UNIT-3: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY & FUEL CELLS

 Geothermal Energy

 Resources of geothermal energy

 Thermodynamics of geo-thermal energy conversion-electrical conversion

 Non-electrical conversion

 Environmental considerations.

 Magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD)

 Principle of working of MHD Power plant

 Performance and limitations.

 Fuel Cells: Principle of working of various types of fuel cells and their working

 Performance and limitations.

Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy refers to the tremendous amount of energy available inside the
ground in the form of heat. Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy that is not dependent on the
sun and has its source of natural heat within the earth.
The geothermal resource of the earth is estimated to be more than 2.11 X 1025J, which is equivalent to
109 MTOE (million tones of oil equivalent). This is a huge amount of energy, enough to supply our energy
needs at current rates for 3,50,000 years. Thus, it is considered an inexhaustible and renewable source.
Geothermal power has the potential to contribute a predictable, low carbon renewable supply to the global
energy mix in the transition to clean energy.
Demand continues to grow for sources of renewable electricity generation, and geothermal power has the
potential to contribute a significant share of the global energy mix.
Geothermal technology harnesses natural heat energy generated beneath the earth’s crust, with heat pumps
extracting steam or hot water to surface level.
The constant and predictable availability of geothermal energy, along with its relatively low cost and small
carbon footprint make it an attractive power source for the future, as part of the green energy transition.
The world’s first geothermal power plant was constructed in 1904 in harderello, Italy and it still continues to
generate power to this day.
Advantages
It is reliable and cheap source of energy.
It is available 24 hours per day.
Its availability is independent of weather.
Geothermal plants require little land area.
It has inherent storage feature so no extra storage facility is required.

Disadvantages
It is very site specific – there are not many places where you can build a geothermal power station.
Generally, energy is available as low grade heat.
Drilling operation leads to noise pollution.
To continue extraction of heated ground water may lead to setting of land.

Types of geothermal energy resources

1 hydro geothermal resources
2 hot dry rock resources
3. Geopressure resources
4. Magma resources
Hydro geothermal resources
The vapour and hot water forms of geothermal energy
together known as hydrothermal systems, and are
commercially available. A hydrothermal consists of heat
source, reservoir, recharge area and connecting pipe
through which cool water penetrates from surface to
reservoir and escapes back to surface to transfer the heat.
Hydrothermal resources are classified according to the
specific enthalpy of the fluid. Water with temperatures
between 30-120 ֯C are called low enthalpy resources(0.03
to 0.4 MJ/Kg); water with temperatures above 120֯C are
termed as high enthalpy fluids (0.5 to3 MJ/Kg).
Hydrothermal energy extraction is most advanced and cost
effective. When wells are drilled in the ground over such
locations, the hot water and steam rises naturally or by
means of pump through the production well. These are the
deposits of hot water and steam at lesser depths.
hot dry rock resources
There are regions underground at temperatures
exceeding 200֯C, with little or no water. The rocks are
impermeable and there is no surface water in the
vicinity. Such resources up to a depend of 5 km are
estimated to be significant and worthy of development
as a source of energy. Hot dry rocks are much more
common than hydrothermal reservoirs and more
accessible. So their potential is quite high. Hot dry rock
resources are also called Petro geothermal energy
resources. In petro geothermal resources the heat is
extracted from the hot dry rock which is heated by
magma. The temperature of hot dry rocks at about 3 km
is 150°C to 290°C. At this level water does not exists and
only heat is available in Hot dry Rocks. The cold water is
injected to the cavity of hot dry rock through the
injection well. The cavity is produced by the high
pressure injected water or by under ground chemical
explosion. Before injecting the water the production
wells and injection wells are drilled. The cold water gets
heated by the hot dry rocks. The hot water and steam
can be pumped out from the production well.
Geopressure Resources: While drilling for oil and
gas, hot salt-water (brine) reservoirs, at moderately
high temperature (90°C to 200°C), and under great
pressure are found at a depth of 3 to 6 km. Because
of the very high pressure of the water up to 1350
atm in the deepest layer, these reservoirs are
referred as geopressured. A special feature of
geopressured water is that it also contains a
significant amount of dissolved methane gas,
usually 1.9-3.8 m³ per m³ of water. The solubility of
methane in water at normal pressure is quite low,
but it increases with pressure. When the water is
brought to the surface and its pressure reduced, the
methane gas is released from the solution. Thus,
methane can be extracted from brine by simple and
economical gravity separation technique. This
resource is potentially very promising because three
types of energy can be extracted from the wells: (i)
thermal energy from the heated fluids, (ii)
mechanical (hydraulic) energy from the high
pressures involved, and (iii) chemical energy from
the burning of methane gas.
Magma Resources: At some places, molten or partially molten rock
(magma chamber), at temperatures of 650°C to 1,200°C occurs at
depths of 5 km-10 km. These resources are located especially in the
vicinity of recent volcanic activity (e.g., Hawaii). Very high
temperature and large volume make magma a huge potential energy
source, the largest of all geothermal resources. However, successful
magma drilling technology has not been established yet. Extracting
magma energy is expected to be the most difficult of all types of
resource utilization. Magma technology will require special drilling
technology to deal with the interaction of the drill bit with molten
rock, the effects of dissolved gases, and mechanisms of heat transport
in molten magma. This technology has not been developed as yet.

