Data

Collection
Techniques
 A Classification of Data

Research Data

Secondary Data Primary Data

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Descriptive Causal

Survey Data Observational and Experimental Data

Other Data
2
 Research Data

► Primary data
Data originated by the researcher specifically to address the research problem.
► Secondary data
Data collected for some purpose other than the problem at hands. Collected
from books, journal, newspaper, published materials, internets etc.

► Examination of available secondary data is a prerequisite to the

collection of primary data. Start with secondary data. Proceed to
primary data only when the secondary data sources have been
exhausted or yield marginal returns.
Primary data: qualitative versus quantitative
research
► Qualitative research
An unstructured, primarily exploratory design based on small samples, intended
to provide insight and understanding.
► Quantitative research
Research techniques that seek to quantify data and, typically, apply some form
of statistical analysis.
Distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Objective To achieve qualitative To quantify data and
understanding of the generalize results from
underlying reasons & samples to population.
motivations.
- Exploratory Research - Conclusive Research

Sample Small number of Large number of

non-representative cases representative cases

Data Collection Unstructured Structured

Data Analysis Non-statistical Statistical
Outcome Develop an initial Recommend a final course of
understanding of the prob. action.
6
 Figure 5.2 (p. 136): A classification of Qualitative
Research
Qualitative Research
Procedures

Direct Indirect
(Nondisguised) (Disguised)

Projective
Focus Group Depth Interview Techniques

Association Completion Construction Expressive

Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques
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Focus group

A discussion conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of

respondents in an unstructured and natural manner.
Procedure
for planning
and
conducting
focus groups
Depth interview

An unstructured, direct, personal interview in which a single respondent is

probed by an experienced interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs,
attitudes and feelings on a topic.

Characteristics:
► unstructured, direct, personal interview
► A depth interview may take from 30 minutes to over an hour.
► It may occur on a one-off basis or it may unfold over a number of meetings
between an interviewer and a respondent.
 Interviews with professional people (e.g.finance directors
using banking services).
Interviews with children (e.g.attitudes towards a theme
park).
Detailed probing of the respondent (e.g.new product
development for cars).
Applications of Discussion of confidential, sensitive or embarrassing topics
(e.g. personal hygiene issues).
depth interviews Situations where strong social norms exist and where the
respondent may be easily swayed by group response
(e.g.attitudes of university students towards sports).
Detailed understanding of complicated behaviour (e.g. the
purchase of fashion or ‘high-status’goods).
Interviews with competitors, who are unlikely to reveal
the information in a group setting (e.g.travel
agents’perceptions of airline travel packages).
Situations where the product consumption experience is
sensory in nature, affecting mood states and emotions
(e.g.perfumes,bath soap).
 Projective technique

► An unstructured and indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents

to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings
regarding the issues of concern.
Projective techniques are classified as association, completion, construction and
expressive. Each of these classifications is discussed below.

1. Association techniques
A type of projective technique in which respondents are presented with a
stimulus and are asked to respond with the first thing that comes to mind.
Word association A projective technique in which respondents are presented
with a list of words, one at a time. After each word, they are asked to give the
first word that comes to mind.
 Projective technique

2. Completion technique A projective technique that requires respondents to

complete an incomplete stimulus situation.
► Sentence completion A projective technique in which respondents are presented
with a number of incomplete sentences and are asked to complete them
► Story completion A projective technique in which respondents are provided with
part of a story and are required to give the conclusion in their own words.

3. Construction technique A projective technique in which respondents are

required to construct a response in the form of a story, dialogue or description.
► Picture response technique A projective technique in which respondents are shown a
picture and are asked to tell a story describing it.
 Projective technique

► Cartoon tests Cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to

the problem. Respondents are asked to indicate the dialogue that one cartoon
character might make in response to the comment(s) of another character.

4. Expressive techniques Projective techniques in which respondents are

presented with a verbal or visual situation and are asked to relate the feelings
and attitudes of other people to the situation.
► Role playing Respondents are asked to assume the behaviour of someone else
or a specific object.
 Table 5.5 (p.158): A comparison of FG, DI &
P/techs

Focus Groups Depth Interviews Projective

Criteria Techniques
Degree of structure Relatively high Relatively medium Relatively low

Probing of individual respondents Low High Medium

Moderator bias Relatively medium Relatively high Low to high

Interpretation bias Relatively low Relatively medium Relatively high

Uncovering subconscious Low Medium to high High

information
Discovering innovative information High medium Low

Obtaining sensitive information Low Medium High

Involve unusual No To a limited extent Yes

behavior/questioning
Overall usefulness Highly useful Useful Somewhat
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useful
 Survey techniques

Techniques based upon the use of structured questionnaires given to a sample of

a population.
► Structured data
Collection and Use of a formal questionnaire that presents questions in a
prearranged order.

