LECTURE 3 – ELEMENTARY BUILDING BLOCKS

The formulation of the equations to describe commonly used engineering components

included in electrical, mechanical, fluidic and thermal systems. A discussion of methods of
transduction is also given.

1. MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

SPRINGS

TRANSLATIONAL 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 , ROTATIONAL Г = 𝑘𝜃

DAMPERS A resistive force is generated by virtue of relative velocity; e.g. a viscous

retarding force.

TRANSLATIONAL 𝐹 = 𝐶(𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 2 ) , ROTATIONAL Г = 𝐶(𝜃̇1 − 𝜃̇2 )

INERTIA A consequence of Newton’s 2nd Law

TRANSLATIONAL 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥̈ , ROTATIONAL Г = 𝐽𝜃̈

LEVERS For small deflections, we may apply SUPERPOSITION to determine y from x1 and x2

Thus
𝑏 𝑎
𝑦|𝑥2=0 = 𝑎+𝑏 𝑥1 , 𝑦|𝑥1=0 = 𝑎+𝑏 𝑥2
 𝑏 𝑎
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑦|𝑥2=0 + 𝑦|𝑥1=0 = 𝑎+𝑏 𝑥1 + 𝑎+𝑏 𝑥2

We can also relate forces in the same way

𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦 | 𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦 | 𝑥1 =− ∙ 𝐹1 − ∙ 𝐹2
𝐹𝑈𝐿𝐶𝑅𝑈𝑀 𝐹𝑈𝐿𝐶𝑅𝑈𝑀 𝑏 𝑎

GEARS For two inter-meshing gears, we can relate a number of parameters to one another.

𝑑1 𝑟1 𝑥̇
𝑛= ≡ , 𝜔 = 𝜃̇ =
𝑑2 𝑟2 𝑟

Thus
𝑑 𝜔 𝜃 𝜃̇ 𝜃̈ Г
𝑛 = 𝑑1 = 𝜔2 = 𝜃2 = 𝜃̇2 = 𝜃̈2 = Г1
2 1 1 1 1 2

Note the gear train reverses at each meshing.

2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

RESISTANCE

𝑣𝑖 −𝑣𝑜
𝑖= OHMS LAW
𝑅

CAPACITANCE

𝑑
𝑖=𝐶∙ (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑖
1
OR 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡

INDUCTANCE
1
𝑖 = ∫(𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑑𝑖
OR 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑑𝑡

THE CONCEPT OF IMPEDENCE: (this is an interlude)

We may recast all our equations so far into LAPLACE

 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 becomes 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑋(𝑠)

𝐹 = 𝐶(𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 2 ) becomes 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐶𝑠(𝑋1 (𝑠) − 𝑋2 (𝑠))

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥̈ becomes 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑚𝑠 2 ∙ 𝑋(𝑠)

𝑣1 −𝑣𝑜 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)−𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)

𝑖= becomes 𝐼(𝑠) =
𝑅 𝑅

𝑑
𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 (𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑜 ) becomes 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝐶𝑠(𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠))

1 1
𝑖 = 𝐿 ∫(𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 )𝑑𝑡 becomes 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝐿𝑠 (𝑉1 (𝑠) − 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠))

If we consider a VOLTAGE or a FORCE as the initiator and the CURRENT or MOVEMENT as

the output, the coefficient that links the two has the form of IMPEDENCE i.e. impeding the
outcome → bigger impedance means less output for same force.

THE SERIES CIRCUIT

1 𝑑𝑖 1
𝜐 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑉(𝑠) = (𝑅 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿𝑠) ∙ 𝐼(𝑠)

SERIES IMPEDENCE
THE PARALLEL CIRCUIT

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3

𝜐 𝑑𝜐 1 𝐼 𝐼
𝑖 = 𝑅 + 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 ∫ 𝜐𝑑𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝐼(𝑠) = (𝑅 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)

PARALLEL IMPEDENCE
KIRCHOFFS LAWS

The net flow of CURRENT to a junction is ZERO

𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 𝑖3 − 𝑖4 = 0 or ∑ 𝑖 = 0
The sum total of VOLTAGE around any loop is ZERO

