated as mentors for beginning teachers. Thus, it is acollaboration
between a beginning teacher with an experienced teacher (Murray and Mazur, 2009).

2.9.6 Self-Reflection

The occurrence of a change in the educational context is often the case that creates the
responsibility of teachers to improve behavior and professionalism, which aims to reflect all
the changes that have occurred and the efforts made by teachers systematically in improving
the professionalism of teaching. This approach is more suitable for teachers who prefer to
work along or even because of schedule and other difficulties, which mean the teacher cannot
work together with other teachers (Glatthorn, 1990). The process of self-reflection has
become one of the alternative uses of time which is more efficient, less expensive, has the
absence of excessive demands and does not depend on the same people (Sergiovanni and
Starratt, 2007).

Then Glatthorn (1990) added that capacity building is an option for teachers in promoting and
developing their own teacher professional goals; in achieving the objectives they find their
own resources, create and plan the steps in determining these objectives. This approach is in
accordance with the teachers who are able and experienced in managing time will
(Sergiovanni&Starratt, 2007).
2.9.7 Portfolio
In order to increase and develop professionalism, a teacher should have an active role in their
own supervision. So they need possession of process evaluation (Kutsyruba, 2003). A
portfolio of learning is the most effective way that can be carried out by teachers in applying
practices (Painter, 2010).
36
The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, in giving incentives and teacher
certification for performance and professionalism, use portfolios that they make. In
evaluating teachers, many institutions such as schools use portfolios (Wolf, 2006).
A portfolio of learning is a collection of document information about a teacher’s teaching
practice. The portfolio is an interesting tool in the teacher evaluation process to describe the
complexity and individuality of teachers’ teaching in detail. But there are some things to
discourage the use of portfolios in supervision, the pages are too many which causes the
teachers not to master all the outcome standards for teachers, the requirements are specified
in the preparation of the portfolio and the design of an efficient evaluation system. The
preparation of these elements will increase the possibility that the evaluation system will
successfully meet the requirements of validity, reliability, and utility matters.
2.10. Models of Instructional Supervision

Writers differentiate between several models of supervision upon which educational leaders
and teachers can draw. In order to be effective, supervision policy cannot rely exclusively on
one model, but should combine their best characteristics, as each process has distinct qualities
that can contribute to teachers’ growth and development as they seek to improve instruction.

Cogan, Anderson, and Krajewski (as cited in Blase, & Blasé, 1998) classified supervision
approaches that appeared in the professional literature between 1850 and 1990 as follows:

1. Scientific management;

2. Democratic interaction approach;

3. Cooperative supervision;

4. Supervision as curriculum development;

5. Clinical supervision;

6. Group dynamics and peer emphasis;

7. Coaching and instructional supervision. (. 7)

37
Duffy (1997), however, stated that there are only two leading models of teacher supervision.
One, which dominates the literature and is seen occasionally in practice, is clinical
supervision (Goldhammer et al., 1980, 1993), where supervisors observe classroom teaching,
make notes, analyze, and share the results with the teacher, assuming that the feedback will
help the teacher improve his or her performance. The other model, found overwhelmingly in
practice and disdained in the supervision literature, is performance evaluation (Duffy, 1997),
otherwise calld administrative monitoring (Glatthorn, 1990), and is an occasional surprise
observation of classroom teaching.

Recent researches mentioned two broad models of instructional supervision that have been
very effective over the last years: differentiated and developmental types of supervision.
Differentiated supervision (Glatthorn, 1984, 1990) is an approach to supervision that provides
teachers with options about the kinds of supervisory services they are offered. It assumes that,
regardless of experiences and competence, all teachers will be involved in the three related
processes for improving instruction: teacher evaluation, staff development, and informal
observation. “The differentiated system builds upon …intensive development (or clinical
supervision), cooperative development, and self-directed development” (Glatttthorn, 1990, p.
179).

Suhertian (2000) groupeeedfourrr models of supervision; conventional models (traditional),

scientiiific models, clinical models and artistic models. 24
2.10.1 Conventional Model
In implementing the conventional model, the supervisors find the faults of teachers. The
supervisors conduct a sudden inspection in the classroom without permission when the
teacher is teaching. This is very contrary to the purposes and principles of supervision, and its
implementation only finds fault with the teacher, giving rise to the behavior of the teachers to
be indifferent in finding innovative solutions and educational progress. According to Prosojo
and Sudiyono (2011) there are two models of traditional supervision: direct supervision and
indirect supervision. Direct supervision is conducted by direct supervision of the teachers
who are teaching through pre- observation and post-observation procedures, and indirect
supervision is carried out through sudden testing, case discussion, and questionnaires

38
2.10.2 Scientific Supervision

Supervision of a scientific nature can be characterized as follows:

a. Implementation is more planned and continuous

b. Systematically using procedures and specific techniques

c. Using instruments in the collection of data

d. Objective data is obtained from the real situation

2.10.3 Clinical Supervision

This model focuses on the improvement of teachers in teaching through the systemic cycle of
planning, observation, intensive and careful analysis, so that evidence of chances is rational..
The characteristics of clinical supervision, are, among others:
a. Initiative to what will be supervised arising from the teacher instead of the supervisor

b. Supervision is conducted with full intimacy and humanity

c. The relationship between supervisors and teachers is a relation of partnership

2.10.4 Artistic Supervision

Teaching is a science that requires skill and art. In relation to his teaching duties, supervision
is an activity in education that increases knowledge, appearance and also the art of teaching
that must be controlled by an educator.

Meanwhile, Codan, Anderson, and Krajewski as cited by Kutsyuruba (2003) Classified the
supervisory approach between 1850 and 1990 as follows:

a. Scientific Management

b. Democratic interaction approach

c. Cooperative supervision
d. Supervision as curriculum development
39
e. Clinical supervision

f. Group dynamics and peer coaching

g. Coaching and supervision is instructional

Meanwhile, according to Bernard and Goodyear (2004) the model of supervision can be
categorized into four:

a. Developmental models of supervision

b. Integrated models of supervision

c. Social role model of supervision

d. System models of supervision

Then, Leddick (1994) divided the model of supervision into three, namely: (1) model of
development, (2) integrated model, and (3) the model specific orientation. Based on Rehinan
(2002) one of the latest models recommended by the experts of education is a model of
reflective supervision. Trancy’s (2008) model of supervision used is collaborative
supervision, self-reflection, and inquiry-based supervision.
2.11 The Current Practice of Educational Supervision in Sierra Leone
Education inspection was introduced into the educational system in Sierra Leone over two
centuries of after the introduction of modern (western) type of education into the contry by
Christian Missionaries. Although, available sources do not agree on a specific year, there is
evidence to believe that school inspection was for the first time introduced in the early 60s
after independence. Hence, supervision has been practiced in this country for long periods.
However, its development was not quite sound. Besides, it seemed simply changing that
terms supervision and inspection. With this in mind, the history of educational supervision
has been passed through four periods. The following table briefly indicated the development
of educational supervision in different periods as indicated.
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2.12 Techniques of Supervision

A supervisor should understand, know and implement the techniques in the implementation
of instructional supervision. This is because supervision has a role and is a very important
concept in learning problems. In the context of assisting teachers and improve learning and so
that the implementation operates effectively, the supervisor should have the technical skills in
the implementation of supervision, the skills such as the ability to apply the techniques of
supervision properly. Thus, supervisions should master the right techniques in the
implementation of the supervision order to be able to formulate the purposes of supervision.
The techniques in the implementation of supervision are divided into two, such as the
techniques of individual supervision and group supervision techniques.
Supervisors/ head teachers struggle to sort out those aspects of schooling that need to be kept
more or less uniform and those aspects that call for diversity and supervisors should match
appropriate supervisory approaches to teachers” level of development needs. Teachers can
play key role in deciding which of the options make sense to them given their needs at the
time.
According Sagala (2010: 2010) there are many techniques used by supervisors in the
implementation of supervision that aims to assist teachers in teaching and learning, both
cooperatively and individually or face to face, either directly or indirectly, or even through
the media of communication, among others:
2.12.1 Individual Supervision
According to Sagala (2010) this technique is implemented by the supervisor personally or
individually with the aim of improving the quality of teaching in schools, when there is a
Problem faced by teachers which are personal or specific and secret. This technique can be
implemented by classroom visits, classroom observations, individual meetings, visits between
classes and self-judgment.
2.12.2 Supervision by Classroom Visitation
Classroom visitations are carried out at any time in the classroom by the supervisor (the Head
Teacher, inspector or supervisor) with the aim to see or observe the implementation of the
learning process in order to collect data; the data will be used to carry out follow-up and
coaching process effectively.

41
The purpose of classroom visitation is to observe the process of learning in the classroom and
help teachers to solve problems faced. Optimizing the way teaching and learning is
completed by teachers and assisting them in fostering optimal work profession is a function
of class visitation.

