Casting properties

Foundry is a process of producing metal castings. Casting is an operation of shaping metal by pouring it
in the liquid state into a mold followed by solidification.

Casting is also a metal detail, produced as a result of pouring a metal into a mold.

In some cases casting is the only method of shaping a metal or alloy: when the alloy is not malleable and
therefore it’s plastic deformation is not possible or when a large detail of complex shape is to be
produced.

Metal castings quality is determined by the casting properties of the metal:

Fluidity

Shrinkage

Shrinkage cavity

Shrinkage porosity

Surface quality

Resistance to cracks formation

Fluidity

Fluidity – an ability of metals and alloys to flow through the gating system filling the cavity of the casting
mold and conforming its shape.

Factors determining fluidity:

Solidification interval (the difference between liquidus and solidus temperatures of the alloy).

The wider solidification interval of an alloy, the lower fluidity of the alloy, as a certain part of the
solidifying alloy has an increased viscosity caused by the presence of solid primary crystals, formed in
course of cooling the alloy below the liquid’s temperature.

The fluidity of pure metals is better than that of their alloys.

Eutectic alloys, characterized by nil solidification interval, possess good fluidity.

Viscosity of the alloy (the lower viscosity of an alloy, the better its fluidity). As viscosity decreases with
temperature, metals and alloys cast at increased temperature fill better the mold cavity.
Surface tension of the alloy. Low surface tension causes better filling of the mold cavity.

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Shrinkage

Shrinkage is a contraction of alloy volume caused by:

Contraction of the melt when it cools down to the liquid’s temperature.

Contraction of the alloy owing its solidification (cooling from liquid’s temperature to solidus
temperature).

All metals except bismuth have higher density in solid state, than in liquid.

Contraction of the solid alloy cooling from the solidus temperature to the ambient temperature.

Shrinkage is determined by the temperature of the cast alloy, its chemical composition and by the
conditions of its solidification (cooling rate, mold shape).

Shrinkage cavity

When a large isolated region of liquid phase remains within solid, surrounding it, shrinkage cavity will
form in this region. The common mold structure includes a riser – a “head”, in which the melt solidifies
last and “feeds” the main casting with liquid alloy, compensating the casting shrinkage.

Shrinkage porosity

This shrinkage defect is a characteristic for the central regions of castings (ingots) of the alloys with a
wide temperature range of solidification. In these castings “feeding” melt is not able to infiltrate through
the interlacing dendrites. The local micro-spaces between the dendrites arm remain isolated from the
melt in riser forming micro-cavities or shrinkage porosity.

Melting furnaces
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich
 Cupola furnace
 Electric Arc furnace
 Induction furnace
 Crucible furnace
Cupola furnace
The most popular melting furnace in the ferrous foundries is cupola furnace.
Cupola is similar to the blast furnace. It is shaft-like vertical furnace consisting of a steel
shell lined with refractory bricks, equipped with tuyeres (nozzles for blowing air).
The liquid iron is periodically (or continuously) removed through a spout.

Iron, coke and limestone flux are charged by means of an opening locating in the upper half
of the steel shell.

Ferrous foundries also use arc furnaces for melting iron and steel.

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Electric Arc furnace
The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) uses three vertical carbon rods as electrodes for producing
arcs, striking on to the charge and heating it to the required temperature.
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Induction furnace
Induction furnaces are widely used for melting non-ferrous and ferrous alloys.
There are two types of induction furnaces: coreless induction furnaces and channel
induction furnaces:

 Coreless induction furnace

Coreless induction furnace consists of: a water cooled helical coil made of a copper tube, a
crucible installed within the coil and supporting shell equipped with trunnions on which the
furnace may tilt.
Alternating current passing through the coil induces alternating currents in the metal charge
loaded to the crucible. These induced currents heat the charge.

When the charge is molten, electromagnetic field produced by the coil interacts with the
electromagnetic field produced by the induced current. The resulted force causes stirring
effect helping homogenizing the melt composition and the temperature.

The frequency of the alternating current used in induction furnaces may vary from the line
frequency (50Hz or 60Hz) to high frequency 10,000Hz

 Channel induction furnace

Channel type induction furnace consists of a steel shell lined with refractory materials and
an inductor attached to the shell. There is a channel connecting the main body with the
inductor.

The inductor of the channel furnace works as a transformer. It has a ring-like iron core with
a water- or air-cooled coil as a primary coil and a loop of the melt, circulating in the
channel, as a secondary coil. Melt circulation has a stirring effect.

Channel induction furnaces work at line frequency currents.

Channel induction furnaces are commonly used as holding furnaces (furnace for
maintaining a molten metal, poured from a melting furnace, at a proper temperature).

Channel furnaces are also used for melting low melting point alloys and iron. For two or
three shift operation channel furnaces are more economical than coreless furnaces.
Channel furnaces of ratings up to the 10’s of MW and up to capacities of thousands of
tonnes have been used for melting and superheating iron.
Crucible furnace

Crucible furnaces are used for melting and holding small batches of non-ferrous alloys.

Crucible furnaces are the oldest type of melting furnaces. A refractory crucible filled with the
metal is heated through the crucible wall.
There are two main types of crucible furnace:

 electricity resistance furnaces,

 gas (oil) fired furnaces.
In the gas fired furnaces heat is provided by a burner directed to the crucible.

In the resistance furnaces electric heating elements are used as a source of heat.

Sand casting

Sand casting is a method involving pouring a molten metal into a sand mold.

