5.

MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

- Morphology is the study of external forms of organisms.
- Angiosperms are characterized by presence of roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits.
- A flowering plant has 2 main parts: Root system (underground part) and Shoot system (portion above the ground).

THE ROOT
- It is the underground part formed from radicle of embryo.
- Root systems are 3 types:
o Tap root system: It consists of primary roots (tap root) and its branches (lateral roots such as secondary roots,
tertiary roots). Seen in dicotyledons. Primary root is the elongated from radicle. E.g. Mustard plant.
o Fibrous root system: In monocotyledons, primary root is short lived and is replaced by a large number of roots. These
roots originate from the base of the stem to form fibrous root system. E.g. Wheat.
o Adventitious root system: Roots that arise from parts of the plant other than radicle. E.g. Grass, Monstera and banyan
tree.
Regions of the Root
o Root cap: It is the covering at the apex of root. It protects the tender apex of the root.
o Region of meristematic activity: Seen above the root cap. Here, the cells are very small, thin-walled and with dense
protoplasm. They divide repeatedly.
o Region of elongation: The region just above the meristematic region. Here, the cells undergo rapid elongation and
enlargement. Responsible for the growth of the root in length.
o Region of maturation: The region proximal to elongation zone. Here, the cells differentiate and mature.
o Root hairs: These are very fine, delicate, thread-like structures formed from epidermal cells in region behind region of
elongation. They absorb water and minerals from the soil.
.

THE STEM
- It is the ascending part of the axis that develops from the woody and dark brown.
plumule of the embryo of a germinating seed. Functions of stem:
- It bears branches, leaves, flowers, fruits, buds (terminal Spreading out branches bearing leaves, flowers and fruits.
or axillary), nodes and internodes. It conducts water, minerals and photosynthates.
- Nodes are the regions of the stem where leaves are born. Some stems help in food storage, support, protection and
Internodes are the portions between two nodes. vegetative propagation.
- Young stem is generally green and later often become

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 THE LEAF
- It is a lateral, flattened structure borne on the stem.
- It develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. -
- The axillary bud later develops into a branch.
- Leaves originate from shoot apical meristems and are Types of Leaves
arranged in an acropetal order. - Simple leaf: Here, leaf lamina is entire or when incised,
- They are important vegetative organs for photosynthesis. the incisions do not touch the midrib.
- A typical leaf has 3 main parts:
- Compound leaf: Here, the incisions of the lamina reach
o Leaf base: The leaf is attached to the stem by the leaf
up to the midrib breaking it into a number of leaflets.
base and may bear two lateral small leaf-like structures
- A bud is present in the axil of petiole in both simple and
called stipules. In monocotyledons, the leaf base
compound leaves, but not in the axil of leaflets of the
expands into a sheath covering the stem partially or
compound leaf.
wholly. In some leguminous plants the leaf base may
The compound leaves are 2 types.
become swollen, which is called pulvinus.
o Pinnately compound leaf: In this, a number of
o Petiole: It helps to hold the leaf blade to light. Long
leaflets are present on a common axis, the rachis,
thin flexible petioles allow leaf blades to flutter in
which represents the midrib of the leaf. E.g. neem.
wind, thereby cooling the leaf and bringing fresh air to
o Palmately compound leaf: In this, leaflets are
leaf surface.
attached at a common point (at the tip of petiole). E.g.
o Lamina (leaf blade): It is the green expanded part of
silk cotton.
the leaf with veins and veinlets. There is a middle
prominent vein called the midrib. Veins provide
rigidity to lamina and act as channels of transport for
water, minerals and food materials.
o

o
-
Phyllotaxy
It is the pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or
branch. It is 3 types:
o Alternate: In this, a single leaf arises at each node in
alternate manner. E.g. China rose, mustard & sun flower.
Venation o Opposite: In this, a pair of leaves arise at each node and
- It is the arrangement of veins and veinlets in leaf lamina. lie opposite to each other. E.g. Calotropis and guava.
- It is 2 types: - Whorled: In this, more than two leaves arise at a node
o Reticulate venation: Here, the veinlets form a - and form a whorl. E.g. Alstonia
network. It is seen in dicotyledons.
o Parallel venation: Here, the veins run parallel to each
other within a lamina. It is seen in monocotyledons.