2.12.3 Supervision by Classroom Observation

Observation techniques implemented to follow the course of the visit the classroom during a
lesson is conducted by the supervisor actively, and the purpose of the observation techniques
is that in the learning process effective data will be obtained regarding aspects of the situation
observed, watched and studies in the practices of learning of every educator, finding
properties that stand out and excel in each educator, finding the needs of educators in
teaching, obtaining materials and supervision programs and providing information to
strengthen and foster the integrity of the school.
In practice, there are some aspects that are observed, including; activities and efforts
undertaken by teachers and students in the learning process, learning how to use media,
mental reactions of the learners, state of media used, social and physical environment of the
school both inside and outside the school as well as supporting factors. The supervisors
typically use a checklist as an observation tool for collecting data in collecting the necessary
information more objectively about the situation in the classroom.
This can also be referred to as clinical supervision or observation. Haileselassie, (1997),
quoted clinical supervision refers to face to face contact with the supervisor and the teacher
intent of improving instructions an increasing professional growth. The supervisor takes its
Head Teacher data from the events of the classroom. The analysis of this data and the
relationship between teacher and supervisor from the program, procedures and strategies
designed to improve the students learning and improving the teacher’s classroom behavior.
Sergiovanni (1998:225) expresses clinical supervision as follows: “.The purpose of clinical
supervision is to help teachers to modify the existing patterns of teaching in ways that make
sense to them. Evaluation is, therefore, responsive to needs and services of the teacher. It is
the teacher who decides the course of a clinical supervisory cycle, the issues to be discussed
and for what purpose… The supervisor’s job, therefore, is to help the teacher select goals to
be improved and teaching issues to be illustrated and to understand better her or his
practice.
42
This emphasis on understanding provides the avenue by which more technical assistance can
give to the teacher; thus, clinical supervision involves, as well, the systematic analysis of
classroom events”.
Clinical supervision as a process for developing responsible teachers who were able to
evaluate their own instruction, who were willing to accept criticism and use it for change, and
who knew where they were headed in their own professional growth. According to, (Beach
and Reinhartz, 2000) indicated “if schools are to improve the quality of instruction, it will be
at the local building with the teacher at the heart of the improvement process (productivity
through people)”. The focus of clinical supervision is on formative evaluation, which is
intended to increase the effectiveness of ongoing educational programs. According to
(Goldhammer, 1969) proposed the following five-stage process in clinical supervision.
2.12.4 Individual Conference
This technique is implemented by teachers and supervisors through personal conversations on
ways to solve the problems faced by an educator. The aim is to increase and develop better
learning and to repair the weaknesses and faults the teacher faced. There are three types of
individual meetings, the classroom conference, office conference and casual conference.

i) Per-observation Conference
Accordingly the pre-observation conference (behavior system) provides an opportunity for
the supervisor and the teacher to establish relationship mutual trust and respect. The teacher
and supervisions get to know each other as fellow professionals. So that it is essential to the
establishment of the foundation for the observation and analysis of teaching. This approach is
most suitable because the expertise, confidence, and credibility of the supervisor clearly
outweigh information, experience, and capabilities as cited by (Glickman et .al, 1998).
To sum up, the main objective of pre observation conference should focus on establishing
teacher” acceptance and agreement. To this end, teachers together with their supervisors have
much opportunity in discussing and deciding on the purpose, criteria, frequency, procedures,
instruments and follow up activities prior to the actual classroom observation.

43
 ii) Observation in the Classroom

In this stage the supervisors observes the teacher at work during formal lesson. Observation
creates opportunities for the supervisor to help her/his test reality, the reality of his/her own
perceptions and judgments about teaching. To this end, (Acheson and Gall, 1997) agree that
the selection of an observation instrument will help sharpen the teacher’s thinking about
instruction. Indeed (Goldhammer, 1980) proposes, “If supervisors were to spend more of
their energy in the classroom visits followed by helpful conference, we believe that teacher
would probably have more friendly attitudes toward supervision”. There is no other equally
important choice than classroom visits for the betterment of instructions. Classroom
observation is a valuable means to obtain first-hand information and experience of the
classroom atmosphere.
iii) Analysis of the Observation
As soon as the observation has been conducted, the supervisor organizes their observation
datainto clear discipline for feedback to the teacher. Collect, analyze, and present data
gathered during classroom observations for post observation conferences, with the goal of
strengthening instruction to improve student achievement (Glickman, 2000 and Zepeda,
2007).

iv) Post-observation Conference

In this stage the major purpose of supervisor is to give feedback to the teacher about the
teacher’s performance. Research demonstrates that teachers are likely to change their
instructional behaviors on their own after their classroom has been described to them by a
supervisor. Whether or not any positive change occurs depends on the quality of feedback
that is provided.

v) Post-conference Analysis
The final phase in the clinical model is an evaluation of the process and outcome. It is a
means of self-improvement for the supervisor. It is the time when the supervisor assesses the
nature of communication during conference, the effectiveness of the strategies use, the role of
the teacher during the conference and the extent to which progress was made on the issue that
were discussed. In supporting this stage, the supervisor must see his role as trying to help
teachers achieve purpose in more effective and efficient way.
44
Many of instructional supervisors do not use this as a means of inputs for themselves for the
next stage of clinical supervision and did not evaluate the all processes that have been
conducted before. So, from the researcher” point of view, supervisors should tip out the main
gaps from what have been observed and conduct further study on the improvement of
specified gaps.

In this case, it is possible to argue that clinical supervision is a supervisory approach which
helps to improve the professional practice of teachers so that they can meet the professional
standards set by the school community.

2.12.5 Collegial Supervision

Several authors in the field of supervision propose collegial processes as options for
supervision of teachers (Sergiovanni and Starratt, 1998). They describes cooperative
professional development as a process of fostering teacher growth through systematic
collaboration with peers observations and feedback, and action research projects. Supervisors
help to coordinate the collegial teams and monitor that process and goal attainment. Other
terms that describe forms of collegial supervision include mentoring, cognitive coaching, and
peer coaching. In this option supervisor’s role is that of active participation in working with
the teacher. It can start with the lesson planning phase and goes through the whole process of
teaching learning process. The supervisor and the teacher can engage in a sort of action
research whereby they pose a hypothesis experiment and implement strategies towards
reasoned solutions. Gebhard, quoting Cogan, states that teaching in mostly a problem-
solving process that requires a sharing of ideas between the teacher and the supervisor.

2.21.6 Informal Supervision

Informal supervision is comprised of causal encounters that occur between supervisors and
teachers and is characterized by frequent informal visits to teacher’s classroom; conversation
with teachers about their work and other informal activities. Typically no appointments are
made and classroom visits re not announced. In selecting additional options, supervisors
should accommodate teacher preferences and honor them in nearly every case, (Sergiovanni
and Starrratt. 2002).

45
2.12.7 Self- Directive Supervision
Self-directed supervision is another current model of supervision (Sergiovanni and Starratt,
1993). In this approach, teachers set goals of their own professional development and present
a plan for achieving these goals to a supervisor. At the end of a specified period of time, the
teacher and supervisor conference to review data that represents the teacher’s work toward
the goal and reflect upon what was learned before setting a new set of goals. Others refer to
this as goal-setting or performance-objectives models. This model describes idea of helping
the teacher is seen as one that makes the supervisor as a “Know- all” and the supervisee as a
seeker of help. Other researcher, (Fanselow, 1990) starts by exploring amore reasoned
method of benefiting a teacher is training. He proposes that teachers should try to see
teaching differently by observing others teach or discussing their own teaching with others.
Thus concludes that whereas the usual aim of observation and supervision is to help or
evaluate the person being seen, the aim the author prose is self-exploration, seeing one’s own
teaching differently, observing others or ourselves to see teaching differently is not the same
as being told what to do by others. Observing to explore is a process; observing to help or
evaluate is providing a product.
2.12.8 Prospects of Instructional Supervision
A more humanistic explanation of supervision was given by (Beach and Reinhartz, 2000) in
which instructional supervision needed to be viewed as a process that centers on instruction
and provides teachers with feedback on their teaching so as to strengthen instructional skills
to improve performance. Thus, the purpose of instructional supervision is to focus on
teachers” instructional improvement which, in turn, improves student academic achievement.
2.12.9 Inter-visitation
The advantage of this technique is that teachers have the opportunity to observe other
colleagues who are teaching, get new experiences both in techniques and teaching methods in
the classroom, providing motivation for teaching activities and creating an atmosphere of
fairness in an informal discussion about the problems encountered. Visits between classes can
be done internally, namely the visit is carried out in the same school, and externally i.e. visits
to other school.
46
2.12.10.self Evaluation
One of the actions or the most difficult duty conducted by leaders, especially for a teacher is
to carry out an assessment of himself by looking at his own ability in presenting the lesson
material. To measure the ability in teaching, we can examine the ability of the leaners and
also self-assessment is a technique that can help teachers in maximizing teacher.

