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Everything you need to know about Kiln System Operations in Cement

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 Everything you need to know about Kiln System
Operations in Cement Manufacturing

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by Gerald L. Young* and F. M. Miller**

In the real world, a typical cement plant operates successfully by accomplishing the following processing steps:

• Mining carefully selected raw materials

• Precisely proportioning the raw materials together to achieve the desired chemical mix
• Grinding the raw materials to the optimum fineness in the raw mill systems
• Blending the ground raw materials in the kiln feed homogenizing silos to get the most uniform kiln feed
mixture possible
• Processing this carefully proportioned and blended kiln feed in two rotary kilns to produce the intermediate
product, clinker
• Proportioning the clinker with gypsum and grinding it to the desired fineness in the finish mill systems to
produce a high quality, uniform cement.
A cement plant will continue to operate successfully only if it can produce quality product with economic and
material efficiency, and meet or exceed the required product performance.

To a great extent, operation of the rotary kiln system also determines the quality of the cement produced. Stable
operation of the kiln system will result in improved operational efficiency, higher production rates, and better
quality clinker.It can also result in reduced environmental emissions, a factor of ever-increasing importance.

PARAMETERS FOR STABLE OPERATIONS

If it were possible to put exactly the same quantity of kiln feed with a perfectly controlled chem-istry, exactly the
same amount of fuel with the same heating value, fineness, and ash chemistry, and have perfectly uniform
clinker cooler operation, it would be possible to find an operating point where the pyroprocessing system would
operate smoothly, with no changes, forever.

In the real world, none of these parameters can be held perfectly constant. The object is to control kiln system
inputs as closely as possible, given the limitations of the equipment and the operators’ skill at understanding
and responding to indications that the kiln system provides. The primary parameters that must be controlled as
carefully as possible are:

• Kiln feed chemical composition

• Kiln feed chemical uniformity
• Kiln feed fineness
• Kiln feed rate
• Fuel heating value
• Fuel fineness and volatiles content
• Fuel feed rate
• Clinker cooler operation

Detailed discussion of these parameters is outlined in the following sections.

Kiln Feed Chemical Composition

Most plants have raw material mixes already designed and controlled to make clinker, for each product
produced, that will meet specifications and at least equal the performance of marketplace competitors. The
primary goal when designing kiln feed chemistry must be to produce a clinker that when ground with
appropriate additives produces a marketable product. Additionally, the kiln feed must have characteristics that
will allow the cement plant operator to produce clinker economically.

Kiln feed chemical composition has a large effect on kiln operations. Several of the more impor-tant parameters
are silica ratio, percent liquid, and C3S content (or lime saturation factor, LSF).
Silica ratio. Silica ratio, or silica modulus (SR), has one of the greatest effects on burnability. As silica ratio
increases, kiln feed becomes harder to burn. As silica ratio decreases, kiln feed becomes easier to burn.
Typically, a silica ratio above 3.0 is considered high, and a silica ratio below 2.3 is considered low. All else being
equal, larger diameter kilns (i.e., 4-meter diameter and larger) tend to operate better with a lower silica ratio, and
smaller diameter kilns tend to operate better with a higher silica ratio.

Some kiln feeds may have a silica ratio over 3.0, and be relatively easy to burn for a combination of other
reasons, such as when the mix has a low C3S or LSF. Other factors affect the impact of silica ratio on
burnability, such as the type and size of the silica. Free crystalline silica or quartz (such as from sand) is more
difficult to combine than amorphous silica, or silicates or aluminosilicates from clays or shales. If the silica
grains are coarser, it is more difficult for them to chemically react. Also, note that CaO is not involved in this
silica modulus equation; therefore, lime and its effects are not considered. The same silica ratio could exist with
a large variation in lime content. Silica modulus alone does not tell the complete story; other influences must
also be considered.

If we hold the silica content constant and decrease the silica ratio by increasing the iron and/or alumina, the
amount of liquid phase increases. Also,ifwe hold the iron and alumina content constant but decrease the silica
content, the silica modulus decreases while the amount of liquid phase remains essentially constant. In general,
if a kiln produced a “dusty” clinker because of a low concentration of liquid phase at the burning zone
temperature, a decrease in the silica ratio achieved by adding more iron and/or alumina would be expected to
reduce dusty clinker conditions in the kiln. However, if the silica ratio is further decreased by this method so that
it becomes too low, kiln difficulties could be encountered due to too much liquid phase being formed in the kiln,
potentially getting into the clinker cooler, and building snowmen or large pieces of agglomerated clinker.
Decreasing the silica ratio (i.e., by having more liquid) from a known satisfactory modulus will narrow the
temperature range within which the kiln can be operated without problems.

Liquid phase. The importance of the liquid phase is considerable in regard to having an effec-tive clinkering
zone that will form the final cement compounds (high C3S content with low free lime). Melt development is also
important for C3S development because as the clinker minerals are formed, the exothermic heat of formation is
absorbed in the liquid and can be transferred rapidly to other reacting species.

The percent liquid in kiln feed is calculated from the chemical analysis of kiln feed on a loss free basis. There
are several different equations that can be used. For, example, according to the Lea & Desch Equation:

Whereas, according to the Lea and Parker Equation:

% liquid at 1400°C = 2.943 A + 2.250 F
The equation by Lea and Parker (1935) has provided a good indication of how kiln feed will react in a kiln
burning zone. A liquid content of 22.0% – 22.5% tends to be optimum. As the liquid content increases, the mix
becomes easier to burn; as it decreases the mix becomes harder to burn. The silica content of the melt phase
increases with temperature, so higher temperature will help clinker a mix with low liquid. The silica will appear in
clinker as dot or “dendritic” belite crystals that clearly have crystallized from the melt during cooling. A General
Liquid Equation, based on Dahl’s (1935, 1956) equations for calculating phase composition, including liquids, at
various temperatures was presented in a Portland Cement Association (PCA) course, as follows:

LT = F (2.953 R + 0.0034844 T – 6.662)

where:

Lea (1970) cites Lea and Parker paper (1935) as reference. Lea also gives data on the percentage of liquid as a
function of the alumina to iron ratio (A/F) and temperature (Table 3.3.1).

Table 3.3.1. Variation of Percent Liquid in Clinker with Alumina/Iron Ratio

Literature from both Christensen and Johansen (1979) and Miller (1981) have referenced the rela-tionship at
constant silica ratio between percent liquid versus temperature at various A/F values as shown in Figure 3.3.2.
 Lime saturation factor (LSF) or C3S content provide indications of how much calcium oxide, or lime, is in the
kiln feed relative to the other components. As C3S content or LSF increases, kiln feed becomes harder to burn;
as they decrease, kiln feed becomes easier to burn.

Figure 3.3.2. Relationship between liquid phase and temperature as a function of A/F ratio.

A 100% LSF value expresses the theoretical limit to the amount of lime (CaO) that can be added to a mix until all
of the calcium would be combined into clinker compounds, with no C2S remaining. If kiln feed contains more
CaO than the maximum that can be combined with the silica, iron, and alumina to form C4AF, C3A, and C3S (i.e.,
the LSF is greater than 100%), some free CaO will remain. If the clinker has a high free lime content when the
kiln appears to be operating normally, rather than increasing the fuel firing rate in an attempt to “burn out” the
free lime, it is better to first determine if the kiln feed chemical composition is the culprit rather than kiln
operations.

“Harder to burn” and “easier to burn.” People in the cement industry use the terms“harder to burn” and “easier
to burn” frequently. However, many people most likely do not fully understand what these terms mean. Rather
than harder to burn, more properly it should be“requires higher temperatures or more time to chemically
combine C2S with free lime to produce C3S,” and easier to burn should be “requires lower temperatures or less
time to chemically combine C2S with free lime to produce C3S.”

A kiln feed that is too “easy to burn” may be an extremely difficult mix for an operator to control in a kiln. A mix
with low silica ratio and a high liquid, especially with a low lime saturation factor, will be easy to overfuel, and
will tend to become sticky in the burning zone if the kiln is overheated slightly. If kiln feed is too easy to burn,
clinker can easily melt and form a liquid, which if it is allowed to flow into the cooler, can cause serious damage
to grates and other cooler components. An easy burning mix will tend to build thick coating, but the coating is
generally unstable and falls out if the temperature profile or feed composition is slightly altered. Sometimes,
making a mix that is a little “harder” to burn will make stable operation of a kiln much easier.

Kiln Feed Chemical Uniformity

Good kiln feed chemical uniformity is required for stable operation and results in the following benefits: higher
clinker production, reduced kiln downtime, improved brick life, and reduced fuel consumption. Table 3.3.2
provides some guidelines on acceptable variations in different

kiln feed parameters.

Table 3.3.2. Maximum Acceptable Standard Deviation of Selected Kiln Feed Parameters

Standard deviation is calculated from chemical analyses of a series of individual (grab) samples. Calculating
standard deviation from a series of samples that have been composited will not provide an accurate measure
of variability. As an example, when told that the maximum acceptable standard deviation for C3S was 3%, a
chief chemist said that their kiln feed met this requirement, since it had a standard deviation of 2.9. On closer
examination, it was determined that kiln feed samples were taken once every two hours, and once per day the
12 samples were mixed together and analyzed. The standard deviation of the analyses of the daily composited
samples was calcu-lated each month. The reported standard deviation substantially understated the highly
variable nature of the kiln feed chemical composition in this case.

The typical method of determining chemical variation in kiln feed is to take one grab sample each hour until a
minimum of 30 samples have been taken, perform a chemical analysis on each sample, then calculate the
standard deviation of the desired parameter (typically, C3S).
The author notes that external factors may affect chemical uniformity in kiln feed. For example, during wet
weather, raw materials may become sticky and blockages can form in raw material feed-ers supplying feed to
the raw mill. Chemical variations in the raw mill product (and the resulting kiln feed) can become extreme
during periods of intermittent flow of raw materials. Other contributing factors inherent to a specific plant site
can cause unacceptably high variations in kiln feed chemical composition. Some cement plant quarries have
highly variable raw material deposits. Selective mining and preblending may be necessary to produce a
chemically uniform kiln feed in these cases. Online analyzers are available that can provide real time analyses
of the entire raw material stream. These analyzers and the associated software for raw material control have
some remarkable successes in reducing chemical variation in kiln feed.