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THE INFLORESCENCE - Calyx & corolla are accessory organs, while androecium
and gynoecium are reproductive organs.
- It the arrangement of cluster of flowers on the floral axis.
- In some flowers like lily, the calyx and corolla are not
- A flower is a modified shoot wherein the shoot apical
distinct and are termed as perianth.
meristem changes to floral meristem.
- When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is
- Internodes do not elongate and the axis gets condensed.
bisexual. A flower having either only androecium or
- The apex produces different kinds of floral appendages
only gynoecium is unisexual.
laterally at successive nodes instead of leaves.
Based on symmetry, flowers are 3 types:
- When a shoot tip transforms into a flower, it is solitary.
o Actinomorphic (radial symmetry): Here, a flower can
- Inflorescences are 2 types based on whether the apex
be divided into 2 equal radial halves in any radial plane
gets converted into a flower or continues to grow.
passing through the centre. E.g. mustard, datura, chilli.
o Racemose: In this, the main axis continues to grow.
o Zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry): Here, a flower can
Flowers are borne laterally in an acropetal succession.
be divided into two similar halves only in one particular
o Cymose: In this, the main axis terminates in a flower,
vertical plane. E.g. pea, gulmohur, bean, Cassia.
hence is limited in growth. The flowers are borne in a
basipetal order. o Asymmetric (irregular): Here, a flower cannot be divided
into two similar halves by any vertical plane passing
through the centre. E.g. canna.
Based on number of floral appendages, flowers are
classified as follows:
o Trimerous: Floral appendages are multiple of 3.
o Tetramerous: Floral appendages are multiple of 4.
o Pentamerous: Floral appendages are multiple of 5.
Based on the position of calyx, corolla and androecium in
respect of the ovary on thalamus, the flowers are 3 types:
o Hypogynous: Here, gynoecium occupies the highest
position while other parts are situated below it. The ovary
is superior. E.g., mustard, China rose & brinjal.
o Perigynous: Here, gynoecium is situated in the centre
o
and other parts of the flower are located on the rim of the
o Racemose inflorescence
thalamus almost at the same level. The ovary is half
o inferior. E.g. plum, rose, peach.
o o Epigynous: Here, the margin of thalamus grows upward
o enclosing the ovary completely and getting fused with it.
Other parts of flower arise above the ovary. The ovary is
inferior. E.g. Guava, cucumber, ray florets of sunflower.

o
THE FLOWER
- It is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms. It is meant
for sexual reproduction.
- A flower has a stalk (pedicel). Its swollen end is called
thalamus (receptacle).
- Reduced leaf found at the base of the pedicel is called Parts of a Flower
bracts. Flowers with bracts are called bracteate and a) Calyx
those without bracts, ebracteate. - It is the outermost whorl of flower. It is made of sepals.
- A typical flower has 4 kinds of whorls arranged - Generally, sepals are green, leaf like and protect the
successively on thalamus. These are calyx, corolla, flower in the bud stage.
androecium & gynoecium. - The calyx may be gamosepalous (sepals united) or

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 polysepalous (sepals free). sepals etc. When stamens are attached to petals, they are
b) Corolla epipetalous. E.g. brinjal. When stamens are attached to
- It is the whorl inner to calyx. It is composed of petals. perianth they are epiphyllous. E.g. lily.
- Petals are brightly coloured. It helps to attract insects for
pollination.
o Corolla may be gamopetalous (petals united)
or
polypetalous (petals free).
- The shape and colour of corolla vary greatly in plants.
Corolla may be tubular, bell-shaped, funnel-shaped or
wheel-shaped.
- The mode of arrangement of sepals and petals in floral
bud is called aestivation.

Types of aestivation:
o Valvate: Here, sepals or petals in a whorl just touch one
another at the margin, without overlapping. E.g.
Calotropis.
o Twisted: Here, one margin of the appendage overlaps

finger and cotton.

o Imbricate: Here, the margins of sepals or petals overlap
one another but not in any particular direction. E.g.
Cassia and gulmohur.
o Vexillary (papilionaceous): In pea & bean flowers,
there are five petals; the largest (standard) overlaps the
two lateral petals (wings) which in turn overlap the two
smallest anterior petals (keel). This type of aestivation is
known as vexillary.

c) Androecium
- It is composed of stamens.
- Each stamen which represents the male reproductive
organ consists of a stalk (filament) and an anther.
- Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has
two chambers, the pollen-sacs.
- The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs.
- A sterile stamen is called staminode.
- Stamens may be united with other whorls like petals,
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b) If the stamens in a flower are free it is called
polyandrous. If they are united it is called
synandrous. It is many types:
o Monoadelphous: Stamens are united into one bunch
or one bundle. E.g. China rose.
o Diadelphous: Stamens are united into two bundles.
E.g. pea.
o Polyadelphous: Stamens are united into more than
two bundles. E.g. citrus.
- There may be a variation in the length of filaments
within a flower. E.g. Salvia and mustard.
c) Gynoecium (Pistil)
It is the female reproductive part of the flower and is
made up of one or more carpels.
A carpel has three parts:
o Stigma: It is usually at the tip of the style and is the
receptive surface for pollen grains.
o Style: An elongated tube that connects ovary to stigma.
o Ovary: It is the enlarged basal part, on which the style
lies. Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a
flattened, cushion-like placenta.
Polycarpellary pistils (pistil with many carpels) are 2 types:
o Apocarpous: Carpels are free. E.g. lotus and rose.
o Syncarpous: Carpels are fused. E.g. mustard and tomato.
Placentation: It is the arrangement of ovules on the
placenta within the ovary. It is many types:
o Marginal: Here, the placenta forms a ridge along the
ventral suture of the ovary and the ovules are borne on
this ridge forming two rows. E.g. pea.
o Axile: Here, the placenta is axial and the ovules are
attached to it in a multilocular ovary. E.g. China rose,
tomato and lemon.
o Parietal: Here, the ovules develop on the inner wall of
the ovary or on peripheral part. Ovary is one-chambered
but it becomes two-chambered due to the formation of
the false septum. E.g. mustard and Argemone.
o Basal: Here, placenta develops at the base of ovary and
a single ovule is attached to it. E.g. sunflower, marigold.
o Free central: Here, ovules are borne on central axis and
septa are absent. E.g. Dianthus and Primrose.
After fertilisation, the ovules develop into seeds and the
ovary matures into a fruit.