2.12.11 Group Supervision

According to Saheritian (2008) this supervision technique is conducted jointly in order to
develop teachers by supervisors with a number of teachers in a group such as meetings with
teachers study group of teacher’s discussions workshops and the exchange of experience
between teachers.
Group technique supervision is carried out by the supervisor together with a number of
teachers in one group. This grouping is based on problems experienced by teachers so that
they are given appropriate supervision service. Some forms of supervision techniques that are
used in the group, include teacher meeting, discussions, seminars, workshops, symposiums,
and others.
2.13 Supervision and Inspection
According to Ojelabi (1981) inspection can be described as a critical examination and as a
way to evaluate in schools. Through the process of inspection comes required relevant
suggestions and feedback to improve the quality of schools. Again, according to
NgalimPurwanto (1987) in one way of inspection conducted by inspectors in supervising
teachers in the work, the inspectors verify whether teachers are doing the work in accordance
with the instructions. Inspections are also referred to as a traditional form of supervision,
namely the method of managing the school that occurred in the 19 th century (Sullivan
&Glanz, 2000).
In conducting their duties, inspectors put more emphasis on the weaknesses and the shortages
of teachers when teaching (Glanz, 1998). FurthemoreDaresh (2006) stated that inspectors try
to mobilize all the time only to find fault in the teacher’s teaching in the classroom. In such a
model of supervision, the inspector has the responsibility to intervene immediately to
improve teacher’s performance. Teachers are people who are responsible for the mechanisms
that occur during the learning process in the classroom.
47
The fundamental difference between supervision and inspection is the purpose. The purpose
of inspection is to check how far the plan has been implemented or whether the work has
been carried out in accordance with the instructions of the inspectors, and whether it was in
accordance with the purposes and objectives of the learning process. The objectives of the
inspection system are all elements of the school, ranging from students, teachers, classrooms,
and other facilities, while the purpose of supervision to provide assistance, guidance to
teachers in improving professionalism in the classroom, so in the implementation of teachers
working professionally. The goal of the system of supervision is more focused on teachers
and other education staff.
2.14 Major Functions of Instructional Supervision in Creating Effective Educational
Organizations
Many scholars like William H. Burton and B.M. Harris as cited in (Million, 2010) they have
identified three main tasks of supervision; Instructional improvement, professional
development and curriculum development.
2.14.1 Instruction Improvement
One of the major components of supervision is the improvement of instruction (Beach and
Reinhartz, 2000; Glickman, 1998; Sergiovanni and Starratt, 1998). For instruction to
improve, staff development, self-evaluation, and fostering curriculum development must be
included in the supervisory processes. According to (Zepeda, 1997) supervision is “linking
the facilitation of human growth to that of achieving goals. One way that in which the school
as an organization can grow can be achieved through teacher development. According to the
literature, there are four key strategies for enhancing the professional growth of teachers
which include: First, the creation and subsequent administrative support of and provision
guidance for a systematic, ongoing staff development program supported by modeling,
coaching, and collaborative problem solving should focus on means of linking new
knowledge, on way of thinking, and on practice given existing knowledge, experience, and
values (Glickman et al., 1997)
Time needs to be provided for teachers to undertake professional development as part of their
normal teaching responsibilities. Second, argue that teachers need to engage, both
individually and in group, in the concrete tasks of teaching, observation, assessment,
experimentation, and pedagogical reflection.
48
In this way they will better understand the learning and development process given their
teaching contexts and students. Third, given the wide variety of supervisory techniques
described, supervisors should match appropriate supervisory approaches to teachers” level of
development needs.
The ultimate goal of supervisors should be to enable teachers to be self-directed (Glickman et
al., 1997). Fourth, organizational leaders should work to establish a culture that values
professional, collegial interactions among participants (e.g., team planning, sharing,
evaluation, and learning to create methods for peer review of practice). In doing so, they
promote the spread of ideas and shared learning. There exist many different avenues for
providing direct assistance to teachers for the improvement of instruction. According to
(Zepeda and Ponticell, 1998), teachers” perceptions of supervision were positive when
supervision was viewed as coaching. They reported the value of coaching as such: What was
coaching? The supervisor worked alongside the teacher, providing assistance while the
teacher addressed his or her classroom concerns. The supervisor took as interest in the
teacher’s accomplishments during the process of change and improvement.
The supervisor provided evidence of success together with guidance to enable the teacher to
build upon success. The supervisor was invested in the individual teacher’s success. The
supervisor was responsive to the individual teacher’s needs and recognized that the
supervisor’s interactions with the teacher influenced the teacher’s success. Coaching in its
purest form is composed of planning, observing instruction, and reflecting the basic phases of
all instructional supervisory models. One can glean that the goal of coaching is to assist
teachers in becoming more resourceful, informed, and skillful professionals. Another scholar
stated that, “Skillful cognitive coaches apply specific strategies to enhance another person
perceptions, decisions, and intellectual functions. Changing these inner thought processes is a
prerequisite to improving overt behaviors that, in turn, enhance student learning”.
2.14.2 Teaching Staff Development
The quality of student learning is directly related to the quality of classroom instruction.
Therefore, one of the most important aspects of instructional leadership is to provide the
necessary climate to promote ongoing instructional improvement.

49
Supervisor is responsible to identity the training needs of the teachers and organize in-service
program is the form of work shop, seminars, conference, faculty meeting, intra school and
inter school visits and other service are useful to be utilized, so as to realize effective staff
professional development and supervision manual (MOE, 1994). According to (Sergiovanni
and Starratt, 1998) stated, “since teachers often will not know-how to do what needs to be
done, it is important for a supervisors to identify their needs and then to in-service them in the
some ways”. According to, (Travers, 1995) proposed the name of training is stuff
development, which primarily aim to increase the knowledge and skills of teachers and staff
members and thereby increase the potential of the school to attain its goals and objects on the
other hand, staff development programs must be predicted on the beliefs that; the school
system delivers quality education through quality of its staff and Teacher in a continuous
learning process. What is more, (Travers, 1995) lists benefits that staff development programs
can offer to the teacher, which are as follow; to update skills and knowledge in a subject area,
to keep abreast of societal demands, to become acquainted with research on new methods of
teaching and to become equipped with the advances in instructional materials and equipment.
To accomplish the instructional improvement, the instructional supervisors must be able to
plan and deliver effective staff development programs. The supervisor needs to insure that
staff development efforts have the appropriate financial resources; adequate time set aside to
plan, conduct, and implement the programs; and time for staff to practice the new skills.
Further, teachers need the verbal support and physical attendance at sessions by the
supervisors to verify their commitment. Teachers should be involved in the identification of
their own staff development needs. They must be involved in the planning and delivery of
staff development activities to gain the greatest acceptance. Collaboration of teachers and
supervisors will enhance the staff development program and lead to improved student
learning. Stuff development program and lead to improved student learning. Staff
development programs need to be comprehensive and continuous programs that are carefully
designed for personal and organizational growth.
The activities should be founded upon strong theoretical, conceptual, or research bases. The
information must be related to practice with ample opportunities provided for modeling and
coaching. Professional training sessions developed for teachers must be consistent with adult
learning theory. A well-planned and administered staff development program may be one of
the most critical factors in the improvement of instruction and subsequently in the increase in
student learning are carefully designed for personal and organizational growth.
50
Taking this reality in mind, there is almost an agreement among those researchers and
educator that staff development is a main component of the supervision, state that;
developing teachers; educational competences is the main aims of supervision. According to
(MOE 2008) staff development list as one of the major function of instructional supervision.
Accordingly, any experience that enlarges teachers knowledge skills appreciation and
understanding of his her work falls under the domain of staff development.
In general at school level teaching staff development should meet the need of both the
individual teacher and educational system. Staff development at school level is highly
important. The main reason is that per service training has become an introduction to teaching
profession. The complete teacher is developed through experience.
2.14.3 Curriculum Development
Curriculum development and improvement is another function of school supervisions.
Having this in mind (beach and Reinhartz 2000), stated that the filed of
curriculum/instruction is directly related to the field of supervision. As the above author put it
once curriculum is created we need to look at to supervise how it is being delivered.
Supervisor became curriculum specialists devoting extraordinary amounts of time rewriting
redefining and strengthening the curriculum much of the refinement consisted of
individualizing instruction, modifying curriculum, and production of new curriculum guides.
Another scholar, suggested by becoming stakeholder in the curriculum development process
teachers begin to recognized as it one of the vital ingredients of the instruction life of school
and individual classroom. Supervisor role in curriculum development is to promote teacher
reflection on key components and to select appropriate concepts to be taught and the method
for implementation. Supervisor and teachers must work to understand the many facets
involved in planning and how there facets impact every day instruction and student
achievement. In effective schools where there is a strong emphasis on learning and positive
student outcomes, head teachers play an important role.
Thus instructional supervisors have to work effectively for effective implementation of the
system.
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The need to know how instructional supervision should be implemented, by whom it is
carried out, the way they perceive, its purpose and effect on the teaching learning process.
In general, instructional supervisor are resource personnel who provide support to help
directly to the teacher to correct or improve some existing deficiencies in the education
system in specific curriculum in particular.
2.15 Supervisory Leadership Skills
Like other professionals, instructional supervisor should apply some required skills in their
field of work i.e. in the supervisory activities. As stated from different literatures, (Glickman,
2004) educational supervision requires necessary professional skills in helping and guiding
teachers as ultimate end to increase opportunity and the capacity of schools to contribute
more effectively students academic success. thus, according to them, the important skills that
the educational supervisors should posses are:
2.15. Human Relation/interpersonal skills:
These skills consist of the ability to understand the feeling of others and interact with them
positively for harmonious and peaceful environment of the working area. Attention has to be
given for such skills, because it results success if good relation of supervisor and teachers
achieved and causes failure if bad relation is attained (Lowery cited in million, 2010).from
supervisor position, he further argued that it is in humanistic relations that the supervisor
plays a key role in initiating people to work effectively and efficiently together. The
supervisor as a leader must have strong interest and concern for the human welfare who work
in the organization. For this reason, supervisor ought to have an understanding of the
principles of humanism that best sweet them in day-today relationship with teachers. As, dull
cited I (Gashaw, 2008) visualize humanism as “being genuine, caring, and talents to helping
others”. Thus, supervisors need to establish a worm, congenial, human relationship with
teachers and seek to develop a social and educational climate that fosters excellence in all
aspects of school program. Conversely, developing educational and social climate only would
not strengthen teachers-supervisors intimacy. Hence, supervisors have to leader for teachers’
voice and give appropriate recognition enhancing teachers’ performance. In relation to this
Eckles et al. cited in (Gashaw, 2008) workers may have a better solution to a problem than
the supervisor has.