One requirement to achieve chemical uniformity is the ability to control the flow of various raw materials from
storage. Inconsistent and unreliable raw material feed results in severe variations in raw mill product chemistry.
The most sophisticated sampling systems, analyzers, computer controls, and feeders cannot control chemical
variation if it is not possible to reliably withdraw each raw material from storage and proportion it by weight. To
produce kiln feed with an accept-able chemical variation, adequately sized, reliable means of withdrawing raw
materials in a controlled manner from storage and delivering them to the raw mill must be available.

Cement kiln feed contains five major elements, expressed as the oxides, and numerous minor and trace
elements. The five major oxides are SiO2,Al2O3,Fe2O3,CaO, and MgO. The primary minor elements expressed
as oxides are SO3,Na2O, and K2O; however, since most cement raw materials are usually naturally occurring
mineral deposits, many other trace elements exist in the raw materials.

Unfortunately, the five major oxides are not all present in raw materials in the form of oxides. It is unfortunate
because a substantial amount of the total heat input is used to decompose, or calcine, carbonate-bearing raw
materials to prepare them for reaction. Although SiO2,Al2O3, and Fe2O3 are normally present in raw materials
essentially as oxides, CaO and MgO are usually present as carbonates, and their calcination consumes most of
the energy, exclusive of heat losses, in the pyroprocessing system. CaO is formed in the kiln from CaCO3
(limestone or calcite) and MgO is formed in the kiln from MgCO3 (usually from dolomite, CaCO3·MgCO3)
according to the follow-ing simplified chemical reactions:

Note that the temperatures are given in ranges and the energy requirements are approximate figures. These
values depend on numerous factors that have been the subject of substantial research.

Consider some of the basics of the calcination zone from the standpoint of the energy requirement in the
process of making portland cement clinker. The calcination reaction is an endothermic reac-tion (one that
occurs with the absorption of heat), and this heat is not recoverable to the process. Theoretically, the amount of
energy needed for the calcination reactions is the only heat require-ment of the process in an “ideal kiln.” An
ideal kiln has no energy losses in the system. The actual work to be done involves decomposition of calcium
carbonate (and small amounts of magnesium carbonate) in kiln feed into lime or magnesia, with carbon dioxide
being liberated.

How does the above affect kiln operations at a cement plant? Composition of the raw material mix in regard to
percentage of CaCO3 has a substantial effect on the calcining zone. If the raw mix design is higher in CaCO3, it
will require more energy for calcining. For example, a raw mix designed to give clinker with 65% CaO has a
higher energy input requirement for calcination than one designed for 60% CaO-clinker.

Calcination is a time-temperature reaction. If the temperature is held constant, the time required for complete
calcination will be longer when burning a 65%-CaO mix when compared to a 60%-CaO mix at the same
production rate. The time involved could be shortened by increasing the calcining zone temperature, or perhaps
to some extent by grinding the kiln feed finer. The feed rate would also have to be higher to obtain an equal
production rate when higher percentages of CaCO3 are in the mix to compensate for the additional CO2 loss.
Any MgCO3 in the mix would affect the kiln in a similar manner, although the amount of MgO is rather small.
The following example can serve as an illustration:

As can be seen, kiln feed chemical variations can have a noticeable effect on the fuel requirements for
calcining. In a precalciner kiln, changes in the kiln feed carbonate concentration should result in changes in the
fuel rate or in the degree of calcination of kiln feed from the calciner, assuming the temperature and residence
time in the calciner are not changed.In long kilns, both wet and dry, the calcining zone is in the rotary kiln;
consequently, kiln feed carbonate changes are not as readily noticeable and can frequently result in kiln upset
conditions. If the CaO concentration increases, calcining requires more time, and the length of the kiln in which
calcining occurs increases. The thermal profile of the kiln is shifted toward the clinker discharge end. This tends
to compress the burning zone into a progressively shorter length of the kiln and can eventually create a raw
material flush of partially calcined kiln feed through the burning zone and into the clinker cooler.

Kiln Feed Fineness

The reactions in the clinkering zone forming C3S (alite) from C2S (belite) and free lime take place faster the
finer the grain size of the reacting particles. With smaller sizes, there is more surface area per unit mass and
more contact points in a given mass for the reactions between particles to take place. With smaller particle
sizes, the reaction times are shorter

.
Kiln feed fineness will also affect the amount of dust entrained in the kiln exhaust gases and lost from a kiln. As
the feed becomes finer, more dust will be entrained in the exit gas stream and the actual amount of feed
progressing through the kiln will decrease. Symptoms similar to poor feed rate control will be the result of
varying kiln feed fineness.

Kiln Feed Rate

Optimum kiln operation will be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve without a consistent, reli-able kiln feed
metering system. The feed kiln rate is typically ratioed to the kiln speed (e.g., 1.5 tons of kiln feed per 1.0
revolutions of the kiln) so that a constant or nearly constant bed depth is maintained in the kiln. The
“speed/feed” ratio is maintained so the cross-sectional loading in the kiln stays nearly constant.

Fuel Heating Value

The heating value of the fuel must be as uniform as possible. Heating values, as fired to the kiln, can change
substantially if two or more fuels are used simultaneously. For example, if a high volatile coal and petroleum
coke are used together, non uniform blending can result in changes in the volatile content of the mixture which
will affect flame shape and temperature profile in the burning zone; it can result in changes in the energy input
into the system, which in turn can cause either overheating or cooling of the system.

Fuel Fineness and Volatile Content

A high degree of fineness can be obtained with air separation and, within ordinary limits, it is possible to control
this well. Solid fuels with lower volatile content must be pulverized to a higher fineness for good combustion
and flame shaping. As a rule, a decrease of 1% in volatiles requires an increase of 1% in the percentage of
material passing a 74 µm (200-mesh) sieve. Hydrogen and CO may be produced on pyrolysis, but coal actually
contains mostly hydrocarbons, some partially oxygenated, as volatile matter. Actually, volatile matter results
from cracking hydrocarbons contained in coal during pyrolysis (Schobert, 1987). These volatiles vaporize at low
temperature (900 – 1000°C), and help support combustion by providing an ignition source for the flame. Table
3.3.3 shows the recommended fineness for coals with different volatile content. It is worth noting that
petroleum coke, with 12% volatiles or less, typically requires a fineness of greater than 95%passing a 74-µm
sieve.

If the source of coal is changed or if petroleum coke is introduced into the system, the fineness of the
pulverized solid fuel should be changed accordingly. If the percent volatiles are substantially reduced (e.g., a
reduction of 5% – 10%) from an existing level, the coal mill fineness should be adjusted. An unstable flame and
a long plume may result if the fineness is not increased.
Table 3.3.3. Recommended Coal Fineness

Fuel Feed Rate

All inputs into the kiln system must be controlled, but the mass flow of fuel is especially critical. Variations in
the fuel firing rate can have substantial effects on the system. For example, if a surge of fuel occurs, insufficient
oxygen for combustion may result, and short-term, excessive concentra-tions of CO can be produced. Higher
than normal concentrations of CO can reduce sulfates in the burning zone, which may cause plugging in
preheater towers and elevated SO2 emissions. Even higher concentrations of CO (e.g., greater than 1%) may
also cause fires or explosions in the system ductwork or dust collection device. Varying fuel feed rates will also
tend to cause operators to run the system with higher excess combustion air levels, which is inefficient for both
fuel and power (greater amounts of exhaust gases must be handled by the process fans).

Clinker Cooler Operation

Clinker cooler operation is also critical to stable operation of the entire kiln system and is covered in greater
detail in another section of this book. In a modern preheater/precalciner kiln system, preheated combustion air
from the clinker cooler supplies about 20% of the total heat input to the burning zone and about 25% of the total
heat input to the calciner. Variations in the temperature and quantity of preheated combustion air from the
clinker cooler will have tremendous effects on kiln stability. Stable kiln operation is generally not possible
without stable clinker cooler operation.

In general, a summary of some of the important factors in producing quality clinker can be outlined as follows:

• The chemical composition of the kiln feed should be designed to obtain sufficient liquid, but not too much,
with components controlled to obtain desired clinker composition.
• Feeding a homogenous mix of the fine oxides is important so that these oxides can be avail-able to each other
in the proper proportions to combine and form the desired clinker compounds.

• The proper degree of fineness required for the combination of the four principal oxides (CaO,
SiO2,Al2O3,Fe2O3) must be maintained. The form of the silica and limiting the maximum size of the silica
entering the kiln are of particular importance.2
• A controlled kiln feed rate (including the moisture content) is important so that the system energy requirement
is constant.
• Temperatures throughout the system must be controlled to develop and maintain proper clinker temperature
in the burning zone for the particular homogenized mix to achieve complete compound formation, avoid
uncombined silica, and limit free lime in the clinker.
• Fuel heating value, fineness, and ash chemistry must be as constant as possible.
• Fuel firing rate must be steady, repeatable, and controllable.
• Clinker cooler operation must be controlled and stable to supply a steady heat input to the system.

Obtaining and controlling the above factors should give a good operating burning zone that pro-duces uniform,
quality clinker with minimum fuel consumption. Each kiln subsystem (including the preheater and clinker
cooler) has an important bearing on the time and temperature required for passage through the sintering zone
to get clinker that will produce high quality cement.

KILN TEMPERATURE PROFILE

In a rotary kiln system producing cement clinker, gas flows are counter-current to material flows. Gases enter
the kiln as secondary air at about 600°C – 1100°C and rise abruptly to over 1750°C as heat from fuel
combustion, and the exothermic heat of clinker formation are released. The gases transfer heat to the material
in the kiln as they travel back through the kiln. This heats the material and cools the gases. The gases then
enter the preheater or chain system at about 800°C – 1100°C, where heat from the exit gases is transferred into
the kiln feed. Throughout the balance of the system, heat is transferred from gas to material.

The critical point in the operation of a rotary kiln producing cement clinker is when the material temperature
reaches about 1250°C. Since this point establishes when the liquid phase forms and most of the clinkering
reactions begin, it also establishes the length of the burning zone. If this temperature is reached close to the
discharge of the kiln (nose), the burning zone will be short; if this temperature is reached sooner, the burning
zone will be longer.