𝐼 𝑑𝑖
𝜐𝑖 − 𝑅𝑖 − ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 − 𝐿 = 0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡

3. THERMAL COMPONENTS

HEAT CONDUCTION

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
Flow of heat 𝑞 = −𝐾𝐴 [Discrete version]
𝑑

In terms of a thermal impedance

𝑑
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = − 𝐾𝐴 ∙ 𝑞

𝑑
has the units of impedance °𝐾/(𝐽𝑠 −1 )
𝐾𝐴

HEAT CONVECTION

Flow of heat 𝑞 = ℎ𝑐 𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) as a simple model

ℎ𝑐 is a surface convective coefficient of heat transfer.

THERMAL CAPACITANCE

The rate of net heat transfer to a body is equivalent to its rate of increase in internal energy.

𝑑𝑇
Thus 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑐𝑉 𝑑𝑡 where ρ is density, c is specific heat, V is volume

Let 𝐶𝑡 = 𝜌𝑐𝑉 and is the thermal capacitance (𝐽°𝐾 −1 ) of the body. This is analogous to
𝑑𝜐
electical capacitance 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
THERMAL RADIATION

Stefan’s Law states 𝑞 = 𝐴𝜎𝑇 4 , σ is Stefan’s Constant. Let us invoke linearisation to make
the law useable in our systems. 𝑇𝑜 is the temperature operating point

𝑓(𝑥𝑜 ) ≡ 𝐴𝜎𝑇𝑜4 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑜 ) ≡ 4𝐴𝜎𝑇𝑜3

∴ 𝑞 = 𝐴𝜎𝑇𝑜4 + (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )4𝐴𝜎𝑇𝑜3

∴ 𝑞 = 4𝐴𝜎𝑇𝑜3 𝑇 − 3𝐴𝜎𝑇𝑜4 ≡ [𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐]

Be careful, the approximation is only valid very close to 𝑇𝑜 because of the 𝑇 4 power law.

4. FLUIDIC SYSTEMS

We will show how previous concepts can be derived.

RESISTANCE

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑅𝑓 𝑞 where 𝑅𝑓 is known as a fluidic impedance.

CAPACITANCE

𝑑 𝑑𝜌
𝑚̇ = 𝑑𝑡 (𝜌𝑉) = 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 if V is assumed a constant

Apply the equation above to a LIQUID.

𝜌−𝜌𝑜
By definition p−𝑝𝑜 = 𝛽 ∙ at constant volume
𝜌𝑜

𝛽 𝑚̇ 𝑉𝜌𝑜
Or 𝑝̇ = 𝜌 ∙ 𝜌̇ but 𝜌̇ = ∴ 𝑚̇ = ∙ 𝑝̇
𝑜 𝑉 𝛽

𝛽 is known as the bulk modulus. Equation for 𝑚̇ has similarities to electrical capacitance
in that flow is related to rate of charge of driving force.

Apply the equation above to a GAS.

The gas law is: p𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 m is in moles, R is universal gas constant.

𝑝𝑉 𝑉 𝑑𝑝 𝑉
𝑚 = 𝑅𝑇 ∴ 𝑚̇ = 𝑅𝑇 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 or 𝑅𝑇 ∙ 𝑝̇ similarly to above.

INERTIA

Mass of fluid 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴𝑙

The force acting on the slug by the pressure drop is 𝐹 = (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴

Using Newton’s 2nd Law (𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎)

𝑞̇
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴 = 𝜌𝐴ℓ ∙ ℓ̈ and ℓ̈ ≡ 𝜐̇ = where 𝜐 is velocity, 𝑞 is flow rate
𝐴

𝜌ℓ
∴ (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) = ∙ 𝑞̇
𝐴

𝜌ℓ
is a term similar to inductance in electrical circuits.
𝐴

5. THERMAL AND FLUID SYSTEMS IN THE NUTSHELL

𝑑(𝑚𝑐𝑇) 𝑑(𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑇) 𝑑𝑚 𝑑(𝜌𝑉)

𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