52
So, the instruction supervisor should listen to suggestions regardless of how rushed he or she
may be. Listening provides with recognition. If the supervisor listens, workers will that their
ideas or suggestions are important. On the other hand regarding recognizing ones work
Eckles et al. cited in (Gashaw, 2008) points, works usually want to be recognized for the
ability to do the work better. Nevertheless, if a supervisor neglect them and shut the door the
loss in initiation and serious morale problem can develop.
2.15.2. Conceptual Skills:
A conceptual skill formulates the ideas, understand abstract relationship, develop ideals, and
problem solving creativity. Meaning a supervisor has to be a resource person (Allen, 1998).
He has to have conception as such on policies proclamations and guidelines those different
activities to be led. He/she have to be a creative person to perform the task effectively and
tackles problem to facilitate situations. Thus, supervisor in this respect need to have
conceptual skills for effective practices of supervision. As, Betts cited in (Gashaw, 2008) “A
supervisors needs reasonableness, judgment, and acute mind with plenty of common sense
quick witted, able to distinguish between major and minor problems, apportioning sufficient
item to deal with each problem and understand clearly the many and varied written and
spoken instructions and be able to pass an information clearly to a number of different types
of subordinates”. According to (Ayalew Shibeshi, 1999) this skills relate to the ability to see
the “totalpicture” how different part of the organization fit together and depend on each other,
and how acing in one part of the organization can influence a change in another part.
2.15.3. Technical Skills

This skill consists of knowledge and ability to perform effectively a specific process,
practices, or techniques required of specific jobs in an organization. Thus, as Mosley cited in
(Gashaw, 2008) the supervisors need to have enough of these skills to perceive that their day-
to-day operations are performing effectively i.e.; this skills involves processes or technical
knowledge and proficiency of a specific area. In education, technical skills refers to know and
understand how the process and techniques which enable teachers to perform a given task
during the teaching-learning process. For this reason, instructional supervisors need to
competency about technical skills. In this way Chandan cited in (Gashaw, 2008) this skills is
“a skill basically involves the use of knowledge, method, and techniques in performing a job
effectively”.

53
 So the supervisors can play the role of instructional leadership in promoting teacher
development and building professionals community among teachers that lead them to
effective school workers”. Having this in mind, other scholars emphasized this idea,
(Gashaw, 2004) with identifying three types of technical skills required for effective
supervisory performances.

2.15.4. Assessing and planning Skills:

Assessing involves determining where the supervisor and his/her staff have been and where
currently they are. Whereas, planning involves deciding where the supervisor i.e., his/her
staff want to reach the final destination. In doing so, assessing and planning skills are very
crucial to supervisor in setting goals, activities for him/her as well as teachers.

2.15.5. Observing skills:

Observing seems simple that anyone with normal visions appear to be observing every
moment his/her eyes are open. But, observation according to (Glickman, 2004) is two- part
process that involves first describing what has been seen and then interpreting what it means.
Since the goal of supervision is enhancing teachers tough and commitment about improving
the classroom and the school protices, observation should be used as base of information
(Sargiovanni and Starrat. 2002). To sum up supervisors should have required observation
skill competency that help them measure what is happening in the classroom and
instructional practice, to understand teachers perception toward the practice and finally to
judge as well as to infer those happenings and practices.

2.15.6. Research and Evaluation Skills:

As head teacher, one must critically question the success of the instructional programs and
determine what changes need to occur. According to, (Glickman, 1990) cautions that
decisions about instructional changes should be made from a base of comprehensive and
credible data about students and that those affected most directly by instructional change
[i.e., teachers] should be involved in defining. Implementing and interpreting the research and
evaluation agenda. A comprehensive evaluation can provide information regarding the
success of instructional programs, but evaluation outcomes vary and it is important to
recognize that the outcome will determine which type of evaluation will be implemented. To
this end. (Glickman, 1990) outlines the functions of three kinds of evaluations.

54
 The trust worthiness or implementation evaluation basically examines whether the program
took place as planned; the product or outcome evaluation determines achievement of
objectives; and the serendipitous evaluation examines unforeseen consequences. It is
important to selects instruments that measure what it is that you want to assess, keeping in
mind that decisions regarding instructional change should be made using multiple sources of
data.

2.15.7. Qualities of good instructional supervisor:

A supervisor in his own capacity is regard as an instructional leader. He is expected to

perform functions and to fulfill the expectations, aspirations, needs and demands of the
society in which he/she operates. For a supervisor to be successful; He/she needs to possess
certain qualities that will put him over those under his supervision; He/she must be true to his
own ideals at the same time flexible , loyal, and respectful of the beliefs, right and dignity of
those around him; in the same vein, he/she must be prepared for opposition but should handle
opposition but should handle opposition without malice; in the final analysis, a good
supervisor must be honest, firm, approachable ready to help people solve their problem and
maintain a relaxing atmosphere that would encourage, stimulate, and inspire people around
him to work harmoniously. Finally, the supervisor must be up-to date in knowledge of
psychology of learning and principles of education since such knowledge greatly influences
the effectiveness of instruction as (Hammock & Robert 2005).

2.16 Problems of instructional Supervision

According to (Bernard and Goodyear, 1998) stated that a supervisor will not be able to carry
out instructional evaluation effectively if He/she is not well qualified and trained in
techniques of evaluation; a sound update knowledge of the subject matter, a good organizing
skills, and ready to accept teachers idea and interest. Scholars, (Danielson and McGreal,
2000) cited limited supervisor experience and lack of skills as being problem in teacher
supervision. He also reported that supervisors did not have enough training in providing
constructive feedback while maintaining relationships. According to, (Cogan, 1973), one of
the most important factors that affect supervision effectiveness is the “unqualified,
ambivalent relation of teachers to supervisors”. He goes on to say “… teachers as a whole
saw the supervisor’s job as to effectively bar himself from many areas of direct action with
the teachers out of fear of arousing resentment and distrust”.

55
2.17 Perception of Teachers towards instructional supervision

Supervision of instruction involves “motivating the teacher to explore new instructional

strategies. The teacher must be made aware of the educational goals and standards to be
implemented. The observed must be objective during the observation process and maintain
confidentiality. It is also important for the observer to provide positive feedback and
appropriate resources for the teacher to utilize. Classroom observation or supervision is seen
as a way of gathering information for appraisal purposes. In this way classroom supervision
also improves the quality of children’s education by improving the teacher’s effectiveness.

According to Alemayehu (2008) the implementation of supervision which was carried out in
schools in the 18th century were focused on inspection and control teachers, according to
Fraser (1980) in a study of supervision and teacher satisfaction, the attitude of teachers to
supervision influence improving the learning process. Without the awareness of the
importance of teachers in improving the supervision of professional teachers and student’s
progress then the supervision practices will not bring the desired benefits.

Based on Kindsvatter and wilen (1982) in practice the implementation of the supervision and
observation in substance can cause anxiety and fear in teachers. The same was said by
Haileselassie (1997); the implementation of supervision conducted in Ethiopia shows that frar
and hatred was felt by teachers when supervised; they assumed the bias of historical
supervision toward the evaluation or inspection. Some literature about the perception of
supervision stated that teachers felt they got more challenges from experienced teachers. In
the career of teaching, challenges and responsibilities are high and difficult to be faced by
people who have little or low experience in teaching (Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon,
1998) so that about 30 percent left the profession as a teacher in the first two years of
teaching (Casey & Mitchell, 1996). Sergiovanni and starrat (1998) argued that in filling out
the form of evaluation, a teacher who has slight experience assumes that supervision has a
low of both benefit and value.

Meanwhile, according to Gunawan (2011), in Indonesia basically teachers do not feel anxious
and afraid or hate the implementation of supervision, but they do not like the style of the
supervisor. The supervisor is seen as an authoritarian just liking for the faults of the teachers
and the supervisor considers himself having a more honorable position than a teacher.

56
The negative perceptions that emerged as a result of the implementation of the conventional
models of supervision (inspection) were: it caused felt threatened in every meeting with the
supervisor, and there was a negative perception of the role of supervisors who were not
motivated to develop the capacity of teachers.