Advantages and disadvantages of sand casting

Advantages of sand casting
 Low cost of mold materials and equipment.
 Large casting dimensions may be obtained.
 Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-ferrous) may be cast
(including high melting point metals).
Disadvantages of sand casting
 Rough surface.
 Poor dimensional accuracy.
 High machining tolerances.
 Coarse Grain structure.
 Limited wall thickness: not higher than 0.1”-0.2” (2.5-5 mm).

Sand casting mold

The typical mold for a sand casting is shown in the picture:
The set of channels through which a molten metal flows to the mold cavity is called gating
system.
Typical gating system consists of a pouring cup and a sprue receiving the poured
melt, runner – a channel through which the melt is supplied to the gates through which
the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
A gating system may include a riser (feed head) – a cavity connected to the gating
system feeding the casting when it is shrinking.
Air within the mold cavity and gases formed when a molten metal contacts the mold surface
are removed through the vents.
The interior cavities of a casting are formed by a separate inserts called cores.
Cores are usually made of sand and backed.

A mold frame (flask) consists of two parts: cope (the upper part) and drag (the lower
part).
A mold cavity is formed in the process of pattern molding, when the pattern (commonly
wooden) is embedded in sand in the flask forming an impression of the casting.
After the sand packing the pattern is removed from the flask and the cores and the gating
system are arranged.

Cores, runner and gates are arranged in the drag; pouring cap and sprue are placed in the
cope.

Then the two parts of the mold are assembled and poured.

After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, the casting is removed
from the mold by the process called shakeout.

Types of sand used for sand casting

Factors determined by sand:
 Casting surface finish.
 Gas permeability of the mold.
  Mold strength.
Requirements to sand:
 Ability to retain mold shape during packing and pouring.
 High temperature stability.
 Permeability for the gases liberated from the mold and solidifying metal.
 Collapsibility - ability of the sand to be shake out.
Silica sand with additives is used for sand casting.

Types of sand:
 Green sand - a mixture of silica sand (quartz) with 4-15% of a clay (bonding
agent), about 5% of water and some other additives (iron silicates, zircon,
chromites). The green sand is prepared from silica sand, water and a certain
quantity of a clay (bentonite, kaolin). Green sand is the most popular sand type.
 Resin bonded sand - a mixture of silica sand with a polymeric resin as the
bonding agent. If the resin hardens at room temperature the mixture is
called “no bake”.
 Sodium silicate bonded sand - a mixture of silica sand with 3-4% of sodium
silicate (water glass, NaO nSiO2 mH2O). The bonding forms when sodium silicate
reacts with CO2, which is applied to the mixture: NaO*nSiO 2 + CO2 = Na2CO3 +
SiO2. The mixture is called “no bake” since the binding process does not require
heat treatment (baking). Sodium silicate bonded sand is widely used for the
preparation of cores. The main disadvantage of sodium silicate bonded sands is
their bad collapsibility.

Patterns for sand casting

In order to be used repeatedly patterns are made of relatively tough materials.
Patterns materials:
 Wood
 Metal
 Plastic
 3D Rapid Prototype printing
A parting (release) agent is applied on the pattern surface in order to provide easy removal
of the pattern from the mold.

Patterns may be made as one-piece or multiple-piece (split, match plate).

Patterns are commonly made larger than the casting because of the shrinkage effect.
Shrinkage allowances are usually 1-2%.
The pattern surfaces are never made perpendicular to the mold parting surface. The taper
of the pattern surface, which provides narrowing the mold cavity towards the mold parting
surface is called draft.
Draft allows easy removal of the pattern and the casting from the sand mold.
The draft angle is commonly 1-3%.

Investment casting

Investment (lost wax) casting is a method of precision casting complex near-net-shape

details using replication of wax patterns.

Investment casting process

The investment casting process uses expendable patterns made of investment casting wax.
 The wax patterns are commonly prepared by injection molding technology
which involves injection of wax into a prefabricated die having the same
geometry of the cavity as the desired cast part.
 The wax patterns are then attached to a gating system (a set of channels
through which a molten metal flows to the mold cavity).
 The next stage is the shell building - the wax assembly is immersed into
refractory ceramic slurry of hardening mixtures followed by drying. This operation
is repeatedly carried out resulting in formation of a solid ceramic shell of 1/4” -
3/8” (6mm – 9mm) thick.
 The next stage is dewax. At this stage the assembly is heated in an autoclave
where the most of the wax is melted out. This operation is followed by burning
out the residual wax in a furnace.
 The mold is then preheated to 1830°F (1000°C). Now the mold is ready for
filling with a molten metal.
 Casting stage is conventional operation involving pouring a molten metal into
the shell through the gating system.
 After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, the shell is
broken and the castings are cut away from the gates and sprue.
 The last stage is finishing carried out by sandblasting or machining.

Ceramic slurry materials

 Mullite Al2O3 44-48%, SiO2 47-51%, Fe2O3 max. 1%, TiO2 max. 1%.
 Zircon flour.
 Binders: Colloidal Silica SiO2 25-45%, Na2O max.1% in distilled water; sodium
silicate NaO*nSiO2*mH2O; ethyl silicate Si(OC2H5)4.
Advantages and disadvantages of investment casting
Advantages:
 Excellent surface finish.
 Tight dimensional tolerances.
 Complex and intricate shapes may be produced.
 Capability to cast thin walls.
 Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-ferrous) may be cast.
 Draft is not required in the molds design.
 Low material waste.
Disadvantages:
 Individual pattern is required for each casting.
 Limited casting dimensions.
 Relatively high cost (tooling cost, labor cost).