Types of geothermal power plants:

1. Vapor dominated power plant
2. Liquid dominated power plant
(a) flashed steam system
(b) binary cycle system
Vapour dominated power plant:
In a vapour dominated plant dry
steam from the wells is collected,
filtered to remove abrasive contents
such as corrosive gases and erosive
materials and passed through turbines
coupled to electric generators. As the
steam moves through the well, its
pressure drops and gets slightly super
heated at the well head because of
the pressure drop. The pressure of the
steam at the well head is about
7kg/cm². It goes through a centrifugal
separator which removes the
impurities and after further pressure
drop, it enters the turbine. This steam
expands in the turbine and produces
the necessary motion for the electric
generator. The low pressure exhaust
steam of the turbine is condensed in
the condenser and re-injected into the
earth by are injection well.
Liquid Dominated Power Plant: Liquid
dominated system are also called wet steam
fields. Wet steam fields are twenty times more
than the dry steam fields in the world. They give
mixture of hot water and steam under high
pressure. The steam is separated and expands in
turbines to generate electricity. Such a plant of
capacity of 75 MW has been set up in Mexico.
The hot water is treated for removal of its
minerals and then used for agricultural or
municipal purposes. There are two types of
power plants called. (a) Flashed steam system
(b) Binary system
(a) Flashed steam system: Flashed steam
system is preferred for high temperature
mixture of geothermal water and steam having
lower dissolved impurities. The temperature of
water and steam mixture should be more than
180°C. steam from the liquid dominated, high
temperature reservoir at a temperature of 230֯C
and at a pressure of 40 kg/cm² is flashed into a
mixture of steam and water at the surface .
Binary cycle system: In the binary cycle system, the geothermal fluid is not directly admitted into the turbine. This
segregates the turbine from corrosive and erosive materials. The geothermal water from low temperature sources is suitable
for direct utilization for domestic and industrial purposes. If this water is used in a flashed system, it should be reduced to a
very low pressure. This low pressure will result in flows of very large volume and poor efficiency of the system. Although this
water from low temperature source can be used as a heat source for a closed cycle system. Such a closed cycle system uses
another working fluid of suitable pressure, temperature and volume characteristics.