2.18 Relationship between supervision and teacher professional development

Teachers have an essential role in the process of promoting and achieving success.
It can be said that the teachers are the human resources that determine the success of learning.
Teacher education is an element that is very closely associated with learners in their daily
educational efforts in schools and is very decisive in achieving the objectives of leaner’s.
Therefore, enhancing the professional teachers should be an important concern in improving
the quality of education.
Danim (2012:44) defined teachers as professional educators whose primary task of the
teacher will work effectively if a teacher has the ability to teach in a professional manner that
is reflected in the competencies, proficiency or skill, certain or specific ethical norm.
Despite the fact that the government and society have a role in promoting and improving the
quality of education, this burdens teachers into a central role in advancing the quality of
education. Therefore, teachers are required to work professionally. To encourage teachers as
professionals, the teacher should be assisted in every encounter and when facing problems in
the learning process. In supporting teachers to solve their problems the government has
developed instructional supervision.
According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) efforts to assist teachers in developing and
improving teacher’s knowledge, teaching skills and the ability to make professional decisions
is the purpose of supervision. Zepeda (2007) argues that in developing the professional
teacher evaluation should be in a close relationship with instructional supervision. That is
through a variety of instruction supervision approaches so that this can be the link between
learning and development professional supervision. Instruction supervision approaches
include using clinical supervision, peer evaluation, cognitive coaching mentoring and other.

57
Based on sergiovanni and starratt (2007) Nolan and hoover (2008) instructional supervision is
a program implemented in schools that serves for developing, directing, and increasing the
capacity of teachers in the learning process with the aim to assist students in learning.
Instructional supervision should be carried out continuously in teacher improvement efforts
in accordance with the methods and skills that continue with update to make the teachers
professionals and more importantly teacher professional development efforts. (Anderson &
Snyder, 1998; carter , 2001; Zepeda 2007)
One essential element in the education system is the development teachers professionalism. A
professional teacher should be able in the improvement of teaching methods classroom
management skills adaption to the needs of students and be able to build a culture of learning
as well. (wanzare Da costa 2000)
McQuarried and wood’s (1991) data of supervision is indispensable and it is used in the
planning development and improvement of professional teachers. This instructional
supervision program is one of the steps in forming the professionalism of teachers to be
teachers. But in practice until now there fare teachers who have not yet realized the
importance of supervision. There are still many teachers who consider that the supervision is
carried out to look for errors in teachers, so there are also teachers who feel fear when
supervised. This assumption should be eliminated, given the purpose of supervision is to help
teachers to solve problems encounter in the classroom. Supervision is conducted by the
supervisor at the school, the head teacher or senior teacher.

2.19 Functions of Instructional supervisors

2.19.1 Planning
According to (De Grauwe, 2001 a:94). Supervisors usually prepare annual and monthly plan
and provide the head office for approval. In addition, (Certo, 2006:7 indicated that some
supervisors accomplished tasks planned by their superiors.
2.19.2 School visits
Visiting schools for pedagogical and administrative purpose is the task of instructional
supervisors. This task made clear by the specifying the number of schools visited and the
number of times each school visited.

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Similarly it is indicated that school visits are the main instruments to necessarily perform the
activities of supervisor (De Grauwe, 2001 a:36) likewise, it is indicated that visiting of
schools and teachers is the most important task of supervisors to do their actual supervision
(UNCESO 2007:9.
On the other hand (De Grauwe, 2001 a:130) indicated that both teachers and head teachers
appreciated school visits for different purposes. For head teachers, teacher supervision not
only ensures teacher discipline but also asserts head teachers autonomy. However, teachers
feel that it help them in arguing change in the way the school functions.
Follow up of school visits helps to check the implementation of recommendations given
however, the lack of follow up is a problem up visits are undertaken after a long time and are
superficial. Further, it is indicated that recommendations made in inspection reports and
address to the administrative and or pedagogical authorities remains “the words in the wind’’
which frustrates the school staff as well as the supervisors. Supervisors however indicated
that fellow up visits are planned but not implemented because of some practical problems like
lack of transportation (De Grauwe, 2001a:123)
However, it is indicated that in many countries school visits are indicated insufficient because
of various problems such as lack funds lack of transport and unscheduled meetings and
workshops. As (De Grauwe 2001a:94) indicated, many visits take place unplanned and many
planned visits cannot be held as for seen. For example in Botswana, school visits are
indicated inadequate. Similarly study conducted by sri lanka association for the advancement
of education (SLAAED) in 1993 indicated that ever after the establishment of clusters system
school visits remained low.
Ones the instructional supervisors are in the school they are responsible for three different but
complementary tasks. These are (i) to control and evaluate; (ii)to give support and advice;
and (iii) to act as a liaison agent (UNESCO, 2007:7)

2.19.3 control
Instructional supervisors are responsible for monitoring the performance of teachers and
making the corrections when necessary. However, they are not expected to enforce employee
to accept rather motivate and enable them to solve the problem by themselves (Certo, 2006:9

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Literatures indicated that instructional supervision play two major roles. First, it helps
maintain certain common patterns even though each school is unique second it encourages
change the however, this is the theoretical and supervisors practically focus on control and
provide no support for change and development. Further, it is indicated that supervision focus
on both teachers performance and administrative efficiency.
In many countries, controlling of pedagogical activities is an important of the instructional
supervisors and also an integral part of teacher promotion system. For example in Belgium
each inspect has to prepare 180 reports concerning the individual teacher behavior based on
the class visit (UNESCO 2007:8
In spite of their position educational supervisor at all levels are responsible for monitoring
and controlling whether or not the schools are functioning based on the prescribed rules
regulations guidelines and standards. Similarly (UNESCO 1994) indicated that supervisor are
responsible for monitoring and controlling activities such as teachers discipline and
performance of school directors. According to (UNESCO 2012:3) controlling as a function of
supervisors is not enforcing it is monitoring compliance requirements and providing
feedbacks.
In is indicated that in developing countries supervision of material inputs gets priority over
human inputs because of the deteriorated school infrastructure (UNESCO 2007:9)
traditionally, quality parameters prescribed from outside and imposed on school and emphasis
was given for control. However, it is indicated that, control without support cannot lead to
quality improvement.

2.19.4 Support
Instructional supervisor are expected to identify and solve the problems that the employee
facing before the problem deteriorate their performance. They are also responsible to give
clear direction and make sure that the employees have fully understood their tasks (Certo,
2006:11).
Usually supervisors wear two or other hats to include all or some of the following activities
arranged in ascending order
1. Mentoring or providing indication for beginning teachers.

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2. Bringing individual teachers up to the minimum standards.

3. Improving the competency of the individual teacher.

4. Working in collaboration with teachers to improve learning.
5. Working with group of teachers to adopt the local curriculum and at the same time bring
the local curriculum in line with state and national standards.
6. Relating teachers” effort to improve their teaching to the larger goals of school wide
improvement in the service of quality learning for all children.
Further, it is indicated that, the supervisor is expected to participate in the classroom
teaching, as it help expose him or her to the actual situation: to design change and to bring
improvement in the functioning of the teachers. The supervisor is expected to ensure the
quality of learning and the development of every child in the school. “If classroom teaching
has to be child centered”, (Govinda and Tapan, 1999:28) asked,” should not, the supervision
be?” The job description of many educational supervisors included many support related
tasks, like in service training and demonstration lesson (Carron et al. 1998:27). Similarly,
identifying the skill gap and giving the capacity building training for school Head Teachers
and teachers is among the responsibilities of supervisors at different levels. Indicating the
biases of the supervision towards administrative controls and its ineffectiveness in the past,
(UNESCO, 1994:30) noted the importance of providing technical support. As (Ahmed, 1998)
cited in (Gashaw, 2008:23) indicated that cluster supervisors provide support in the form of
demonstration, facilitating experience sharing and action research and this can improve the
quality of teaching and learning. Generally, it is indicated that, to be effective the supervisors
are expected to truly supportive as traditional fault finding not improve the quality of
teaching and learning (De Grauwe, 2001b:66).
2.19.5 Linking
Supervisors are expected to provide accurate and timely information for managers and at
the same time give clear direction for the employee. Thus, they serve as a “linking pin”
between employee and management (Certo, 2006:10). Similarly it is indicated that,
supervisors are expected to link both vertically and horizontally.

61
Vertically, they provide information for the ministry or its representatives at local level
regarding the needs and realities in the school and inform schools about the norms and
rules set from the top. Horizontally, they identify and spread new ideas among schools and
facilitate interaction among schools (MoE, 2012:3). Linking as a role of supervisors directly
and indirectly indicated as one responsibility of supervisors (De Grauwe, 2001a:35; MoE,
2000e, C: 45; BGREG, 2003 E.C.:35).

On the other hand, (De Grawe, 2001a:35) indicated that, supervisors are expected to
accomplish many and intricate tasks and summarized as control, support, linking and some
administrative tasks not grouped in to control and support such as payment of teachers
salary. Likewise (Carron et al., 1998:27) pointed out the involvement of supervisors in
support, administrative tasks and even in the collection of data and information. Further,
Carron et al. indicated the participation of supervisors in teacher promotion and discipline
for example in Nepal and criticized that, such an employer employee relationship makes it
difficult to turn supervisors in to teachers’ “guides and councilors”. Similarly, after examining
job descriptions of supervisors in three different countries (Assistant Basic Education Officer
in Uttar Pradesh, School Supervisor I in Trinidad and Tobago and Primary School Inspector in
Tanzania) it is indicated that, the job descriptions of supervisors are generally characterized
by an overload of responsibilities, dispersion of tasks and inclusion of activities that have
little relationships to the main functions of supervisors (UNESCO, 2007:6).
As different literatures stated that, linking school/clusters with different stakeholders are
significant to solve many problems like that of financial and material scarcity, problems
related with student discipline, lack of awareness of the community about the policy and
with these regards instructional supervisors play a role on encouraging model parents and
NGOs to actively participate in the school.

