GRAMMAR I AND II DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS

● A sentence consists of one or more clauses. A clause consists of one or more phrases. A
phrase consists of one or more words. A word consists of one or more morphemes.
● Simple sentences: a simple sentence consists of one independent (main) clause with no
dependent (subordinate) clause. E.g.The boy cried.
● Compound sentences: a compound sentence consists of two or more independent (main)
clauses with no dependent (subordinate) clauses, usually linked by the coordinating
conjunctions such as and, but, or, etc. E.g. She works in the city but lives in the suburbs.
● Complex sentences: a complex sentence consists of one independent clause (main clause)
and, at least, one dependent (subordinate) clause and often formed by putting the
subordinating conjunctions, such as: if, before, after, because, although, when, while,
during, until, unless, etc. E.g. She became queen when her father died because she was the
eldest child.
● Compound-complex sentences: is a sentence that consists of, at least, two or more
independent (main) clauses and, at least, one dependent (subordinate) clause.E.g. I don’t like
dogs and my sister doesn’t like cats because they make her sneeze.
● A Clause is a grammatical unit that functions as one part of speech and that includes a
subject and a verb.
○ Relative clauses: they give us more information about nouns; they function as
post-mod of nouns. They always begin with a relative pronoun: who, which, whose,
that, whom. Sometimes they begin with relative adverbs: where, when.
○ Nominal clauses: a type of subordinate clause that acts in the position that usually a
NP takes.
○ Adverbial clauses: a type of clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence. They
can be introduced by sub. Conj or by non-fin verb forms (-ing, -ed, -to inf. -bare inf.)
● Pronouns:
○ Subjective case: refers to the speaker. E.g. I tell you
○ Objective case: refers to the addressee(s). E.g. I tell you
○ Possessive pronouns: replace a whole NP. E.g. This is mine.
○ Reflexive pronouns: refer back to a previous NP, usually the subject. E.g. I taught
myself.
○ Demonstrative pronouns: refer to entities which are “near to” or “away from”. E.g. this,
these, that, those.
○ Reciprocal pronouns: refer to a previous NP, but indicate that there is mutual
relationship. E.g. They know each other pretty well.
○ Indefinite pronouns: have a broad, indefinite meaning. E.g. Somebody tricked me/
That’s all I know
○ Relative pronouns: introduce a relative clause. E.g. who, that, which.
○ Interrogative pronouns: ask questions about unknown entities. E.g. What did he say?
● Verb (V): it expresses the action or state which other elements relate. The V is a VP.
● Subject (S): it denotes the doer of the action or state denoted by the V. It precedes the verb
(except in questions where the S follows the operator). The S is a NP.
● OBJECTS: they are NP.
○ Direct object (DO): it denotes the entity affected by the action of the verb. It comes
immediately after the V.
○ Indirect object (IO): it denotes people receiving sth or benefiting from the action of the V.
It only occurs after ditransitive verbs and comes before the D.O. Answer “to whom”
Complementation by a subordinate finite THAT NOMINAL CLAUSE functioning as OD (16.18)

1-FACTUAL VERB + <that clause with INDICATIVE MOOD>

PUBLIC (Speech Acts verbs introducing indirect statements)= admit – agree – announce –
argue – bet – claim – complain – confess – declare – deny – explain – guarantee – insist – mention –
object – predict – promise – reply – report – say – state – suggest – swear – warn – write.

PRIVATE (Intellectual States or Acts that are not observable)= believe – consider – decide –
doubt – expect – fear – feel – forget – guests – hear – hope – know – notice – presume – realize –
recognize – remember – see – suppose – think – understand – find (= consider).

E.g: He explained <that it had been very difficult for him>. (factual public) Past Perfect

E.g: I doubt <that we’ll ever see him again>. (factual private) Future Simple

2-SUASIVE VERBS + <that clause with PUTATIVE “should”>

with SUBJUNCTIVE (mandative)>

with INDICATIVE MOOD (Br. E.)>

(Expresses an intention to bring about some change in the future)= agree – ask – command –
decide – demand – insist – intend – move – order – prefer – propose – recommend – request –
suggest – urge – require – advise – arrange.

E.g: “They are demanding <that he should leave>” PUTATIVE “should”

“They are demanding <that he leave> PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE (base form for all persons)

“They are demanding <that he leaves> INDICATIVE MOOD

E.g: “He urged <that a referendum (should) be held by December>”

3- EMOTIVE VERBS + <that clause with INDICATIVE MOOD>

. with PUTATIVE SHOULD>

annoy – concern – marvel – rejoice – regret – surprise – wonder – worry.

E.g: “I worry <(that) he doesn’t react / should not react>” OD

E.g. “I regret <that he lies/should lie about his problem>”

4- HYPOTHESIS VERB + <that clause with HYPOTHETICAL PAST>

. with WERE or PAST SUBJUNCTIVE>

wish – suppose/supposing (imperative) – imagine – ‘d rather (modal idiom)

E.g: Suppose <(that) he was (Hypothetical Past)/were (Were-Subjunctive) > here.

E.g: I wish <I had a house>. Hypothetical Past

E.g: I wish <I were taller>. Were-Subjunctive or Past subjunctive

If I were you I’d……. (only option with Past Subjunctive)

I’d rather <he told me the truth/he were more reliable>

Compare:

I wish he were (Past subjunctive) here.