When kiln feed is placed into the kiln system, the material temperature remains relatively constant at about
100°C until free water is evaporated. Once water is evaporated, the dry kiln feed tempera-ture rises quickly to
about 600°C. Combined water in clay minerals is vaporized in the temperature range of 200°C – 600°C.
Decarbonation of calcium and magnesium carbonate begins slowly at about 600°C, and is completed at about
1000°C – 1100°C. Most of the decarbonation occurs at about 900°C. As previously noted, carbonate
decomposition requires a substantial amount of energy; consequently, the temperature increase of the
materials as they undergo calcination, from about 600°C to about 900°C, is very slow. Following the calciner
vessel or the calcining zone, a relatively short length of the kiln is used as a heating zone. The heat being added
increases the material temperature quickly, because the mass to be heated has been reduced by about 35%,
and the endothermic reactions are relatively complete.At 1200°C – 1250°C iron and alumina in the kiln feed
begin to melt; the remaining reactions that form the clinker minerals occur at material temperatures ranging
between 1100°C – 1450°C. Formation of most of the clinker minerals is exothermic (release heat) which rapidly
increases material temperature. Belite formation from lime and silica is strongly exothermic, as is the formation
of low-lime aluminates and ferrites. However, the formation of alite from belite and free lime is almost thermally
neutral (Lea, 1970; Gaulitz and others, 1962).

Burning Zone Length

Several factors influence burning zone length. If the kiln is over fueled, clinkering reaction temper-atures are
reached further from the discharge of the kiln and result in a longer burning zone. If the firing rate to the burning
zone is decreased, the beginning of the burning zone will occur closer to the discharge end.

Kiln speed can also be a factor in establishing burning zone length. In general, as a kiln’s rotational speed is
increased, the burning zone will become shorter. Heat transfer from the material surface into the interior of the
material is slow; it has a dominating effect on the total rate of heat transfer and will often decide burning zone
length. This heat transfer occurs when the material turns over in the kiln. When material in the burning zone
tends to slide, it is extremely difficult to heat. For this reason, it is sometimes advantageous to use a higher kiln
rotational speed to tumble the mate-rial and get better heat transfer, despite the reduced clinker residence time
in the burning zone.

Flame shape also has an effect on burning zone length. A short, intense flame will tend to produce a shorter
burning zone. However, a short bushy flame can be a problem; it can cause refractory damage, it can be difficult
to control, and there is little margin for operating errors.

Clinker Formation
Clinker formation is a time/temperature-controlled reaction. That means clinker can be made in two ways. One
is to hold the material at a high temperature for a short period of time, and the other is to hold the material at a
lower temperature for a longer period of time (a minimum temperature is required to initiate the reactions that
form the clinker minerals). Successful kiln operation is achieved when the burning zone length and temperature
are controlled between the two extremes.

Clinker exposed to burning zone temperatures for a longer period of time tends to form large crys-tals of the
clinker minerals. These large crystals make the clinker hard to grind and can adversely affect strength
characteristics of cement produced from the clinker. Clinker that is produced by rapidly heating kiln feed to
reaction temperature and then quickly cooling the clinker results in many small reactive crystals. These smaller
crystals make clinker easier to grind and produce cement that displays excellent strength gains. Other sections
of this book provide a more detailed discussion of clinker mineralogy.

Many of the phase changes and the formation of new compounds are exothermic reactions. Some exothermic
reactions take place very early in the process and continue into the clinkering zone. In the clinkering zone, one
of the main reasons that the amount of liquid phase increases very rapidly is that some of these exothermic
reactions take place and release heat directly into the melt. An important point to help in understanding the
exothermic reaction effect is to realize that in the clinkering zone, this heat from the exothermic reactions is
released right where it is needed. The full heat release is in the material bed as soon as the reaction
temperature has been reached. If the material in the charge is already completely calcined, and no endothermic
reaction heat is required, this heat goes into raising the bed temperature so that more reactions can proceed
faster and more heat will be developed in the bed.

KILN OPERATION – PRACTICAL SCENARIOS

Stable kiln operation requires that the addition rate of materials and energy entering the kiln be held as constant
as possible. In addition, kiln feed chemical composition must also be as uniform as possible because kiln feed
chemical composition has a large effect on kiln operations.
What Happens When a Kiln Goes Raw or “In-The-Hole”
Formation of some clinker compounds in the burning zone or sintering zone is exothermic. It is noted that fuel
fired into the kiln is only one of several sources of process heat. There are three primary sources of process
heat for the burning zone of any kiln type: heat from fuel combustion, heat from the secondary air, and heat
from the exothermic heat of reaction. A typical value for the energy released by these exothermic reactions is
100 kcal/kg of clinker. What happens if the kiln burning zone is allowed to become so cool that these reactions
stop (i.e., the kiln stops making good clinker)?

The following can serve as an example of what will occur if the clinker forming reactions stop, and the
exothermic heat of reaction is lost. Assume a precalciner kiln is producing 100 mtph of clinker, with a total
specific fuel consumption of 800 kcal/kg of clinker of which 60% of the fuel is fired into the calciner, and 40% is
fired into the burning zone. The fuel consumption of 800 kcal/kg is an average; the actual heat input per ton
required varies depending on:

• kiln feed chemical variations

• kiln feed mass flow into the kiln
• moisture content of the kiln feed
• system heat losses
• heat recovery efficiency from the clinker cooler (preheating combustion air)
• ambient air infiltration
• other system parameters

If,because of normal variations, the system energy requirements increase slightly and additional energy is not
supplied, system temperatures would slowly begin to cool. For example, if the required coal firing rate was
12,500 kg per hour but the actual firing rate was only 12,400 kg per hour, eventually the burning zone
temperature may reach a point where the clinker-forming reac-tions stop. If these reactions stop, the
exothermic heat of reaction would be lost and this energy would no longer be available to the process. When
the clinker forming reactions stop, the burning zone will lose:

(100 kcal/kg clinker) x (100,000 kg/h clinker) = 10,000,000 kcal/h

Suddenly, instead of being deficient by 100 kg/h of coal (12,500 kg/h – 12,400 kg/h) the system is deficient by:

This example is applicable to all types of kiln systems; however, since this calciner kiln fires 60% of the fuel in
the calciner and only 40% in the burning zone, the loss of the exothermic heat of reac-tion is particularly
troublesome. The firing rate into the burning zone for the kiln system in our example is:

(0.40) x (800 kcal/kg) x (100,000 kg/h) = 32,000,000 kcal/h

and the loss of the exothermic heat of reaction occurs in the burning zone. Consequently, the burning zone
experiences a loss of about 18% – 20% of the process heat entering the burning zone.3 This will result in the
burning zone temperature dropping very quickly.

In order to reestablish the clinker forming reactions, the operator must increase the fuel rate by 100 kcal/kg or
more to replace the exothermic heat of reaction, or the production rate must be drasti-cally reduced while
maintaining the same fuel rate.

When burning zone temperatures reach proper operating levels, the clinker forming reactions begin, and the
exothermic heat is once again available. The kiln burning zone now has 1538 kg/h too much coal. This will
cause the burning zone temperature to increase very quickly.

Information the Kiln System can Provide the Operator

Several pieces of information can be used as indicators of what is happening inside the kiln. Following is a list
of some of these indicators:

• kiln drive motor power (amps or kW)

• burning zone temperature
• temperatures throughout the kiln system
• kiln exit gas analyses
• physical appearance of the clinker
• clinker free lime
• clinker alkali content
• clinker cooler operation

A summary of these indicators is outlined in the following sections.

Kiln drive motorpower. When the burning zone is getting hotter, it becomes longer, and the clinker becomes
stickier. As the kiln rotates, the clinker rides higher on the side of the kiln before it tumbles down. Because the
burning zone is longer, and because the clinker rides higher on the side of the kiln, the kiln drive motor power
(amps or kW) increases as the burning zone temperature increases. However, other things can change the kiln
drive power. If the kiln is thrusting hard, either uphill or downhill, kiln drive power will increase. Mechanical
conditions on the kiln system can also affect the kiln drive power, such as kiln shell ovality and alignment on
kilns with more than two tire and roller stations. Kiln drive power provides a good indication of temperature
changes in the burning zone, but factors unrelated to burning zone temperature can also affect kiln drive power.
In addition, if the burning zone becomes severely overheated, the liquid phase will become less viscous, the
proportion of material in the liquid phase substantially increases, and material may be lost from the refractory
lining. In industry terminology, this is known as the kiln “going liquid.” In this case, the drive amps or kW will
actually decrease. This decrease is a strong warning of a severely overheated condition that, if ignored, will lead
to refractory failure, potential kiln shell damage, and potential clinker cooler damage.
Burning zone temperature. Temperatures in selected parts of the burning zone can be continuously monitored
either with optical pyrometers or with some types of kiln cameras. These cameras also provide a good picture
of the burning zone and frequently provide a view of the material load in the kiln(Figure 3.3.3).

Figure 3.3.3. A typical view of kiln burning zone showing flame and material load.

The location selected to monitor in the kiln will influ-ence the temperature readings. If different locations are
selected, different temperature readings will usually result. The hottest part of the kiln is in the burning zone
where the clinkering reactions are taking place. This is typically about 6 – 12 m from the discharge end of
thekiln. Usually, the last 0 – 6 m of the kiln are a cooling zone for the clinker. If the temperature of the clinker as
it is discharged over the nose of the kiln is monitored, an increase in temperature may indi-cate that the cooling
zone is getting shorter. This is an indication that the burning zone is moving closer to the discharge of the kiln,
or in other words, the kiln system is actually cooling. These cameras provide an excellent view inside a kiln and
a good indication of the temperatures at the points selected. However, care must be exercised in interpreting
these temperature measurements.

Temperatures throughout the kiln system. Temperatures throughout the kiln system can be used as an
indication of what is happening. If the kiln exit temperature and/or preheater tempera-tures are too low, the kiln
feed will not be properly prepared when it gets to the burning zone and will cool the burning zone. If the
temperatures are too high, kiln feed will reach the clinkering reac-tion temperatures sooner in the kiln and result
in an overheated, too long burning zone. However, this assumes that the temperature measurements are
accurate, or at least relative to previous measurements.

As the burning zone temperature increases, the average size of the clinker will usually increase. If the clinker at
the discharge of the kiln begins to look larger than normal, the kiln may be too hot. This change in size will also
affect clinker cooler operations and will be discussed in a following section. However, clinker chemistry can
also influence clinker size.

Kiln exit gas analyses. Peray (1986) said that the excess oxygen (O2) level can be used as an advanced
indication of changes in the burning zone temperature providing the kiln induced draft (ID) fan and fuel rate
have not been changed. This author has observed that when a kiln has been operating in a stable condition for
several hours with no changes or a few small changes, if the temperature in the burning zone begins to cool, the
excess oxygen (O2) level at the kiln exit may gradually drop or the CO emissions may increase. This can also
provide an indication that the kiln is cooling. However, the excess O2 or CO levels in the kiln exit gases can be
influenced by several other things. If the quantity of fuel or fuel chemistry changes, the O2 and CO levels will be
affected. For example, in a direct fired coal mill system if the moisture content of the coal drops, the kiln will get
more tons of dry coal at the same setting on the raw coal feeder. Changes in the percentages of coal versus
coke, for a kiln firing both fuels simultaneously, will also affect the CO and O2 level.