2.19.6 Writing Reports

In many countries emphasis is given for writing report. For example, a circular by the Chief
Education Officer in Zambia states that, report is “the only means by which the ministry gets
to know about the state o f education provision in the schools” (De Grauwe, 2001a:116).
Supervision reports have the following advantages on the education system. First, they lead
to the allocation of resources to schools and within schools. Second, at national level, they
are used to obtain external assistance from funding agencies.

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In addition, they are used as a sensing mechanism of what is going on that lead to corrective
activities (De Grauwe 2011b:283) also keeping the record of various activities and them
reporting to education office regularly and any time when required is among the various
responsibilities of cluster supervisors.
Scholars (carron et al. 1998:27) indicated that reports are written in a number of copies. For
instance, in Sri lank supervisors prepare reports in three copies (for school the higher
authority and one kept in the office of the supervisor) further Carron et al. indicated that
superiors evaluate the supervisors based on the volume of the report they write.
However, supervisors claim that writing report for every school visit is time consuming.
Supporting this literature indicated that this might incite supervisors to spend more time
writing reports to the detriment of the actual visit. To solves this problem, for example in
Namibia supervisors are recommended three months summary reports (De Grauwe
2001a:116)

2.20 factors that affect instructional supervisory practice in school

Instructional supervision is the service provided to help teachers in order to facilitate their
own professional development so that the goals of the school might be better attained.
However, there are several factors which tend to militate against effective supervision of
instruction schools. Among the challenges the following can be mentioned.

2.20.1 Teacher Perception of Instructional Supervision:

Instructional supervision aims at improving the quality of education by improving the each
effectiveness. As fraser cited in (Lilian 2007) the improvement of the teaching learning
process is dependent upon teacher attitudes towards supervision. Unless teachers perceive
supervision as a process of promoting professional growth and student learning the supervisor
exercise will not have the desired effect.
The need for discussing the lesson observed by the teacher and he supervisor is also seen as
vital. Classroom observation appears to work best if set in a cycle of preparation observation
and feedback, hence the need for the supervisor and supervisee to work hand in hand before
and even after the observation process. In dong all these teachers must feel that the supervisor
is there to serve them and to help them become more effective (Lilian 2007)

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Various activities push teachers to perceive supervision in negative aspect. In line with this,
researcher by UNSCO, 2007) pointed that bitter complaints about supervisor’s work further
include irregular and bad planning of visits, not enough time spent in the classrooms and
irrelevant advice. All this does not mean that teacher do not recognize the positive effects of
supervisory work but rather that, in their opinion, the problem with supervisors is mainly an
attitudinal one. In addition, teachers were also strongly dislike the classic fault finding
approach and expect supervisors to treat them as professionals and into account the specific
realities of the school when providing advice.
Similarly research has revealed on the area of instructional supervision in primary schools of
different regions and zones of our country have shown that all of the studies examine
supervisors techniques supervisory procedure, supervisory leadership style and skill and
major function supervision. The studies found that supervisory techniques procedures and
skill of supervisors are inefficient to improve the quality of teachers and the achievement of
learners. Furthermore, supervisors are not putting the necessary effort in providing in service
training to enhance teachers effectiveness (Chanyalew, 2005; Getachew 2001; million, 2010
and Desalegn 2012)
To sum up teacher perception of supervision is valuable to improve instruction since the
objective of supervision is to improve teacher competence, it is important to consider teacher
perception of supervision.
2.20.2 Lack of adequate Training and support:
Supervisors need continuous and sufficient training to carry out their responsibility
effectively. Training programs of supervisors aimed at providing necessary skills for
supervisors and make them better equipped at doing their job. As alhammad cited in
(Abdulkareem, 2001) lack of training for supervisors weak relationship between teachers and
supervisor and lack of support for supervisors from higher offices affect the supervisory
practice in the school. In line with this (merga 2007) pointed out lack of continuous training
system for supervisors to update their educational knowledge and skills is obstacle of the
practice of supervision.
To conclude, training helps to improve the supervisor performance by teaching the basic
knowledge and technique demanded to do it. It also helps to develop the supervisor capacity
to fulfill new responsibilities arising from technical and other changes which might affect his
job.

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2.20.3 Teacher-Supervisory Relationship

It is believed that the beginning teachers are to be closely supervised and helped by senior teachers.
In line with this (Pajak, 2002) indicated that a good supervisor is one which is capable of
communicating with his subordinate in order to provide necessary guidelines and assistance to them
for professional improvement. In order to infuse new ideas in the teaching-learning process, the
supervisor is supposed to observe and communicate rapidly to see the effectiveness of the teachers.
To minimize factors that affect supervisory practice, supervisors better to make supervisory activities
professional and they well communicate with teachers about the objective of instructional
supervision to improve the teaching learning activities.

To sum up, the impeding factors of supervisory activities believed to be reduced by making
supervisory activities professional, well financed and communicated by creating awareness on
teachers and supervisors about the objective of school based supervision which is a device to help
teachers to improve the teaching learning activities.

2.20.3 Position of School Head Teacher and Superintendent in Implementation of Supervision

According to Rahman (2006), the Head Teacher is a teacher (functional offices) appointed to
structural positions (Head Teachers) in school. Further, according Wahjosumidjo (2010) the Head
Teacher is a functional staff of teachers who are given the duty to lead a school where there are
organized learning processes, or where there is interaction between teachers who advise and
students who are instructed.

2.21.1 Tasks and Roles of School Head Teacher

In order to develop and promote the quality of education, the Head Teacher should conduct the
duties and the roles professionally. According to Mulyana (2004) the tasks and the fundamental role
of a Head Teacher is divided into seven: Head Teacher as an educator, manager, administrator,
supervisor, leader, innovator, and as a motivators. Meanwhile, according to Neagley, as cited in Made
Pidarta (1997) the ten tasks of a supervisor include: developing a curriculum, organizing teaching,
preparing teaching staff, preparing learning facilities, preparing educational materials, organizing
upgrading-services teacher training, providing consultation and fostering faculty members,
coordinating services to the students, developing a relationship with the community, and assessing
teaching.

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While, according to Asmani (2012) briefly, the tasks or the Head Teachers role as a supervisor are as
followers:

1. Making a plan of the annual program which includes: teaching programs, student affairs, finance,
and providing the necessary facilities.
2. Creating academic programs focusing on the preparation of teachers. This program includes the
provision of the needs of teachers, teaching duties, and the provision of various support facilities.
3. Making a program related to the students, including student recruitment, student selection system
=, the number of student s accepted, the providing of a new class.
4. Creating a program in the field of personnel, including reception of help teachers, holding a
program to support the competency of teachers or school staff, such as training and workshops.
5. planning for the procurement and administration of education programs, including the granting of
salary and proposing additional funding
6. Planning for infrastructure programs, which includes improvements and addition to school
facilities and infrastructure

2.21.2 Implementation of Supervision of the School Head Teacher

Basically supervision is a service provided by the School Head teacher in order to help teachers and
employee to be professionals in their duties. The school head teacher gives guidance.
According to the Minister of Basic Education Sierra Leone on school standards, one of the school
head teacher duties is to carry out supervision of education to educators that include the planning of
supervision programs aimed at improving the professionalism of teachers using the right approach in
the process of supervision carrying out follow-up results of supervision. Through the regulation of
the school head teacher as an academic supervisor the head teacher has to master the concepts of
academic supervision covering terms of supervision, the purpose and function of supervision
principles of supervision and the dimensions of academic supervision and can implement academic
supervision in accordance with the expected goals.

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2.21.3 Tasks of Supervision

According to Whiles and Bondi (2007) the principal task of the superintendent is to carry out the
evaluation, supervision and guidance to teachers through the functions of supervision, supervision
both academic and managerial supervision. Sudjana (2004) stated that there are three principal tasks
and functions of a basic superintendent in the implementation of their duties.
1. Conducting the promotion and development of the quality of schools, the performance of the Head
Teacher performance and performance of all the school staff

2. Carrying out an evaluation and mentoring in the implementation and development of the school
program

3. Conducting an assessment of the process and results of the program implemented collaborative
with school parties.

Meanwhile, Ofsted (2003) suggested that there are six basic tasks of school superintendents:
inspecting, advising, monitoring, reporting, coordinating and performing leadership. The main task
are of inspecting the supervisor in charge of Head Teacher supervising, teacher performance, and the
performance of the school staff. The superintendent also monitors the implementation of the
curriculum, implementation of learning, the availability and utilization of resources, school
management, and the aspects that are concerned such as moral judgment moral education and
cooperation with the community. Then the main tasks in the field of the advising superintendent: the
superintendent is entitled to give advice on the school system, effective learning, education of
management, and provide advice related to the participation of parents and school committee in
education.

The superintendent is in charge with the main task of monitoring the quality standard of education,
accepting new students, the student learning process and results of the implementation of tests,
teacher meetings and school staff. In addition the supervisor also monitors the leadership of the school
with the community, statistical data on school progress and development programs of the school. The
superintendent has the main task to report on the development and results of monitoring to the
department of education, society, and reporting to the school under the jurisdiction. And then the task
of the coordinating superintendent is to coordinate the resources that exist in schools, human
resources, material and school finances.