Since the system used two fluids and hence

called binary cycle system. The first binary
cycle geothermal power plant of 68 kW output
was installed in Soviet Union in 1967. Flow
diagram of a binary cycle system is shown in
Fig. Hot water or brine from the underground
reservoir is given to a heat exchanger. In the
heat-exchanger, the hot brine transfers its heat
to some organic fluid and therefore converting
the fluid to a super heated vapour. The organic
fluid normally used is isobutene or freon-12.
Ammonia and propane may also be used. The
vapour drives the turbine generator set. The
exhaust vapour from the turbine is condensed
in a surface condenser. The condenser is
cooled by water from a natural source or a
cooling tower circulation system.
Difference Between Geothermal and Conventional Thermal Power plant
As we know that Geothermal power plant and conventional thermal power plant are used to generate electricity. In both the
power plants steam drives the turbine which is coupled to the generator to generate electricity. The geothermal power plant is
different from conventional thermal power plant in the following aspects:
(a) The geothermal plant is located away from city, on geothermal field.
(b) Large amount of geothermal fluid is required in geo plant because of low temperature.
(c) Geothermal plants have smaller unit (5, 10 or 15 MW) as compared with conventional thermal plants.
(d) Large numbers of systems are needed to extract the steam from geo well.
(e) Geothermal plant operates continuously as base load plant.
Environmental considerations
1. Geothermal energy is not completely pollution free energy. At geothermal site, the air pollution is the major problem
because of emission of poisonous gases
2. The main adverse environmental effects are noise pollution, thermal pollution, surface disturbance, physical effects caused
by fluid withdrawal.
3. The extraction of energy from hot dry rocks or molten magma, it is necessary to force water down boreholes as a working
fluid and return it to surface for use in turbine. The environmental problem is that a large quantity of water is required.
4. Require stainless steel equipment to prevent corrosion because of saline water.
5. All bared copper electrical equipment are to be protected from corrosion.
6. The withdrawal of huge quantity of underground water from wet fields causes ground subsidence.
7. The sand carried out along with water increases scaling and erosion.
Merits of geothermal energy:
1.Geothermal energy is inexhaustives, available all the year around.
2. It is cheaper in cost compared to the energies obtained from other sources.
3. It does not involve any combustion of any fuel.
4. Geothermal power plant have the highest annual load factor of 85% and it produces minimum pollution.
5. It contributes, both to the energy supply, with electrical power generation and direct heat uses.
6. The emission of CO, and SO, by geothermal power plant is for less compared with conventional fossil fuel based power
plants.
Demerits of geothermal energy:
1.Geothermal energy is not pollution free energy.
2. A geothermal power plant usually pumps over three time more thermal energy into the environment for each unit of
electricity produced than does a conventional fossil power plant.
3. Hot water geothermal energy sources normally have very high mineral content. This produces several problems.
4. In most of the geothermal steam systems, the waste steam is sometimes vented directly to the atmosphere with an
accompanying noise pollution.
5. Large areas are needed for exploitation of geothermal energy.
6. In low rain fall areas the sub soil water depletion may occur. It may then necessary to reinject water into earth.
Application of geothermal energy
1.Electric power Generation
2. Industrial process heat
3. Space heating for buildings
4. Production of salt from sea
5. Plastic manufacture and Textile industry
6. Fish drying and fish meal production
7. Dried milk production and Mushroom culture
8. Food processing and Gasification of coal.
9. Sewage heat treatment and paper manufacture.
MHD (magneto hydrodynamics) power plant or MHD generator : The power plant which is used for producing
electrical energy by MHD is called MHD power plant or MHD generator, An MHD generator is a device which is used to convert
heat energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy without a conventional electrical generator. In MHD generator a high
velocity ionized gas or plasma serves as the moving conductor. Since the gas is a direct product of combustion, the mechanical
linkage of a rotating shaft is eliminated. The principal was discovered by Faraday. The basic principle of MHD generator is the
same as that of conventional generator. It states that when an ionized gas is passed at a high velocity through a strong
magnetic field an emf is induced in it. The emf is then collected from stationary electroles placed on the opposite sides of
channel as show in the Fig. The current is so obtained is direct current which can be converted into A.C by a inverter. The
difference between a conventional generator and MHD generator is that in MHD generator the solid conductors are replaced
by an ionized gas which is passed at a high velocity.
Working principle in MHD power conversion process depends upon Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
which states that when a conductor and a magnetic field move relative to each other, a voltage is induced in the
conductor. This induced voltage produces an electric current. The conductor may be solid, liquid or gas. In MHD
generator solid conductors are replaced by hot ionized gas. The hot ionized gas (3000°C) is passed through the
MHD duct across which a strong magnetic field is applied. Since the gases are hot and ionised they form an
electrically conducting medium moving in a magnetic field, thus a voltage is generated. The power generated by
MHD generator is in the direct current form. Now if the electrodes are placed in a suitable position then
generated current can be extracted.
the movement of gas in x direction, magnetic field B is in y direction and force on the particle in z direction.
When the current is flowing through load resistance R, then electric intensity between the plates is
MHD systems : 1. open cycle system 2. close cycle system
open cycle system Coal is processed and burnt in the combustor at a high temperature of about 2500-2700°C and