NOx concentration is a very good indicator of burning zone temperature if the gas sample is taken from the
exhaust gases of the rotary kiln. Most NOx formed in the kiln is “thermal” NOx,which is formed at very high
temperatures, such as at the flame temperature in the burning zone. Small changes in the flame temperature
will produce noticeable changes in kiln exit gas NOx concentra-tion. NOx emissions are directly related to
burning zone temperature (the relationship is not linear); however, other factors can influence NOx emissions.
NOx levels also tend to be directly related to excess O2 and inversely related to CO concentrations in kiln
exhaust gases. Conse-quently, although NOx is a very good indicator of burning zone temperature changes,
other factors can also influence NOx concentrations in kiln exit gases.
Clinker free lime. Clinker free lime can be used as an indicator of conditions in the kiln. If the kiln feed chemical
composition is constant, and the free lime begins to increase, the kiln may be cooling; however, free lime can be
high if the kiln feed chemical composition is not correct. A drawback with using the free lime as an indicator of
burning zone conditions is the time lag between the condition and the diagnosis. A clinker sample from the
cooler discharge will be at least 45 minutes old by the time the analysis is started in the laboratory and
laboratory analysis can take 30 – 90 minutes to complete.

Clinker alkali content. Clinker alkali concentration can also be an indicator of burning zone temperature. As the
temperature in the burning zone increases, the potassium concentration usually decreases. Although the
sodium concentration is also affected, the change in sodium concentration is not nearly as pronounced as the
change in potassium concentrations. As with control based on free lime, the clinker sample from the cooler
discharge will be taken and analysis begun at least 45 minutes after the clinker has passed the hottest part of
the burning zone. Accordingly, conditions in the kiln may have changed substantially by the time information on
alkalis or free lime is available.
Clinker cooler operation. Typically, clinker cooler grate speed is controlled by the pressure in either the first or
second undergrate compartment, or both. Several things affect the undergrate pressure, including:

• undergrate fan airflow

• the amount of clinker entering the cooler
• temperature of the clinker entering the cooler
• fineness of the clinker entering the cooler

If the airflow into an undergrate compartment changes and everything else remains constant, the undergrate
pressure will change. As airflow increases, pressure increases. Typically, airflow of undergrate fans is
automatically controlled, and unless the airflow set point for an undergrate fan is changed, the effect on
pressure because of differences in airflow is minimized.

When kiln speed is changed, the quantity of clinker entering the clinker cooler changes propor-tionately. When
kiln speed is increased, if the clinker cooler has been operating in a stable condi-tion, the undergrate air
supplied to the cooler should be increased by a proportionate amount. If kiln feed rate is proportionate to kiln
speed, additional fuel and ID fan will be added when the kiln speed is increased; however, more undergrate air
will be needed than used by the process, with the result that the cooler vent fan damper will open or the cooler
vent fan speed will increase.
When the kiln is in an upset condition and material flushes into the cooler, the cooler vent temper-ature can
increase dramatically. As excess material begins to flow into the cooler, the grate speed increases which
reduces the residence time in the cooler and results in hotter clinker being discharged. Since more material is
entering the cooler, the amount of heat that must be removed by the cooler increases. Some of this heat is
transferred to the secondary and tertiary air, which raises their temperature; some of the heat is transferred to
the vent air, which raises its tempera-ture; and some of the excess heat leaves the cooler with inadequately
cooled clinker. When the temperature of the secondary air, tertiary air, and vent air is increased, the volume
increases proportionately. If additional undergrate air is supplied to help cool the clinker, the vent volume is
again increased.

During an upset condition, the cooler can become quickly overheated. Since the vent fan will most likely be
operating near maximum airflow, it is generally not possible to increase the airflow to the undergrate fans
enough to cool the large excess of material. Consequently, the cooler will be discharging hot clinker unless
other measures are taken.In a situation in which more material is flowing into the clinker cooler than can be
properly cooled, the proper response is to slow down the kiln. Simply stated, if the cooler is being fed more
material than it can handle, put less material into the cooler.

If the clinker temperature increases and everything else remains constant, the undergrate pressure will
increase. When cool air from the undergrate fans enters the bed of clinker, the air temperature increases rapidly,
which makes the air expand rapidly. This rapid expansion restricts the flow of additional air into the bed of
clinker; that is, the pressure increases.

If the average size of the clinker from the kiln becomes smaller and everything else remains constant, the
undergrate pressure will increase. For example, it would take much more pressure to blow air through a one-half
meter layer of sand than through a one-half meter layer of coarse aggregate.

As we have seen previously, several things can affect clinker cooler undergrate pressure. Since the cooler grate
speed is usually controlled automatically to maintain a given pressure in an undergrate compartment,
parameters that affect undergrate pressure may actually affect grate speed. As the undergrate pressure
increases, the grate speed will increase to bring the pressure back to the set point. Table 3.3.4 summarizes
selected conditions that affect the cooler undergrate pressure, and hence the grate speed:

Table 3.3.4. Factors that Affect Clinker Cooler Operations

When a kiln has been operating in a stable condition for several hours (two hours or more) and begins to cool
gradually but is still producing clinker minerals, the following things happen that affect the clinker cooler:

• The temperature of the clinker entering the clinker cooler will increase slightly.
• The average size of the clinker will get smaller.
Both of these factors result in an increase in clinker cooler undergrate pressure, which will result in the grate
speed increasing. Accordingly, if the clinker cooler grate speed gradually increases over a one-half hour to two-
hour period, the kiln may be cooling. If the grates are slowing, the kiln may be getting hotter.

Summary of kiln indicators. The above discussion has reviewed some operating parameters that can provide
indications of what the kiln has done and what it is currently doing. However, each of these indicators can be
influenced by conditions not related to kiln operation. Therefore, an operator must not rely on a single indicator
to determine kiln conditions. A good operator will examine all of the indicators at hand and then make a
decision based on all of the information available.

Table 3.3.5 summarizes parameters that an operator can use to help determine kiln operating conditions. This
table is a list of the indicators discussed and what may happen when the kiln is cooling.

Table 3.3.5. Indications When a Kiln is Cooling

RESPONSES TO CHANGING KILN CONDITIONS

Emergency Measures to Protect People and Equipment
One of the many examples requiring emergency measures would be if a kiln system is severely overheated, and
coating and refractory damage are imminent. In this case, steps to reduce kiln operating temperatures must be
taken immediately.

Typically, a kiln operates near optimum conditions. If a kiln has been operating at or near maxi-mum production
levels for several hours, the fuel rate and kiln feed rate are probably close to the proper balance. Kiln operations
must be as stable as possible to achieve sustained operations and produce the maximum amount of good
quality clinker at the lowest total cost.

The following suggested operating practices are for periods when a kiln is in a stable operating condition, and
the operator is trying to optimize the process to insure continued stable operation.

Kilns are large thermal masses, and typical residence times are 30 minutes for preheater or precal-ciner kilns to
3 hours or more for long wet or long dry kilns. Because of the large thermal mass, it is not possible to quickly
alter kiln system temperatures. Because of the residence time, the effect of some changes (for example fuel
changes) may require some time before the full effect of the change becomes evident.
Successfully operating a kiln requires patience and planning. An operator must review what the kiln has been
doing for the last 4 – 8 hours, try to determine where it is going to be in 1 – 2 hours, then decide if a change in
operating conditions is required to alter this. If the operator watches all of the indicators previously discussed
and decides that a kiln is beginning to cool or overheat, what response, if any, will keep the kiln stable and at
optimum production levels?

What if Burning Zone Temperature is Increasing?

If a kiln has been operating in near stable conditions for several hours but the following indica-tions are evident:
• kiln drive power has been increasing for the last 30 – 90 minutes
• NOx concentration has been increasing for the last 30 – 90 minutes
• cooler grate speed has been slowing down for the last 30 – 90 minutes
• kiln exit oxygen concentration is slowly increasing
• average clinker size is becoming larger,

the kiln is probably becoming hotter, and a change may be required to bring the temperatures back to proper
operating levels. Cooling a kiln (particularly a long kiln) that is too hot is very difficult to do without cooling it too
much. If the kiln is operating at less than the maximum production rate, it is usually better to increase
production to slowly cool the kiln rather than reduce the fuel rate.If the oxygen at the kiln exit is too low, the fuel
rate is too high, or the kiln is operating at maximum speed, then the fuel rate should be reduced slightly. Another
reduction in fuel should not be undertaken for at least one full residence time for a kiln. For a calciner kiln this
could be 30 – 45 minutes, or for a long wet process kiln it could be 3 – 4 hours. The maximum fuel reduction
should be about 1% of the normal fuel rate. It is usually not a good idea to increase the kiln speed or feed and at
the same time reduce the fuel feed rate. This correction should only be implemented if the kiln system is
severely overheated.

What if the Burning Zone is Becoming Cooler?

If the kiln has been operating in near stable conditions for several hours but the following indica-tions are
evident:

• kiln drive power has been dropping for the last 30 – 90 minutes
• cooler grates have been speeding up for the last 30 – 90 minutes
• kiln exit oxygen concentration is slowly dropping
• average clinker size is getting finer
• NO concentration has been slowly dropping,

the kiln is probably starting to cool, and a small change should be made early to prevent the kiln from getting
too cold. If the change is delayed, it may be very difficult to counteract the cooling trend. When indications are
that a kiln system is beginning to cool, reducing kiln speed and/or production by a small amount will usually
disrupt the kiln less than increasing fuel by a large amount. For example, if a kiln is cooling, the production rate
is reduced slightly, and temperatures begin to increase; production can be increased as the kiln heats up.
However, the fuel rate when the kiln was at the previous production level was apparently not enough because
the kiln was cooling.

Therefore when the kiln production returns to near the starting level, some fuel should be added, with a
corresponding increase in ID fan damper position (or fan speed), before increasing produc-tion to the point at
which the kiln was previously operating.