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 THE FRUIT
- It is a ripened ovary developed after fertilisation.
o Pericarp (fruit wall): It may be dry or fleshy. When
- It is a characteristic feature of the flowering
pericarp is thick and fleshy, it is differentiated into
plants.
- If a fruit is formed without fertilisation of the ovary, it is
called a parthenocarpic fruit.
- In mango & coconut, the fruit is known as a drupe. They
are one seeded and develop from monocarpellary
superior ovaries.
- A fruit consists of

out
er epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner endocarp.
o Seeds
- In mango, the pericarp is well differentiated into thin
epicarp, fleshy edible mesocarp and stony hard endocarp.
- In coconut, the mesocarp is fibrous.

- It is the mature ovule developed after fertilisation. THE SEED

- A seed is made up of a seed coat and an embryo. - In plants such as bean, gram and pea, the seeds are non-
endospermous (endosperm is not seen in mature seeds).
- Embryo is made up of a radicle, an embryonal axis and
one (e.g. wheat, maize) or two cotyledons (e.g. gram &
pea).
Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed
- The outermost covering of a seed is the seed coat.
- Seed coat has 2 layers: outer testa and inner tegmen.
- The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the
developing seeds were attached to the fruit.
- Above the hilum is a small pore called the micropyle.
- Within the seed coat is the embryo, consisting of an
embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
- The cotyledons are often fleshy and full of reserve food
materials. At the two ends of the embryonal axis are
present the radicle and the plumule.
- In some seeds such as castor the endosperm formed as a
result of double fertilisation, is a food storing tissue.

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 Structure of Monocotyledonous Seed and radicle is protected in a sheath called coleorhiza.
- Generally, monocot seeds are endospermic but some are
non-endospermic (e.g. orchids).
- In cereals such as maize, the seed coat is
membranous and generally fused with the fruit wall.
- The endosperm is bulky and stores food.
- The outer covering of endosperm separates the embryo
by a proteinous layer called aleurone layer.
- The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one end
of the endosperm. It consists of one large and shield
shaped cotyledon known as scutellum and a short axis
with a plumule and a radicle.
- The plumule is protected in a sheath called coleoptile

SEMI-TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF A TYPICAL FLOWERING PLANT

- The plant is described beginning with its habit,
vegetative characters and then floral characters.
- After describing various parts of plant, a floral diagram
and a floral formula are presented.
- Floral formula is represented by some symbols. They are
Br (bracteates) K (calyx) C (corolla)
P (perianth) A (androecium) G (Gynoecium)
G (superior ovary) (inferior ovary)
male) female) (bisexual)
actinomorphic) (zygomorphic)
- Fusion is indicated by enclosing the figure within
bracket and adhesion by a line drawn above the symbols
of the floral parts.
- A floral diagram provides information about the number
of parts of a flower, their arrangement and the relation
they have with one another.

The position of the mother axis with respect to the flower

is represented by a dot on the top of the floral diagram.
Calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium are drawn in
successive whorls, calyx being the outermost and the
gynoecium being in the centre.
- Floral formula also shows cohesion and adhesion within
parts of whorls and in between whorls.

Solanaceae (Potato family)

It is a large family. It is widely distributed in tropics, subtropics and even
temperate zones.
Vegetative Characters
o Plants mostly, herbs, shrubs and small trees.
o Stem: herbaceous rarely woody, aerial; erect, cylindrical, branched, solid or
hollow, hairy or glabrous, underground stem in potato (Solanum tuberosum).
o Leaves: alternate, simple, rarely pinnately compound, exstipulate; venation
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 reticulate. syncarpous; ovary superior, bilocular, placenta swollen with many ovules
Floral Characters o Fruits: berry or capsule
o Inflorescence: Solitary, axillary or o Seeds: many, endospermous
cymose as in Solanum o Floral Formula: K(5) C(5)A(5) G(2)
o Flower: bisexual, actinomorphic
o Calyx: sepals five, united, Economic Importance: Many plants are source of
persistent, valvate aestivation o Food: E.g. tomato, brinjal, potato
o Corolla: petals five, united; valvate o Spice: E.g. chilli
aestivation o Medicine: E.g. belladonna, ashwagandha
o Androecium: stamens five, o Fumigatory: E.g. tobacco
epipetalous o Ornamentals: E.g. petunia
o Gynoecium: bicarpellary, o

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