I wish he was (Hypothetical Past) here.

Compare:

To express PRESENT preference:

● I’d rather stay than leave. (bare infinitive) (same subject)

● I’d rather YOU stayed. Hypothetical Past (change of subject) Present reference (Preferiría
que te quedaras/quedases)

To express PAST preference

● I’d rather YOU had stayed Hypothetical Past Perfect

Preferiría que te hubieras/hubieses quedado

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE IN “THAT CLAUSES” AFTER:

● Verbs NECESSITY
● Adjectives PLAN
● Nouns INTENTION

*If only (Intensified equivalent of if = wish)

*As if/though (Clauses comparison)

*It’s time ….

*I’d rather (Modal idiom à (tentative politeness)

*Suppose (Imperative)

*I wish

*Open condition “Whether she be right or wrong, I won’t forgive her”

*Concession “Though he be the president, he shall hear us”

 <sub finite that nominal clause>
Verb monotransitive
OD

Public
Factual Verb in the INDICATIVE MOOD
Private

PUTATIVE “should”+ verb

Subject Suasive Verb in the Present SUBJUNCTIVE

Verb in the INDICATIVE MOOD

Verb in the HYPOTHETICAL PAST

Hypothesis (unreal Past)

WERE SUBJUNCTIVE

Verb in the INDICATIVE MOOD

Emotive
PUTATIVE SHOULD + verb

APPOSITIVE CLAUSES

Appositive comes from apposition.

↓
Apposition
↓
● Restrictive / Non-restrictive
● Apposivite clauses
● NPs
○ NP1 + NP2 (NP2 identifies the first one)
○ Co-identity of reference
○ Copular relationship

NP + NP → they become together

→ copular rel.
→ co-referential → both → same reference
→ one immediately after the other
Appositive clauses → abstract noun + that cl // to inf. cl.
→ copular rel.
→ they are nominal clauses which have a relation to the head similar to that between two np in
apposition. “The news that he was resigning his job proved to be incorrect”
→ the head of the app clause must be an abstract noun, such as fact, idea, reply, answer, appeal,
promise. “His wife tried to conceal the fact that he was seriously”. “We gratefully accepted his
promise to help us”
→ the relation of apposition can be seen if we relate the noun phrase to a subject + be +
complement. “The news was that he was resigning his job”.
→ the that-clause is a nominal clause and not a relative clause. We can show this by contrasting:
“The news that he was resigning his job proved to be incorrect”, “The news that was spreading
proved to be incorrect”
→”that” is a relative pronoun and could be replaced by “which” (“that” is the subject of the relative
clause)

Restrictive and non-restrictive apposition:

→ Non-restr: the elements in non-restr. Apposition are generally reparation by a comma, as in the
case of non-restr clauses. “I want to speak to Mr. Smith, the electrician”. “We’ll soon be able to face
that annual problem - what to give aunt Matilda for her birthday”. “She suffered from a common
misfortune at that time: having too much time and too little money”. “His main argument, that
scientific laws have no expectations, was considered absurd”.
→ Restrictive: restrictive apposition is common especially when the first element defines the
meaning of the second element. “The famous critic Paul Jones”, “My good friend Toby”, “The number
three”. “The police have been investigating a plot to kidnap a prominent diplomat”.
Sometimes the determiner is omitted.

Explicit apposition →sometimes the appositional relation is made explicit by an adverbial. “The
passenger plane of the 1880s, namely the Supersonic Jet”.
→ The second element can also exemplify the fist or it is in inclusive relation to it. In such cases, a
connecting adverb such as for example, for instance, especially, particularly, in particular, notably,
chiefly, mainly, etc is normally present. “Many famous men, for example De Gaulle, Churchill and
Roosevelt, have visited this university”.

Other types of nominal clauses do not occur as appositive clauses, but they can put in an
appositional relation with the head of the noun phrase by means of the preposition “of”: “He
made the mistake of attacking a neutral country”. Compare: “His mistake was attacking…”

(was)
Ex: “A. Einstein, the great scientist, formulated the theory of reliability in 1905”.
NP1 NP2
prop.n: head np: post mod
“the great scientist”: np in non-restrictive apposition (post modifying Albert E.)

(is)
“Julia, my sister, is getting married next summer”
proper n
head
“my sister”: np in non-restr. apposition, post mod.
“Dr. Thompson has prescribed this medicine”
Dr: np in restrictive app., pre mod

“Oroño Bv. is a very traditional…”

proper n
h
Bv: np in restr. app., post mod

“Uk health secretary Richie Sunak resigned from government”

Uk: pre mod. health sec: np in restrictive apposition, pre mod. Richie S: proper n head

“U.S guitarist Carlos Santana collapses on stage”

US guit: np in restrictive apposition. Carlos S.: proper n head

Noun ph in Apposition:
“a neighbour of yours, Fred Long, will be visiting us this evening”

(is)
“Fred Long, a neighbour of yours, will be visiting us this evening”

→Two or more NP which occur next to each other and refer to the same person are said to be in
apposition.
→The relationship expressed by apposition is the same as that expressed by a subject and its
complement (cop. relationship).