67
Supervision also coordinate all activities between schools, activities for Head Teachers, teachers and
other school staff, and coordinate the implementation of the innovation activities of the school. 34

The last, in the main tasks associated with performing leadership, the superintendent is engaged in the
leadership development of quality resources in school under the jurisdiction, development of school
innovation, and participation in leading educational managerial activities.

2.21.4 Roles of Superintendent in Implementing Supervision

According to Pandong (2003) a supervisory unit of education is a functional officer who serves as
technical executor to carry out supervision of specific schools in order to improve the quality of
teaching and guidance to achieve the goal. Position supervisors can be divided into three units based
on their level of education, superintendent for the level of early childhood education, primary level
and secondary school level. In one county or city a school superintendent is headed by a coordinator
of supervisors in the education unit (Muid, 2003).

In performing its duties, the supervisors play a role in helping the difficulties of teachers in teacher.
The supervisor is not a person whose job is to find fault with the teacher. According to Olivia (1984)
in the role of supervisor there are four things; (a) as a coordinator, a supervisor role in coordinating
the programs that have been created and preparing the materials needed in order to improve the
performance of teachers in the learning and making a report on the implementation of the program;
(b) as a consultant, the supervisor, must be an expert in curriculum, teaching methods, and the
development of staff, so that the supervisor can help the teacher individually or in groups; (c) as the
leader of the group, the supervisor should have the ability in leadership, understand the dynamics of
the group, and create group activities; and (d) as evaluators, supervisors should be able to provide
help teachers through the evaluation of learning and the curriculum, and should be able to identify the
problems faced by teachers, help conduct research and development of learning.

Similarly, Wiles and Bondi (1986) argued that there are eight competencies required by supervisors in
carrying out their role, as developers of people, curriculum developers, instructional specialists,
human relations workers, staff developers, administrators, managers of change, and evaluators. Some
basic competencies and capabilities must be owned by a supervisor in achieving their role, both
substantive competence and process.

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Competence process includes planning, implement, evaluation and follow-up while the
substantive competence puts more emphasis on understanding and ownership of teachers of the
learning objectives, the perception of teachers to students, knowledge of materials and teach
mastery of the methods of teaching.
Glatthorn (1990) added that the competencies required byy supervisor are with regard to the
nature of teaching, the nature of adult development, and the characteristics of god and effective
school. In relation to the nature of learning there are several variables who influence must be
understood by the super . first organizational factors; emphasis on organizational culture and
professionals in educational institutions. Second, with regard to the personality of the teacher,
the teacher knowledge the ability of make planning and decision making motivation, stages of
development and maturity skills of teachers.
Their related to learning support systems such as curriculum, texts and exams. Four there are
the characters of students in class.

Fig 2.1 Pre-Requisite Dimension for a supervisor

Interpersonal skills Technical skills

Knowledge
Source: Glickman et al (2004) p. 129
2.22 conceptual framework
2.22.1 self accelerated professional growth
Supervision is a continual process that allows teachers the opportunity to facilitate their own
professional growth. Each teacher is an individual with a set of preferences and perceptions
that cause specific behaviours in different situations. Each school as an organization is
relatively unique with its own peculiar professional context

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The changing situational character of schools, or “contingency theory” (Hanson, 2003) is
currently coming to be understood as a key to effective educational administration. A
contingency view of supervision is based on the premise that teachers are different and that
matching supervisory options to these differences is important (Sergiovanni & starratt,
1998). In choosing a supervision method, “teachers play key roles in deciding which of the
options make most sense to them given their needs at the time” (p. 252). The process gives
teachers the support and knowledge they need to change themselves in order to grow
professionally.
The conceptual framework model (see Figure 2), shows that supervision is a cyclical process.
Depending on the professional context for instructional supervision, beginning teachers and
supervisors collaboratively select between approaches to formative supervision. The
formative process is developmental in nature and incorporates the ideals of developmental
supervision model (Glickman et a1., 1998). It is aimed at assisting beginning teachers to
become effective and to constantly improve (Poole, 1994).

The summative process involves evaluation as a means of judgmental appraisal to measure

professional growth of beginning teachers (Wareing, 1990). Supervision and evaluation are
viewed as separate activities (STF, 2002). Teacher evaluation is viewed as a critical function
of administration, but systematic evaluation of teacher performance remains separate from
supervision (Glatthorn, 1990).

Sergiovannia and Starratt (1998) suggested that teachers may choose between collaboration
with supervisors or peers and self-reflection paths in supervision. Once the collaborative
path is chosen, teachers can select from many supervision approaches including: clinical
supervision (Goldhammer et a1., 1993), cognitive coaching (Costa & Garmston, 1994), peer
coaching (Showers & Joyce, 1996), and mentoring (Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 199). Clinical
supervision is a three-step process consisting of a preconference, an observation, and a post-
conference. Cognitive coaching allows teachers to ask questions to explore thinking behind
their practices. In peer coaching, teachers work collaboratively in pairs and small teams or
cohorts, in which the coach provides feedback to teachers to help them to reach their
professional goals. Mentoring provides the opportunity for experienced educator (mentor)
to work with a novice or less experienced teacher (prote’ge’) collaboratively and non-
judgmental to study and deliberate on ways instruction in the classroom may be improved.
Some teachers prefer to be supervised by a self –reflective process.

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 Self-reflection path can involve self evaluation (Glatthorn 1990,) portfolios (Sullivan &
Glanz, 2000b) and professional growth plans (fenwik, 2001)
Teachers using self- evaluation work alone and are responsible for their own professional
growth. In the portifolio approach, teachers collect information from their student colleagues
or themselves about their teaching. In professional growth plans teacher reflect on their
instructional and professional goals and become more active participants in the assessment
process by describing intended outcomes and plans for achieving the goals.
Instructional Supervision

Professional Context

Inspectorial/summative
Developmental/ Formative

Evaluation
Collaboration Self- Reflection

Administrative Self-Assessment
monitoring
Clinical Supervision Cognitive coaching
Report writing Checklist
Peer coaching Monitoring

Professional Portfolios MAIN GOAL

Growth plan
Summative/final decision
accountability
MAIN GOAL Improvement
Professional Of
development
Instruction

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Teacher
Reflection
As can be seen from figure 1, the supervisory process remains developmental, considering
teacher levels of development (Glatthorn 1900, Glickman et al. 1998) at the conclusion of the
formative supervision process, beginning teachers should experience professional growth and
an improvement in their ability to reflect on reflect on aspects of their teaching performance.
Parallel to formative process, summative evaluation is used to measure the extent of
professional growth and development of beginning teachers for the purposes of retention.

2.22.2 Reasons for appraisal failure

Organization use different rating skills to conduct performance appraisal of their employee. It
is important that human factor is free from the element of subjectivity and should be
reasonable objective and accurate in the assessment. The following are some of the failures.
(Cole, 1991)
1. Central tendency: some appraiser rates all their personnel within a narrow range. In
other words there is the tendency that most employees are appraised closer to the
middle of the performance scale.
2. Unclear Standards: different appraisers may derive different meaning from the
phrases good performance, fail performance and so on. Aside these trats such as
quality of work creativity or integrity may carry different meanings for different
appraisers.
3. Hallo effect: is a situation in appraisal where the appraiser turn to assign the same
rating or level to each factor for an employee. If appraisers like certain employee
better than other this can influence the rating they give for example, racial, sexual ,
religious and other biase results in unfavourable considerations for promotion and
pay.
4. Lack of feedback: feedback is the extend to which an individual receives direct and
clear information about how effectively he or she is performing on the job. When he
or she receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is
performing on the job is termed feedback. Internal rewards are obtained by
individuals when they learn (knowledge of results) that they personally experienced
responsibility) have performed well on task that they care about (experienced
meaningfulness) as must as these three psychological states are present the greater
will be employees motivation, performance and job satisfaction and the lower their
absenteeism and likelihood of leaving the organization. Productive and total quality
experts have reached the conclusion that the need of the hours is to work smarter, not
harder.

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 No doubt sound education and appropriate skill training are needed if one is one is to work
smarter but the process does not end there. Employees of person era need instructive and
supportive feedback and designed rewards if they are to translate their knowledge into
improved productivity and superior quality. The importance of feedback can better be
understood by carefully examining the following diagram. Unfortunately in most of the
public sector organizations no positive feedback is given to the employers to improve their
performance. Mostly negative feedback is given to harass or punish the employees. Negative
feedback is typically misperceived or reject. Feedback needs to be tailords to the recipient
cole(1991

Figure 2.3 conceptual feedback model on job performance.