pressure of about 12 atmosphere with preheated air to form the plasma. Then a seeding material, such as potassium
carbonate, is injected to the plasma in order to increase the electrical conductivity. The resulting mixture is expanded
through a nozzle, so as to have high velocity, and then passed through the strong magnetic field of MHD generator. During
the expansion of gas at high temperature, the positive and negative ions move to the electrodes and so constitute an
electric current. This current is d.c. and an inverter is employed for its conversion into a.c. The gas leaving the MHD
generator is still very hot. The heat from the exhaust gases of the MHD generator is utilized in preheating the air supplied to
the combustor. The seed material is recovered from the gas for successive use and harmful emissions (such as nitrogen and
sulphur) are removed from the gas, for pollution control, and the gas is finally discharged to the atmosphere through a stack
Close cycle MHD system:
Close cycle MHD system
In the closed cycle MHD system, the working fluid is circulated in a closed loop. The working fluid is a mixture of gases such
as helium or argon that interact easily with the thermal electrons. So it is possible to maintain the flow of conduction
electrons at a higher temperature and thus higher electron density and electrical conductivity can be achieved. Fig. shows a
closed cycle MHD system. Coal is gasified in the external heating loop and the coal gas having a temperature of about 520°C
and high heat value is burnt in a combustor. In the heat exchanger-1, this heat is transferred the working fluid. The hot
working fluid mixed with cesium is passed through the MHD generator. The working fluid is slowed down to a subsonic
speed in the diffuser and then passed through heat exchanger-2 where it gives its heat to water to raise steam. This steam is
partly used for running a compressor and partly for driving a turbine-alternator set. The working fluid is now returned b to
the heat exchanger-1 through compressor intercooler combined unit. The combustion products are passed through an air
preheater and then are discharged to the atmosphere after removal harmful emission. The closed cycle system works at a
comparatively lower temperature (1900) and has higher conversion efficiency than the open cycle system.
Advantages of MHD
1.The conversion efficiency of a MHD system con be approximately 47-48% which is higher then the conventional steam
plant (40%).
2. No moving part, so more reliable,
3. Lesser thermal pollution. 4. More efficient heat utilization will reduce the cooling water requirement. 5. The more
efficient heat utilization reduces the amount of heat discharged to environments and thus the cooling water requirements
are reduced. 6. The capital costs of the MHD plants are estimated to be competitive with those of coal fired steam power
plants. 7. MHD generators have low specific weight, rapid start, high power density and compact. 8. All kinds of heat sources
such as coal, oil, gas, solar and nuclear can be used with MHD generators.
Fuel cell : A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device that converts chemical energy of a fuel directly into
electrical energy. It is known as a cell because of some similarities with a primary cell. Like a conventional primary cell it also
has two electrodes and an electrolyte between them and produces DC power. Fuel cell system operates on pure hydrogen and
air to produce electricity with water and heat as the bi product. Fuel cells are modular in construction and their efficiency is
independent of size. Fuel cells can be used in domestic applications, industries and in transport. Fuel cell can be used in UPS
(Uninterrupted Power Supply).
In fuel cells the chemical energy of the reactants is converted into electrical energy as an isothermal process. Thus heat is
not involved in the conversion process and a high conversion efficiency is possible. Another reason for the interest in fuel cells
is that their efficiency and cost per kW of power are independent of size of rating of the fuel cell. This advantage makes the
prospects of fuel cells very attractive as portable power plants for spacecraft, locomotives etc.
Fuel cells provided power to the Gemini, Apollo and Skylab spacecraft, and continue to be used to provide electricity and
water to space shuttles. In India, the fuel cell laboratory of Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., Hyderabad, is developing 'Phosphoric
Acid Fuel Cells' (PAFC) since 1987. PAFC power packs of 1, 5, 10 and 50 kW rating have been successfully developed and
demonstrated by BHEL, Hyderabad.
Difference between fuel cell and battery
The key difference between fuel cell and battery is that a fuel cell can supply electrical energy for a long period of time
compared to a normal battery. Furthermore, a fuel cell is continuously supplied with fuel and oxygen from an external source,
which makes it work for a long time period; however, a battery contains a limited amount of fuel and oxidant, and these two
components decrease with time, so this device cannot supply electrical energy for a long period of time.
Principle of working of fuel cell : Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical process in which the energy
stored in a fuel is converted directly into DC electricity. The fuel cell converts continuously free energy in a chemical reaction to
electrical energy. Fig. shows schematic diagram of the simple fuel cell. The cell consists of two porous electrodes i.e., anode
and cathode separated by an electrolyte. The electrolyte (i.e., acidic or alkaline solution) is filled between the two porous
electrodes and serves as a carrying media for charged ions. The fuel, hydrogen or carbon monoxide is supplied at one side
(anode side) and oxidant oxygen or air is supplied at other end (cathode side) of the cell. The electrolyte between the inner
face of both electrodes is kept stirred by recirculation to prevent stay of ion for long time at the surface. The operation of fuel
cell is similar to the battery except that continuous supply of fuel is maintained in the fuel cell. The formed ions migrate
through an electrolyte to the opposite side of the electrode. To increase the reactivity at electrodes, the catalysts (platinum
and sintered nickel) are added to electrode for breaking the fuel molecules.

Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–

Anode Reaction: 2H2 + 4OH– → 4H2O + 4e–
Net Cell Reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Types of fuel cell

1. PAFC
2. AFC
3. PEMFC
4. MCFC
5. SOFC
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell The electrolyte in the PAFC is a paper matrix
saturated with phosphoric acid, transporting the hydrogen ions. The
operating temperature is around 200 °C. The operating temperature
require platinum as catalyst which is supported being dispersed on
graphite material. But platinum at this temperature is sensitive to CO-
poisoning. In general, the performances of acid cells are much lower
than that of alkaline cells, due to the poorer performances of the air
electrode, probably because of the increased stability of formed
peroxides in an acid environment. However there are many compromises
that can be made between alkaline and acid fuel cells, considering the
constructions and operating temperature and regarding the probable use
of the desired cell.

Anode reaction: H2 → 2H+ + 2e-

Cathode reaction: ½O2 +2H+ + 2e- → H2O

Overall reaction: H2 + ½O2 → H2O

Alkaline fuel cell : An alkaline fuel cell, the oldest of all fuel cells, uses 40% aqueous KOH as electrolyte. The operating
temperature is about 90°C. The electrodes and other details are same as explained for PAFC. Like PAFC it also works with H, and
O, active materials and the same level of emf is produced. The operation and movements of charge carriers is shown in Fig. At
the positive electrode, oxygen, water (from electrolyte) and returning electrons from the external load combine to produce OH
ions. These OH¯ ions migrate from the positive to the negative electrode through the electrolyte. On reaching the positive
electrode, these OH ions combine with H, to produce water. An equivalent number of electrons are liberated that flow through
the external load towards positive electrode. Thus,

Anode reaction: H2 + 2OH- → 2H2O + 2e-

Cathode reaction: ½O2 + H2O + 2e- → 2OH-

Overall reaction: H2 + ½O2 → H2O

 Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) A polymer electrolyte fuel cell is also known as proton exchange fuel
cell. In this type of cell electrolyte is a solid polymer membrane (thin plastic film). This polymer is permeable to protons when
it is saturated with water, but it does not conduct electrons. In PEMFC, the fuel is hydrogen and charge carriers are hydrogen
ions (protons). At the anode, the hydrogen molecule is split into hydrogen ions and electrons. The hydrogen ions permeate
across the electrolyte to cathode while the electrons flow through an external circuit and produce electric power. Oxygen is
supplied to the cathode and combines with electrons and the hydrogen ions to produce water. Polymer electrolyte fuel cells
are the electrochemical energy converters with an efficiency level of more than 60%.
No gaseous environmental pollutants are produced like in internal
combustion engines. This fuel cell operates at low temperature, so
its start-up and shutdown times are short. This type of fuel cell is
especially suitable for small stationary applications in the power
range below 1 MW
Advantages of PEMFC
(a) PEMFC generate more power for a given volume i.e., have high
power density.
(b) Rapid start. (c) Operating temperature is less than 100°C.
(d) Less expensive.
(e) Because of solid electrolyte, PEMFC cells have less problems
with corrosion. 6) Longer life.
Anode reaction: H2 → 2H+ + 2e-

Cathode reaction: ½O2 +2H+ + 2e- → H2O

Overall reaction: H2 + ½O2 → H2O

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC): These are next generation high temperature fuel cells, developed for natural gas and
coal-based power plants for industrial and military applications and shown in Fig. These cells use H, CH, ethanol and coal gas as a
fuel and molten carbonate salt mixture of Li, Na and K as an electrolyte. These cells operate between 650°C - 750°C. The life of
fuel cells are more than 10,000 operating hours and are available in the capacity from 10 kW to 2 MW. These cells consist of an
internal reformer to convert the hydrogen-rich fuels into mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water along
with varying amounts of unreformed fuels. The reformed fuel flows towards the anode where it absorbs the hydrogen and
releases the water vapour and carbon dioxide.
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the electrolyte. SOFCs are around 60% efficient
at converting fuel to electricity. In applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation), overall
fuel use efficiencies could top 85%.
SOFCs operate at very high temperatures—as high as 1,000°C (1,830°F). High-temperature operation removes the need for
precious-metal catalyst, thereby reducing cost. It also allows SOFCs to reform fuels internally, which enables the use of a
variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a reformer to the system.