If changes are made early in response to indications that the kiln is cooling, many times a slight decrease in
production rate (kiln speed) can keep a kiln stable. If a kiln is cooling gradually, reduc-ing production by only 2%
– 4% may stabilize kiln system temperatures. Once the kiln indicates that it is heating up again, a small fuel
increase can be made and production increased back to maximum.
Stable Kiln Operation
When a kiln has been operating in a stable condition for several hours or days, the kiln speed, kiln feed rate, and
fuel firing rate are very close to the optimum. When the kiln is close to its optimum, it is usually not wise to
allow temperatures in the kiln to increase or decrease for an extended period before a correction is made. If the
operator is forced into making a large change, it will be many hours before the kiln system stabilizes again.
Additionally, when an operator first takes over a shift, if the kiln has been stable with no changes or with only
very small changes, it is not wise to make major changes to the system just because the kiln operating values
are not what the individ-ual operator personally likes.

Numerous factors have been discussed that an operator must consider and try to control when operating the
kiln. The operator has three main parameters that can be adjusted to control the burning process:

• the quantity of fuel supplied to the kiln

• the kiln speed and feed rate (including CKD addition rates)
• the draft through the kiln or excess air at the kiln exit

FUEL EFFICIENCY AND PRODUCTION RATES

To enhance fuel efficiency and production rates, the maximum amount of hot secondary and terti-ary air from
the clinker cooler should be used to supply air for combustion. The burner pipe requires a small amount of
primary air, which reduces the amount of preheated combustion air that can be used. In addition to these
sources of air supplied to the kiln, air leaks also supply ambi-ent air that is used for combustion. Another source
of oxygen for combustion is the use of oxygen lances to inject nearly pure oxygen into the flame. Use of oxygen
enrichment can be helpful if the additional clinker production resulting from oxygen use is economical.

False air or air leakage entering through openings around the kiln firing hood and feed end seal wastes energy,
because cool ambient air replaces preheated combustion air. A typical heat loss attributable to ambient air
leakage around the hood would be about 1 – 2 billion kcal per year for an opening 0.1 m2 in area. If fuel costs
$8 per million kcal, this will cost about $10,000 – $15,000 per year; however, this does not include the cost of
lost production.

Heat Transfer Considerations

In a cement rotary kiln, the objective is to maximize the transfer of heat generated by the flame to the incoming
material in the burning zone. There are three principle mechanisms by which the heat may be transferred into
the bed of clinker: conduction, convection, and radiation.

Convection. Convection is heat transfer from one material to another through fluid motion. For example, heat is
transferred from the hot kiln gases to incoming feed in a preheater vessel. A formula for heat transfer by
convection (Perry and others, 1984) is:

Q = h • A (T1 – T2)
Q = rate of heat transfer in J/s (or, Btu/hr).
h = coefficient of heat transfer in J/(m2 • s • °K) (or, Btu/hr/sq ft/°R) A = area available for heat transfer in m2
(or, sq ft)
T1 – T2 = temperature difference in °K (or, °R)

Conduction. Conduction is heat transfer within a given material or heat transfer from one material to another in
physical contact by transfer of vibrational energy from one molecule to another. For example, heat is transferred
from hot kiln chain to cooler kiln feed by conduction. A formula for heat transfer by conduction from Fourier’s
law (Perry and others, 1984) is:

Q = k • A (dt/dx)

where,

Q = rate of heat transfer in J/s (or, Btu/hr)

k = thermal conductivity in J/(m2 • s • °K) (or, Btu/hr/ft/°R) A = area available for heat transfer in m2 (or, sq ft)
dt/dx = temperature gradient in °K/m (or, °R/ft)

Radiation. Radiation is the transfer of heat from one material to another when the two materials are not in
contact. For example, when you walk by a hot kiln shell you feel the heat without actu-ally coming into contact
with the kiln shell. Heat transfer by radiation is an important factor within the kiln. The flame, refractory, and
coating radiate heat to the feed in the kiln. A formula for heat transfer by radiation is (Perry and others, 1984):

Q = σεA (TF4-TP4)

where

Q = rate of heat transfer in J/s (or, Btu/hr)

=Stefan-Boltzmann constant in J/(m2 • s • °K) (or, Btu/hr/sq ft/°R)

= emissivity (0.0 – 1.0)

A = area available for heat transfer in m2 (or, sq ft)

TF = surface temperature of the flame in °K (or, °R)

TP = surface temperature of the product in °K (or, °R)

It is generally understood that radiation, or radiant heat transfer, is the primary mechanism that transfers heat in
the burning zone; about 95% of the heat transfer in the burning zone is through radiation.

Effect of Excess Air on Burning Zone Flame

How is the amount of combustion air supplied to the kiln controlled, and what is the correct amount of excess
oxygen? Primary combustion controls are the kiln-induced draft fan, and the fuel firing rate. However, the clinker
cooler undergrate fans, the cooler vent fan (actually the hood draft), tertiary air flow, and conditions inside the
kiln or preheater can also influence the oxygen concentration at the kiln exit. The simple answer to “what is the
correct amount of combustion air?” is that sufficient combustion air must be supplied to ensure good
combustion conditions.

The “correct” or proper amount of air for combustion is generally determined by an oxygen analyzer or CO
analyzer at the exit of the kiln or preheater. Exit oxygen should be controlled so that sufficient excess oxygen is
available to ensure all of the fuel is completely burned. Hansen (1986) described the use of CO analysis at the a
per million (ppm) level to control the supply of combustion air to a kiln system. He maintained that CO is a more
reliable indicator of combus-tion conditions than O2 because:

• the results from oxygen analyzers may be influenced by ambient air leakage,
• localized reducing conditions may exist because of poor air/fuel mixing, and
• poor combustion conditions may exist for other reasons.

In these situations, the process gases may have what appears to be adequate oxygen concentration, yet poor
combustion conditions exist. Mullinger and Jenkins (1996) said that air/fuel mixing is the slowest of the
combustion reaction steps in a rotary kiln, and that “if it’s mixed, it’s burnt.” Consequently, the amount of oxygen
required for proper combustion will be a function not only of the stoichiometry but also of the efficiency of
mixing.

Small amounts of infiltration can strongly affect the O2 concentration at an analyzer. Less than optimum
combustion conditions can exist simultaneously with what is generally thought to be good O2 concentrations
(1.0% – 2.5%) in the kiln exhaust gases. CO is an excellent indicator of combustion conditions; use of a CO
analyzer provides a more direct measurement of combustion conditions. Hansen (1986) said that a CO analyzer
will provide a reliable indication of combustion conditions despite ambient air infiltration; therefore, the gas
sample for the CO or combustibles analyzer can be taken from the clean side of the kiln dust collector and still
provide useful infor-mation on combustion conditions in the kiln. There is, however, an important limitation on
the use of CO measurements to determine combustion efficiency. If the raw materials contain organic material
or unoxidized carbon, CO may be produced from the raw materials and can result in CO emissions that are
unrelated to combustion conditions. If the kiln system is a preheater or preheater/precalciner system, the CO
analyzer should be located at the kiln inlet or in a preheater gas bypass (if the system has a bypass) for
monitoring kiln combustion conditions.

Effect of Flame Temperature on Heat Transfer in Burning

Zone
Proper combustion control is one of the most important functions of the operator. Proper combustion control
will result in higher production rates, more efficient production, and better clinker quality. Improper control is
inefficient and can result in fires or explosions. Kiln systems operate with highly volatile fuels in an environment
that has many sources of ignition and many sources of oxygen.

In a rotary kiln producing cement clinker, the objective is to do useful work with the heat gener-ated by the
flame; in other words, to make clinker. The flame has to transfer heat into the bed of material in the burning
zone. Heat may be transferred into the bed of clinker by conduction, convection, and radiation. Radiation, or
radiant heat transfer, is the primary mechanism that transfers heat in the burning zone; about 95 percent of the
heat transfer in the burning zone is through radiation. Simply stated, the amount of heat transferred is related to
the rate of heat transfer and the time available. The time available to transfer heat in the burning zone is short
because the gas velocity is high. The rate of heat transfer by radiation is proportional to the fourth power of the
temperature of the flame. Therefore, to improve the rate of heat transfer, the flame temperature should be as
high as possible, but not so high that it would damage the coating or refractory. Other factors such as the
temperature of the material in the kiln and the emissivity of the flame also affect the rate of heat transfer.

Several parameters influence flame temperature. The speed of mixing fuel and combustion air affects it. The
faster fuel and air can be mixed, the faster the fuel burns and liberates heat, and the higher the flame
temperature. The temperature of the combustion air will influence flame temper-ature. Higher secondary air
temperatures will result in higher flame temperatures, but ambient air leaks and relatively cold primary air will
reduce combustion air temperature. Ambient air leaks around the hood should be sealed to improve fuel
efficiency and to increase flame temperature, which improves the heat transfer rate in the burning zone. The
minimum amount of primary air that provides good fuel/air mixing should be used. Theoretically, the highest
flame temperature occurs at near 0% excess air. The actual peak is just slightly on the “lean” side of
stoichiometric combustion. The temperature of a flame decreases with too much or too little combustion air;
however, flame temperature decreases more rapidly with too little air. Flame temperature is also nfluenced by
the temperature of the surroundings; higher coating and material temperatures radi-ate heat back into the
flame, which raises the flame temperature.

Situations can occur in which the flame temperature is lower than normal. For example, if a firing hood
inspection door is open and allows substantial amounts of ambient air inleakage, the flame temperature will be
reduced. When the flame temperature drops, the heat transfer rate is lower, which results in less heat being
transferred to the material in the burning zone. Since less heat is transferred to the material, this heat increases
the exit gas temperature. Another potential reason for lower flame temperature can be operating with
insufficient oxygen for complete combustion, or “substoichiometric” combustion. When substoichiometric
combustion conditions exist, full heating value of the fuel is not realized, and the flame cools and becomes
much longer. It is worth noting that combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide generates less than half the
energy that full combustion to CO2 releases. At times, kilns can be in an upset condition, with the burning zone
too cool and the feed end gas temperature too high. Many times this is the result of conditions that have cooled
the flame and consequently reduced the heat transfer rate in the burning zone.

SOLID FUEL FIRING SYSTEMS

Many kilns use natural gas, oil, and hazardous and nonhazardous waste materials. In North America, solid fuels
such as coal and petroleum coke predominate. This section will review solid fuel preparation and firing
systems.