Behavioural outcomes
Sources of feedback Recipients
of feedback
Other employees Perception
Direction
Task Cognitive evaluation
Efforts
Self Of feedback
Persistence

Resistance

Source: Tailor et al (19984)

The model shows that employees receive feedback from different sources. The recipient is
required to screen feedback received. People evaluate factors such as accuracy and credibility
of the source. The most critical factor in feedback is whether it is negative or positive. It is
importance consider the ultimate impact of the feedback on the employee’s motivation and
behavior.
2.22.3 Determinants of Job performance
From the figure below, the determinants of job performance are: capacity to perform
opportunity to perform and the willingness to perform. Capacity relates to the degree to
which an individual processes task related skill, abilities knowledge and experiences.
Opportunity on the other hand is the availability of chance to perform but poor decisions and
outdated attitudes may prove to be an obstacke for an employee to lack performance. In the
figure the third factor is willingness. This relates to the degree to which an individual desires
and is willing to exert effort towards attaining job performance which is also motivation to
employees

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No combination of capacity and opportunity will result in high performance in the absent of
some level of motivation or willingness to perform.

Figure 2.4: Determinants of Job performance

J.P J.P………. Job Performance

C.P: Capacity to Perform

C.P O.P O.P: Opportunity to perform

W. P: Willingness to perform
W.P

Source: Journal of Managerial sciences. Volume 1 number 2

2.23 summary
Many scholars have studied the topic of supervision in recent years, and they came to the
conclusion that no unified model of supervision has been developed. It has been defined in
different ways by different authors depending on their disciplinary area. While some school
of thought attempt to equate supervision to administration of schools, other perceive it as the
act of instructing people to get a job done. Supervision may be a blend of these two extreme
observations. Having analyzed several models in this review it can be stated that a synthesis
of different types and styles of supervision such as clinical collaborative, developmental and
self-directed can provide a firm ground for effective instruction. From the various literatures
on the study it showed clearly that the term supervision is generic. Supervision can also
ensure the personal and professional development of teacher professional development is
depended on the appropriate supervision approach, and can benefit from its. Inspectorial
supervision is the creation of an enabling environment where staffs can freely interact. From
the foregoing supervision is not just about the position one occupied in an organization or the
delivery of instructions to satisfy the achievement of educational system objective but rather
the activities one perform in order to enhance teaching and learning in the education

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Conversely, supervision is viewed as a collaborative process between the supervisors and teachers.
Collaborative supervision is premised on participation by equals in making instructional decisions
(Glickman et al., 1998).

Teachers and administrators need to join in an effort to achieve the best results in teacher
professional growth. Effective supervisors have to ensure a constructive atmosphere during the
supervisory process, allow teachers to choose the appropriate model or combination of different
types, and value the professional dialogue that occurs. Supervisors can utilize a variety of approaches
to evaluate and improve teachers’ performance. Performance was also seen as the production of
valid results. For supervision to have effect on performance, supervisors must ensure job satisfaction
at work. Also employees need to be appraised annually to identify the weakness or strength of staff
to give a clue to how the supervisee should be helped. This has been the desire of all supervisors at
the directorate.

Supervision can also be conducted internally and externally. Along with traditional models of
supervision, alternative approaches proved to be very successful in professional growth and
development of teachers. The majority of techniques at present can be referred to as collaborative in
nature. They emphasize collegiality and mutual help and interaction of teachers eager instructionally
and professionally improve and develop. Teacher’s level of development must also be considered in
order to provide appropriate approaches. Individual professional needs of the teachers should guide
the choice of supervisory practices. Beginning and experienced teachers should be treated with the
proper approaches. Individual professionals needs of the teachers should guide the choice of
supervisory practices. Beginning and experienced teachers should be treated with the proper
approaches. It is supervisors responsibility to facilitate the professional growth by analyzing needs of
each individual through cooperative communication with them. The supervisor role is to know where
teachers are in the continuum of professional development and to provide the right framework and
accountability for their growth (ogden, 1998)

Supervisor and teacher need to work as a team of professionals being conscious of the goal of
supervision which in the improvement of learning and classroom instruction. Supervision has to be
the glu that hold the school together, that is a join collaborative effort between the teachers and
supervisors. The planning and administration of effect staff development programs should be
grounded in and guided by research and best practice (wood & Thompson 1993

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Such a foundation should result in staff development that promotes school improvement, a school
climate and culture supportive of change and individual and instructional professional leaning. The
instruction supervision of teachers can and should be an important component of an effective
comprehensive teacher professional development program.

Conclusion drawn from the literature review reveled that supervision has great potential to
improving staff performance through the creation of an interactive environment conducive enough
for work.

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 CHAPTER THREE
THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Instructional supervision is an interactive process that depends on the source of
supervision the supervisor and teach. Therefore assessing the Effects and challenges of
instructional supervision is important in implementing successful supervision
(Abdulkareem, 2001) thus the purpose of instructional supervision is to facus on teacher
instructional improvement which is turn improves student academic achievement.
The purpose of the study was to examine the actual and ideal effects and challenges of
head teacher instructional supervision practices in pupils performance in NPSE in 20
primary schools in Makeni in the Bombali District to supervision , their perceived
connection to professional development and possible remedy in selected primary schools
in Makeni Bombali district. In this chapter the research design data collection process and
data analysis procedures are presented.

3.1 The Research Design

Exploring a multi faceted process such aas supervision of teachers requires a
methodology that is adaptable and sensitive to variables that influence beginning teachers
perceptions of supervisory practices in the Bombali district and Sierra Leone generally. It
is difficult to fully explore the concept of supervision solely through one research method
(Nolan et al, 1993) therefore the research design exployed both a qualitative and a
quantitative method to seek out and describe the teacher perceptions and preferences
regarding supervisory effects in order easily mapout the various challenges faced by both
parties and the effect on the supervisors and the supervisees.

Quantitative research designs are well suited for identifying general trends in pupulations
(Gall Borg, & Gall 1996) quantitative research can be defined as inquiry that is grounded
in the assumption that feature of the social environment constitute an object reality that is
relatively constant across time and settings. The dominant methodology is to describe and
explain feature of this reality by collection numerical data on observable behaviours of
samples and by and by subjecting this data to statistical analysis (Gall et al 1996 p. 767)

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Qualitative inquiry, on the other hand is a method of research that describes events and
occurrences without the use of numbers and investigates the poorly understood territories
of human interactions (Glesne 1999).
For Densin and Lincoln (1994) qualitative research is multiple methods in focus”
involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter (p2). Qualitative
researchers seek to describe and understand the process that create the patterns of human
terrain (Glesne 1999 p 193) and study things in their natural settings attempting to make
sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them (Denzin &
Lincoln 1994 p. 2) given that both quantitative and qualitative types of research are
different in nature, the question may arise whether one approach is better than the other
and whether they produce conflicting data. Gall et al. (1996) state, that qualitative and
quantitative research can complement each other by playing the respective roles of
discovery and confirmation
Particulary descriptive survey research design was employed with the assumption that it
is helpful to obtain sufficient information from large number of respondents and to
describe the prevailing in school factors and opinions related to the ongoing
implementation of instructional supervision. It also helps to draw valid general.
conclusions

3.2. The Study Area

The target population for this study included all beginning teachers of 20 primary schools
namely: Bombail District Council (BDEC): EBK University Practicing St Francis and
Ansarul Islamic) schools located in Makeni Bombali District in the Northern Region of
the Republic of Sierra Leone. Further study involved interviews with four of the
responding teachers in each country Head teachers were approached to identify beginning
teachers in the jurisdiction and to solicit their permission for the study.
According to the data from both of the department of Education and the City Council
there are primary schools managed by Christian missions, Islamic Mission , City Council
and central government in Makeni Municipality. All these categories of primary school
shave teacher supervison programs. There are two approaches of teacher supervision
applied these are the external supervision and school based (internal ) supervision.

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External school supervision is carried out by an external supervisor from either the religious
mission, government educational administration department or local authority administration
bureau while school based (internal) supervision is carried out by school Head Teachers,
deputy head teachers department heads senior teachers and teachers assigned by the school
head teacher. According to the provision of teacher supervision, teachers must be supervised
once in a school term (or trimester)

3.2 Population Sample and Sampling Technique

The population in this research is taken from 20 all primary school beginning teacher in
makeni as above stated. There were 520 teachers in this research. The sample size was
determined by using krejie’s table with margin error of 5%. The results of the table revealed
that there were 340 respondents required for this research. In order to maximize response
rate, the researcher distributed 512 questionnaires in this research, but only 326
questionnaires were retrieved. It means that the response rate was around 64 percent. The
amount of respondents fulfilled the criteria of minimum sample in using statistical methods
as an analysis tool. All teachers who submitted the questionnaires become samples of this
research. So the sample this research is 326 from 20 primary schools beginning teachers. The
researches used multistage sampling to select the sample for this research. The researcher
favoured this technique as it helps to get more representative sample from geographically
scattered participants (Koul 1984). Three stages were applied to select the sample. Firstly it
was based on school type (primary school) secondly the sample was selected based on school
status [government school (central and municipal) and private school (mission- Christian or
muslim]. Finally the researchers applied census method to distribute a questionnaire for
selected schools the researchers went to the Directorate of district education Makeni
Municipality to get research permission to gather data in the selected 20 primary schools in
Makeni city. The research permit is very important for the researchers because it is a
compulsory procedure of administration to visit and collect data in schools. Then the
researchers asked for a research permit from the secretariats of various religious mission to
visit and take data in (Christian and Muslim schools) after getting permissions ther
researchers visited all the 20 primary schools to meet the school head teachers to take data in
their school. The sample is proportional for each type of school because the schoolos are
equally divided into government schools, and private (religious/mission) schools in Makeni
municipality.

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