Fixed-response alternative questions

Questions that require respondents to choose from a set of predetermined
answers.
 Fig 6.1 (p. 174): A Classification of Survey Methods

Survey
Methods

Telephone Personal Mail Electronic

Interviewing Interviewing Interviewing Interviewing

Traditional Computer- In- Mall- Computer- Mail Mail E- Internet

Telephone Assisted Home Intercept Assisted Panel
Telephone Personal Mail
Interviewing Interviewing

MPCH6 17
Telephone interviews

Telephone interviews may be categorised as traditional or computer-assisted.

► Traditional telephone interviews
Traditional telephone interviews involve phoning a sample of respondents and
asking them a series of questions. The interviewer uses a paper questionnaire
and records the responses with a pencil.
► Computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI)
Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) uses a computerised
questionnaire administered to respondents over the telephone. A computerised
questionnaire may be administered using a networked computer or a personal
computer. The interviewer sits in front of a terminal and wears a small headset.
Personal interviews
Personal interviewing techniques may be categorised as in-home, in-office,Mall
intercept and computer-assisted.
► Personal in-home and in-office interviews
In personal in-home interviews, respondents are interviewed face-to-face in their
homes or in their workplace. The interviewer’s task is to contact the respondents, ask
the questions and record the responses.
► Mall intercept
it stops a person in a mall and asked several questions. Less expensive and popular now
a days.
► Computer-assisted personal interviews (CAPI)
In computer-assisted personal interviewing, the third form of personal interviewing, the
respondent sits in front of a computer terminal and answers a questionnaire on the
screen by using the keyboard or a mouse. There are several user-friendly electronic
packages that design relatively simple questions for the respondent to understand.
 Mail interviews

Mail interviews, the third major form of survey administration, can be conducted
via traditional mail and mail panel.
► Traditional mail interviews
In the traditional mail interview, questionnaires are mailed to preselected
potential respondents. A typical mail interview package consists of the outgoing
envelope, cover letter, questionnaire, return envelope, and possibly an
incentive.8 The respondents complete and return the questionnaires.
► Mail panels
A mail panel consists of a large, nationally representative sample of households
that have agreed to participate in periodic mail questionnaires, product tests and
telephone surveys. The households are compensated with various incentives. Mail
panels can be used to obtain information from the same respondents repeatedly.
Thus, they can be used to implement a longitudinal design.
Electronic interviewing

Electronic interviewing can be broken down into email and Internet interviews.
► E- Mail
To conduct a survey by email, a list of email addresses needs to be obtained. The
survey is written within the body of the email message and sent to respondents
► Internet
In contrast to email surveys, Internet or Web surveys use hypertext markup
language (HTML), the language of the Web, and are posted on a Website.
Respondents may be recruited online from potential respondent databases
maintained by the marketing research firm or they can be recruited by
conventional techniques (mail, telephone). Respondents are asked to go to a
particular Web location to complete the survey..
MPCH6 22
Observation techniques

Observation involves
recording the
behavioural patterns of
Quantitative *Natural observation
people, objects and
observation techniques Observing behaviour as
events in a systematic
are extensively used in it takes place in the
manner to obtain
descriptive research. environment.
information about the
phenomenon of
interest.
*Structured *Unstructured
observation: observation
*Contrived observation Observation where the :Observation that
Observing behaviour in researcher clearly involves a researcher
an artificial defines the behaviours monitoring all relevant
environment. to be observed and the phenomena, without
techniques by which specifying the details
they will be measured. in advance.
Personal observation
In personal observation, a researcher observes actual behaviour as it occurs. The
observer does not attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed
but merely records what takes place.

Electronic observation
In electronic observation, electronic devices rather than human observers record the
phenomenon being observed. The devices may or may not require the respondents’
direct participation. They are used for continuously recording ongoing behaviour for
later analysis.
Audit
In an audit, the researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing
inventory analysis. Audits have two distinguishing features. First, data are collected
personally by the researcher. Second, the data are based upon counts, usually of physical
objects.

Content analysis
Content analysis is an appropriate method when the phenomenon to be observed is
communication, rather than behaviour or physical objects. It is defined as the objective,
systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication.37 It
includes observation as well as analysis.

Trace analysis
An observation method that can be inexpensive if used creatively is trace analysis. In trace
analysis, data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behaviour. These
traces may be left by the respondents intentionally or unintentionally.