Fuel Firing Circuits

There are several different types of solid fuel firing circuits that differ in how the solid fuel/air mixture is treated
after it leaves the mill. The simplest and safest system is the direct firing circuit in which the solid fuel/air
mixture is exhausted by the mill system fan and blown directly to the burner pipe. Another system is the indirect
firing circuit, also referred to as the bin system, in which the solid fuel/air mixture is exhausted from the mill and
passes through a dust collector followed by a fan. The dust collector system separates the pulverized solid fuel
from the air and exhausts the clean air to the atmosphere, and the pulverized solid fuel is stored in a specially
designed bin or bins. Solid fuel is withdrawn from the bin and transported to one or more burn-ers. The bin
system is normally used when one mill must supply solid fuel to more than one burner. It is more complex, can
be more hazardous than the direct system, and requires additional considerations in the design and operation
of the system. Solid fuel for a direct or indirect system may be pulverized and dried in a ball mill, roller mill, bowl
mill, or other types of mills.

Direct Firing System

A typical direct firing system uses a mill/fan combination to simultaneously grind, dry, and convey pulverized
solid fuel to the burner pipe. Raw solid fuel is reclaimed from a long-term stockpile by a front-end loader or
bulldozer and is conveyed to a day tank or short-term storage. Solid fuel is withdrawn from the day tank by belt
conveyor, passes across a weighing device, and is metered into the mill for grinding and drying. Hot air for
drying is supplied from the clinker cooler and is drawn through the mill by the mill fan. The hot air, pulverized
fuel, and evaporated moisture are then blown to the firing point by the fan.

The direct system is the simplest of the various firing systems and, as such, tends to be the most reliable and
safest system to operate. A typical direct firing system incorporates the following pieces of equipment:

• A hot air take-off from the clinker cooler with a dedusting cyclone to remove entrained clinker dust.
• Duct work to the hot air inlet of the mill. The hot air duct is provided with appropriate dampers and ambient air
tempering to control temperatures at the mill inlet and outlet.
• A raw fuel bunker or silo with a shutoff gate, and a raw fuel feeder, typically a belt scale.
• A mill to simultaneously grind, classify, and dry the solid fuel. The mill is typically designed to resist an internal
pressure of 3.5 bar to contain explosions.
• An induced draft system fan that pulls hot air from the clinker cooler through the mill and blows the pulverized
fuel/air mixture into the kiln.
• A burner pipe to provide adequate tip velocity to prevent propagation of the flame into the burner pipe, and to
produce turbulence at the burner tip for enhanced combustion and flame stability.

A direct firing system tends to be inherently safer because there are fewer pieces of equipment to malfunction,
fewer vessels, and less duct work. In addition, pulverized fuel is not stored, but is conveyed to the kiln and
burned immediately after being pulverized. Although the direct firing system tends to be safer, more reliable,
and less expensive, it typically uses more cool primary air and therefore is less fuel efficient. In addition, the
evaporated moisture is blown into the kiln, and reduces flame temperature.

Indirect Firing System

A typical indirect firing system uses a bowl mill to simultaneously pulverize and dry solid fuel, which is then
conveyed by air to a cyclone and fabric filter (or a fabric filter alone) which separates the fuel from the moisture-
laden drying air. The air and evaporated moisture are vented to the atmosphere. The collected pulverized fuel is
stored in a pulverized fuel bin from which it is metered and conveyed to the firing point or points.
An indirect system is similar to a direct system through the raw fuel supply to the mill. Hot air for drying solid
fuel can come from several sources. Systems that rely on processing solid fuel in an inert atmosphere, to
minimize risk of fires and explosions, may use kiln or preheater exhaust gases or other low oxygen gases (less
than 8% O2) for drying. As with direct systems, however, hot air is frequently supplied from the clinker cooler (at
21% O2). The hot air is drawn through a cyclone, the mill, another cyclone, and a fabric filter by the mill system
fan. Pulverized fuel is collected and stored in a pulverized fuel bin. It is metered out of the pulverized fuel bin
and conveyed to the burner pipe with air supplied by a high-pressure blower.

An indirect system has substantially more equipment than a direct system and as such tends to be less reliable
to operate; however, depending on the quantity of pulverized fuel stored, the mill may be taken out of service for
short periods (several minutes) without affecting kiln operations. A typical indirect system incorporates the
following pieces of process equipment:

• A hot air take-off, typically from the clinker cooler, with a dedusting cyclone to remove entrained clinker dust
• Duct work to the hot air inlet of the mill
• The mill to simultaneously grind and dry the solid fuel
• A pulverized fuel cyclone (optional) with rotary airlock and explosion vents
• A fabric filter with rotary airlocks, quick acting isolation gates, and explosion vents
• A system fan to induce the draft that pulls hot gases through the mill, cyclone, and fabric filter for drying the
raw solid fuel
• Screw conveyors to transport pulverized fuel from the fabric filter and cyclone to the pulver-ized fuel bin(s)
• Pulverized fuel bin(s)
• Feeder(s) from the pulverized fuel bin(s) to the transport system
• High pressure blower(s) to provide air to convey fuel to the burner pipe(s)
• High pressure blower(s) to provide primary air to the burner pipe(s) for flame shaping
• Carbon monoxide sensors and temperature sensors throughout the system to warn of impending fire or
explosion
• A fire suppression system using inert gas
• An automatic system to activate the fire suppression system based on CO or temperature signals
• Burner pipe or pipes

The indirect firing system offers three distinct advantages:- one large mill may be used to supply fuel to multiple
firing points, modern multichannel burner pipes may be used for flame shaping and NOx reduction, and an
indirect system tends to be more fuel efficient, which may also reduce NOx emissions. However, an indirect
firing system is more complicated to operate, more expensive to purchase and install, tends to be less reliable,
and is more prone to serious fires and explosions.

Because the indirect firing system is more complicated and uses more equipment, it is inherently more
expensive to design, purchase, and install. Generally, with a properly designed direct firing system, fuel savings
alone will not provide sufficient cost savings to financially justify a conversion from direct to indirect. An
exception is when one large mill is used to supply fuel to multiple firing points rather than using individual mills
for each point. Indirect systems also tend to be more difficult and hazardous to operate because there are more
pieces of equipment with more chances for mechanical and operational malfunctions to occur, and they have
vessels containing large volumes of explosive mixtures of finely pulverized fuel.When a pulverized fuel system
is designed, the designer must include preventive measures in the system design to minimize the possibility of
malfunctions. The designer must also design the system to minimize potential hazards when mechanical or
operational problems do occur.

An indirect system is generally designed with carbon monoxide (CO) monitors in the cyclone, fabric filters, raw
solid fuel bunker, and pulverized fuel bins. Temperature sensors are also located at various points throughout
the system. A fire suppression system and inerting system (usually an inert gas such as CO2 or N2) is installed
to suppress incipient fires, and to provide an inert atmos-phere for times when the system is shut down with
pulverized fuel remaining in the system. The monitoring and inerting systems are usually under computer
control with provisions that the inerting system can be manually activated.

Since no monitoring or inerting system can ensure that a fire or explosion never occurs, an indi-rect system is
typically designed to withstand an internal pressure of 3.5 bar (50 psi) from the mill inlet through the fabric filter
outlet to contain an explosion. Explosion venting is frequently included to direct the release of excessive
pressures safely.

Because of the robust design of the system and the additional safety measures required, an indirect firing
system is substantially more expensive to design, purchase, and install than a comparably sized direct firing
system.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Pulverized Solid Fuel System Safety Considerations
An appreciation of the properties of solid fuel and a comprehensive understanding of the princi-ples of mill
operation can make solid fuel grinding safer. A mill, like any other piece of equipment, depends on two factors
for success: how well it is maintained and how well it is operated.

General Guidelines
No manual or book will be able to provide instructions for every situation that may occur. Below are some
suggestions for operating a solid fuel mill system:

1. Maintenance work or inspections that require opening equipment should be performed only when given
specific instructions and under the direct supervision of authorized personnel.
2. Use extreme caution when opening inspection doors. Opening an inspection door on a solid fuel grinding
system can provide oxygen to smoldering, powdered solid fuel and result in fires or explosions.
3. Do not poke or disturb any solid fuel accumulations if there is any evidence of heat, smoke, or glowing
embers. Allow the system to cool further, and then check again as necessary. When you are convinced
everything is OK, remove any accumulations in small amounts.
4. Before working on or around solid fuel firing systems, the system must be inerted or washed down with water
to be sure powdered solid fuel cannot ignite.
5. Cutting or welding around or on a solid fuel firing system can result in fires and explosions.
6. The mill hot air inlet temperature should not exceed 315°C on systems using ambient air.
7. The mill outlet temperature should not exceed 95°C on direct fired systems; the maximum outlet temperature
on indirect systems is generally lower than that for direct fired systems using the same solid fuel.
8. If a fire occurs in the mill:
• Do not shut the mill down.
• Do not attempt to open any mill inspection doors until all evidence of the fire has disap-peared.
• Never use compressed air in an attempt to blow out the fire. Disturbing burning or smol-dering solid fuel in any
way is very hazardous.
• Iffires continue to ignite in the mill, sometimes feeding 5 – 10 kg (or substantially more at times) of limestone
or sand into the mill will dislodge solid fuel buildups that may be the origin of fires.
• A water spray may be used to flood the mill if the procedures above do not stop the fire (but see note on
Western coals below).
• When the mill outlet temperature has fallen to ambient or near ambient, shut down the mill.
• After 2 – 4 hours, inspect the mill system according to established procedures.

Maintenance Practices
Maintenance on pulverized solid fuel mill systems should be performed only by well-trained mechanical or
electrical repair personnel under the direct supervision of an individual who fully understands the hazards
associated with working on a pulverized solid fuel mill system. The system should be allowed to cool to
ambient temperatures and inerted before the mill system is opened. Some of the maintenance features of a mill
system that affect safety are:

1. Be sure the belt magnet on the raw fuel belt is always operating properly. If metal gets into a mill it can cause
fires or explosions.
2. Ensure temperature sensors (thermocouples) are accurately calibrated. If thermocouples are not calibrated
correctly, high temperatures could cause fires or explosions.
3. Preventive maintenance should make sure that wear parts are replaced when they are worn. Hard facing on
fan blades and fan housing liners must be replaced when worn. Replace worn plows to make sure rejects are
removed from the lower housing of roller mills.
4. Overheated bearings in a mill system can cause a fire or explosion.
5. If hot air is supplied from the cooler, inspect the cyclone dust trap and airlock for proper operation to avoid
hot embers getting into the mill.

The above are some features that affect safety; however, others that may be specific to a particular system will
also have to be observed.

Employee Training
Any solid fuel system requires extensive employee training. Operators must be trained to properly respond to
normal and emergency conditions. When a series of dangerous events occur, the proper response to these
conditions may prevent a fire or explosion, or reduce the severity of a fire or explosion. An improper response to
conditions may turn a minor process upset into an explosion. A continuing, formal operators’ training program
is essential.

Western Sub-Bituminous Coals

Western sub-bituminous coals may present a special hazard. Coals have two types of moisture: free moisture
and inherent moisture (or moisture of constitution). Free moisture is on the surface and should be removed in
the drying/grinding process. The latter type of moisture is a constituent of the coal, and its removal can occur if
the coal is overdried. Overdrying of such coals in an indirect firing system can remove some of the inherent
moisture. When moist air contacts such dried coal, an exothermic absorption of water occurs, heating up the
coal, and greatly increasing the risk of fire.

Methane Accumulation During Coal Handling

A major hazard associated with coal handling facilities, especially in enclosed areas or tunnels such as rail
unloading facilities, is the possible formation of an explosive atmosphere originating from accumulation of
methane and coal dust. Occurrences have been reported of up to 2% methane around chutes during unloading
operations (Leonard, 1979). Methane will often accumulate despite what appears to be adequate ventilation.
Walls should be washed down frequently to prevent dust accumulation and welding or electrical repair work
should not be conducted in an enclosed area during unloading operations or if methane or coal dust is present.
Smoking, open flames, and other potential ignition sources should be prohibited in any areas in which coal is
being handled or processed.

Fires in Coal Storage Areas

Fires that start around the edges of coal storage piles should be removed with a front end loader, spread in a
location away from the storage area, and allowed to cool. Generally, water should not be sprayed on a
smoldering coal pile, especially with Western coals. The degree of wetness in a coal storage pile is known to
influence spontaneous heating. Research at the United States Bureau of Mines has indicated that the heat of
condensation of enough water to raise the moisture content of a pile, or a portion of a pile, 1% can also cause a
14°C temperature increase in the pile (Leonard, 1979).

Tramp Metal
Iron or other spark-producing debris can cause sparks in a bowl or roller mill capable of initiating a solid fuel
dust explosion. Every effort must be made to be sure that scrap metal is not allowed to enter a mill. Pieces of
metal in a mill can also be heated to temperatures high enough to start a fire or explosion by being in the mill as
it operates. Belt magnets and metal detectors on solid fuel belts must always be operating properly. Scrap
metal in a mill is particularly dangerous during mill shutdown or startup.

Startup and Shutdown of Pulverized Fuel Systems

Startup and shutdown of a mill system is the most likely time for fires or explosions to occur. A mill system
should be designed to operate with the minimum number of starts and stops possible (NFPA 8503, 1992).

If a mill is shut down and a small amount of solid fuel remains in the mill, it can slowly increase in temperature
because of moisture condensing, oxidation of the solid fuel, or reaction of sulfur contained in the solid fuel with
moisture. The problem noted above with Western coals can also occur. If the pulverized solid fuel undergoes
spontaneous heating and the mill is restarted with hot embers present, an explosion or fire is possible. This
does not happen often; however, the more frequently a mill is shut down and then restarted, the more likely it
becomes.

Unplanned System Outages

Particular caution must be exercised by operating personnel. When a piece of equipment, includ-ing a coal mill
system, goes down, the typical response is to resolve the problem that caused the outage as quickly as
possible and return the equipment to service. A coal mill system that goes down, particularly under load, must
be treated with extreme caution. In several cases, fires or explosions have occurred when an employee opened
an inspection door on a coal mill system that had been shut down. Air admitted to the system allows oxygen to
reach a smoldering pile of pulverized solid fuel that then ignites explosively. Also, an inrush of air when an
inspection door is opened may create a pulverized solid fuel dust cloud that then explodes.

Hybrid Mixtures of Flammable Dusts and Gases

When coal is freshly pulverized, volatile gases such as methane can be released and the result is no longer a
coal dust/air mixture but what is termed a hybrid mixture. Even low concentrations of such gases in a dust/air
mixture can result in both enhanced ignition sensitivity and increased explosion severity (NFPA 8503, 1992).

System Temperatures
On non-inert, direct-fired coal mill systems, mill hot air inlet temperatures should not exceed 315°C, and outlet
temperatures should not exceed 90°C.Indirect firing systems should be operated at lower mill outlet
temperatures. As the volatile concentration in the fuel increases, the outlet temperature may need to be lower to
prevent fires or explosions, particularly for Western or subbituminous coals. If the flow of raw solid fuel to the
mill is interrupted for any reason (for example: plugging, failure of the solid fuel feeder, or other reasons) the
outlet temperature of the mill can climb to dangerous levels quickly.

System Velocities
Velocities in ducts or conveying lines must be at least 25 meters per second (m/s) to avoid material dropping
out in the duct work. If dropout occurs, the risk of fire is increased, and the pressure drop in the system
increases, with its attendant effects. Burner pipes must be designed to maintain a minimum tip (discharge)
velocity of 45 m/s. Velocities less than 45 m/s substantially increase the risk of the solid fuel flame
propagating backwards into the burner pipe, and potentially through the conveying lines to the mill, causing
substantial damage to the equipment.

Spontaneous Combustion
Avoiding spontaneous combustion of solid fuel requires special attention. Two reactions are important for
causing heating that can lead to spontaneous combustion. These reactions are oxidation at the surface of a
solid fuel particle, which is most active when the solid fuel has been freshly pulverized, and condensation of
water onto the solid fuel. When water condenses, it releases heat which can be a significant factor in the initial
increase in temperature of a solid fuel dust mass. However, oxidation is how solid fuel ultimately reaches its
ignition temperature.

The ease with which coal will oxidize is extremely variable. Coals that are high in bed moisture, oxygen content,
sulfur content, and volatile content are usually easier to oxidize (Leonard, 1979). However, the more fresh
surface area available for oxidation, the more rapidly solid fuel will oxidize. The total exposed surface area is
important. With more fresh surface exposed, oxygen has a greater chance of uniting with solid fuel with the
result that the total heat liberated in a given time for a given weight of solid fuel will be substantially greater.

According to Leonard (1979), coal oxidizes slowly at temperatures below 50°C, but oxidation increases at an
increasing rate (aided by higher temperatures) until the temperature of the coal is about 100°C – 135°C. At
about 135°C, carbon monoxide and water are given off. Carbon monoxide liberation increases rapidly until a
temperature of about 230°C is reached, when a fire may occur. A layer of high-volatile coal dust will ignite at
about 175°C. The critical temperature for bitumi-nous coal is about 50°C – 65°C. In this range, spontaneous
heating will increase rapidly unless preventive measures are taken.

The rate of oxidation increases rapidly as the temperature increases. For some coals, a temperature increase of
10°C can double the rate of oxidation. (It is a general rule of thumb that chemical reac-tions double in rate for
every 10°C increase in temperature). If heating from oxidation occurs in a mass of coal dust, the ignition
temperature of coal can be reached quickly, if enough oxygen is present. The temperature rise can be rapid
because oxidation releases heat, and heat causes the rate of oxidation to increase, which releases still more
heat.

When a mill system suffers an unplanned shutdown, solid fuel dust accumulations will occur in the system and
will begin to heat. Because the moisture content in the air in the mill system is high (because of solid fuel
drying), condensation may occur on solid fuel dust accumulations, which can result in hot spots. The reaction
of water vapor with overly dried Western coals can also increase temperature. These hot spots can rapidly heat
and cause a fire or, when the system is restarted and glowing embers are entrained in the air stream, an
explosion can occur. Generally, coal with higher inherent moisture content is also more prone to spontaneous
combustion (Leonard, 1979).
When a buildup of coal dust is allowed to occur, coal will begin to heat for reasons just explained. Therefore, it
is important that all coal dust is immediately cleaned and dust is not allowed to buildup in piles.

Cleanup Around Fuel Grinding and Firing Systems

Cleanup around fuel grinding and firing systems must be exceptionally thorough because of the potential for
spontaneous combustion. All leaks, spills, and any accumulations of coal or coke dust must be cleaned up
promptly. Small piles or layers of coal or coke dust may spontaneously heat and start a fire. The ignition
temperature for a layer of coal dust is substantially less than the igni-tion temperature of a cloud of coal dust
dispersed in air (Leonard, 1979).
A potentially serious problem exists if solid fuel dust is allowed to accumulate inside a building or enclosure, for
example in the area containing the solid fuel feeders and primary air fans, or because of a leaking solid fuel
conveying line. If large accumulations of dust exist and a small explosion occurs, the dust buildup can be
dispersed into the air as the result of the relatively minor first explosion and then produce a very large
secondary explosion. Solid fuel dust spills or leaks must be cleaned up or repaired as soon as it can be safely
done.

Hot Surfaces as an Ignition Source

Hot surfaces such as hot bearings, cutting, or welding can start a solid fuel dust fire or explosion. Any unusual
temperatures must be reported immediately and steps taken to solve the problem. Cutting and welding around
the mill system should only be done under strict supervision by qualified personnel. The system should be
inerted or washed down with water prior to cutting or welding.

Flammable Gases and Dusts

A solid fuel dust explosion will occur if the following three conditions exist:

1. The concentration of solid fuel dust in the gas mixture is within the explosion limits.
2. The oxygen content in the gas mixture is sufficient for an explosion.
3. There is sufficient thermal energy to initiate an explosion.

Theoretically, the absence of any one of these three factors would be enough to prevent a solid fuel dust
explosion. However, it is preferable to eliminate two or, possibly, all three factors.

The lower explosive limit for coal is about 50 g/m3 to 150 g/m3 and the upper explosive limit for coal dust is
about 1500 g/m3.These concentrations vary depending on the fineness of the coal, combustible gases in the
coal dust/air mixture, and other factors. The area below the lower explo-sive limit is very narrow. Operations
below the lower explosive limit should not be considered safe because even though the average concentration
may be less than the lower explosive limit, local-ized concentrations of coal in the system may exceed the limit.
Oxygen concentrations above 12%

– 14% will support an explosion. Thermal energy required for initiating an explosion could origi-nate from
several sources:
• Spontaneous combustion or self-heating of the solid fuel
• Overheating of the solid fuel by hot gases used for drying that are too hot
• Overheated machine parts, such as hot bearings
• Metal entering the mill with the coal can cause sparks or become hot enough to start a fire or explosion

Fires and Explosions in Kiln Exhaust Gases

Most facilities impose stringent kiln operating parameters related to excess oxygen, and carbon monoxide or
combustibles in the exit gases. However, some cement plants in the past have suffered fires or explosions in
cement kiln air pollution control devices (APCDs). Dobson (1974), with Factory Mutual Research, stated that
between 1971 and the date of the article (1974) damage had been reported to nine ESPs in cement plants
insured by Factory Mutual. Six suffered fires, two experienced explosions, and one was caused by overheating
(Dobson, 1974).

Limited testing has been done on ignition of explosive mixtures of gases and dusts emitted from cement kilns
(Inculet and others, 1993). The researchers found that during normal operating conditions on two kilns tested,
exhaust gas composition was well within the safe range. However, under upset conditions, the gas composition
could be explosive and, in most cases, the amount of dust present in the APCD was not sufficient to prevent
ignition of the gas (Inculet and others, 1993). Carbon monoxide (CO) is not the only explosive gas that may be
generated in a kiln exhaust. Incomplete combustion can generate other flammable species such as hydrogen
(H2) and methane (CH4) (Hawks and Chadbourne, 1987).

A substantial body of information exists on fires and explosions related to coal dust, mixtures of coal dust and
methane, and the use of limestone dust to suppress coal dust explosions. Data exist on the effects of varying
levels of oxygen or inert gases on fires and explosions of combustible materials. Data also exist on the effects
on explosion sensitivity of varying temperatures; however, cement kiln exhaust gases contain all of these
elements in widely varying degrees at different times. Little information exists on the potential for fires or
explosions while considering the major vari-ables present in a cement kiln exhaust gas APCD. These variables
include

• Elevated temperatures
• Presence of combustible gases such as CO, CH4,H2,etc.
• Presence of combustible dusts
• Varying levels of oxygen
• Presence of usually inert gases such as N2,CO2, and water vapor.
• Dust loading in the gas stream
• The presence or absence of spark initiation

The usual descriptions of lean (lower) limits of flammability are stated at atmospheric pressure and room
temperature. It should be recognized that those limits are merely two points on the flammability limit surface. A
given mixture that is nonflammable at atmospheric pressure can become flammable at elevated pressures.
Likewise, a mixture that is nonflammable at room temperature may become flammable at an elevated
temperature (Hertzberg and others, 1985).

Elevated temperatures increase the flammability and the autoignitability of combustible mixtures. With
increasing temperature, the lean limit concentration decreases as does the concentration at which autoignition
occurs (Conti and Hertzberg, 1987). The thermal autoignition probability may still be trivial when the
temperature is increased from 25°C to 200°C, but that increase in operatingtemperature will have a profound
effect on the probability of spark initiation of an explosion(Conti and Hertzberg, 1987).

According to Conti and Hertzberg (1987), major uncertainties persist in the experimental data. Among these are
the effects of particle size of the combustible dusts and the volume of the test furnace in the laboratory
experiments used to determine these data. Some particle size influences have been investigated, but the
effects of furnace volume have not been quantified. As the furnace volume increases, the concentration and
temperatures required for ignition decrease. Caution must be exercised in applying laboratory data to industrial-
size furnaces (Conti and Hertzberg, 1987).

The effect of initial temperature on ignitability is an important consideration in assessing explo-sion hazards.
The ignitability behavior of a dust is more sensitive to an increase in ambient temperature than is its lean limit.
For example, for a coal dust concentration of 400 g/m3,an increase in the temperature from 75°C to 200°C
results in an order of magnitude reduction in the spark energy required to initiate an explosion. There is a strong
synergism between the thermal energy content and the spark initiation energy required, even at temperatures
that are considerably below the autoignition temperature of the mixture. This synergism makes it very difficult
to esti-mate the ignition probability when various types of ignition sources may be simultaneously pres-ent in a
given system (Hertzberg and Cashdollar, 1987).
The modified Burgess-Wheeler (B-W) law is an empirical formula that may be used to estimate the lean
flammability limits at elevated temperatures from the lean flammability limit at room temperature (Hertzberg
and Cashdollar, 1987):

The B-W equation has been found to be reasonably valid for a variety of coals, agricultural dusts, and chemical
dusts (Hertzberg and Cashdollar, 1987).

Coal dust data show an order of magnitude reduction in the ignition energy required to ignite dust clouds (with
a concentration of 400 g/m3) for a 100°C increase in temperature (Hertzberg and others, 1985). Some other
limited experimental data on the effects of initial temperature on the lower explosive limit for coal are presented
in Table 3.3.6 as follows:

Table 3.3.6. Temperature Effects on Lower Explosive Limit (Wiemann, 1987)

Hybrid mixtures are mixtures of two or more combustible gases and dusts that may ignite. Cement kilns
typically have hybrid mixtures of gases and dusts. Substoichiometric combustion conditions in a kiln or calciner
can result in substantial amounts of combustible fuel being available in the kiln APCD (Dobson, 1974).

The ignition sensitivity of hybrid mixtures can be substantially different than the individual gases or dusts
involved. The lower explosive limit (LEL) for CO is listed in the literature as 12.5% in air; however when hydrogen
is present, the explosive level for CO is reduced (Hawks and Chadbourne, 1987).

The minimum ignition energy (MIE) for hybrid mixtures is higher than that for flammable gases but significantly
lower than for combustible dusts. Hybrid mixtures pose an insidious hazard to industry. Design parameters for
the lower flammability limit (LFL), minimum explosible concen-tration (MEC), and MIE may not provide
adequate protection against the development of explo-sive mixtures in industrial situations (Napier and
Roopchant, 1987).

The addition of a fuel gas to a dust/air mixture will increase the explosion hazard. The ignition energy required
for gaseous fuel is generally much lower than for dusts, and a small addition of a combustible gas may have a
much larger effect on the ignitability of the mixture than would be expected from a simple linear relationship.
The addition of a small amount of combustible gas will highly sensitize a hybrid mixture. The thermal ignitability
characteristics of hybrid mixtures of gases and dusts are largely unexplored (Hertzberg and Cashdollar, 1987).

Researchers determined that when the O2 content of a test gas mixture was increased from 8% to 9%, the
quantity of cement dust required to suppress an explosion rose approximately 500% forsimilar concentrations
of CO (Inculet and others, 1993). Explosive gas mixtures, according to Inculet and others (1993), are shown in
Table 3.3.7. It must be noted that the data given in the Table 3.3.7 are for mixtures of clean gases without kiln
dust.

Table 3.3.7. Explosive Gas Mixtures Data for Clean Gases Without Kiln Dust (Inculet and Others, 1993)
Some of the noteworthy conclusions reached by these researchers were:

• During kiln upsets, explosive gas mixtures might be formed. Although the gas mixtures tested are very
sensitive to the concentrations of CO and H2 in the mixture, the propensity to explode is far more dependent on
the O2 concentration in the background gas.
• The presence of cement dust in the process stream should not be expected to suppress explo-sions in a
precipitator during kiln upsets.
• When the O2 concentration was increased from 8% to 9%, the flammability behavior changed drastically. For
small increases in CO concentration, exponential increases occurred in the quantity of dust required to
suppress an explosion. If the O2 concentration increased to 9%, the danger of an explosion was greatly
increased, even at CO levels of 5% – 7%.

Hawks and Chadbourne (1987) have investigated possible causes of CO emissions from kilns. Some of the
conclusions they reached were:

• CO is produced in the calciner or riser duct because of incomplete air/fuel mixing.

• A typical CO emission pattern produced by a calciner is a randomly occurring “spike.”
• The maximum level of the CO spike is not predictable.
• Because of sample transport and analysis time, CO analyzers do not record real-time events.
• CO spikes can occur when any fuel is burned.
• Surges in solid fuel feed rates and/or fineness can increase CO spikes.

If a combustible dust or gas is sufficiently diluted with an inert dust or the oxygen in air is suffi-ciently diluted
with an inert gas, the mixture can be rendered incapable of sustaining a fire or explosion (Hertzberg and
Cashdollar, 1987). Based on laboratory testing, below 12% – 14% oxygen concentration (using nitrogen as a
diluent), flame propagation cannot be sustained in a ternary mixture of fuel-oxygen-nitrogen. Adding a safety
margin to those measured inerting levels leads to a recommended safe level of 8% oxygen for inerting organic
dusts at ambient temperature and pressure when inerting with nitrogen (Hertzberg and Cashdollar, 1987). In
addition to nitrogen, other gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide can be used, and they are generally
more effec-tive than nitrogen (on a volumetric basis) (Hertzberg and Cashdollar, 1987).

Rock dust (generally limestone) is used to inert coal dust in coal mines. The literature suggests that a mixture
of 75% – 80% rock dust in coal dust could suppress explosions of combustible dust/air mixtures even with very
high ignition energies. However, rock dust is almost completely ineffective in stopping methane explosions. As
a result, the presence of even small amounts of methane virtu-ally eliminates the inerting effectiveness of rock
dust (Inculet and others, 1993).
Ignition of combustible hybrid mixtures can occur in several ways. According to Dobson ignition in an ESP can
occur by random arcing between discharge electrodes and collection plates igniting a combustible gas/air
mixture. If the concentration is high enough, an explosion will result. At lower concentrations, the ignited gases
may serve as an ignition source for combustible particulates in the ESP (Dobson, 1974; Mullinger, 1988).
Another ignition source, according to Dobson (1974), is spontaneous combustion of combustible particulates
captured in the APCD.

Combustible mixtures at elevated temperatures can autoignite if the temperature is sufficiently high. The
minimum autoignition temperature (AIT) is sometimes also referred to as the minimum cloud ignition
temperature. The minimum AIT is usually approached only at high dust concentra-tions. The lean flammability
limit curve at varying temperatures and the minimum AIT curve at varying temperatures delineate regions that
do not ignite, regions that are ignitable by an external source, and an area that will autoignite at a given
temperature and combustible dust concentration (Hertzberg and others, 1985).

Information concerning the lower explosive limits or the AIT must be used with caution. The test data used to
develop these values may only provide relative values because the volume of the test chamber appears to have
an effect on the minimum spark energy required to ignite varying concentrations of coal dust (Hertzberg and
others, 1985).

Dobson (1974) suggests that an alarm to the operator should sound at 1% combustibles in kiln exhaust gases
and that power to an ESP should be shut off automatically at 2% combustibles. Some plants in the past have
shut off the power to the ESP at levels ranging between 0.7% – 1.5%combustibles.

Mullinger (1988) and Alsop and Post (1995) have identified kiln startups or when changing from one fuel to
another as particularly dangerous periods. During these periods, excess fuel may be supplied to the kiln, which
results in unburned gases and fuel entering the APCD. The risk arises when the unburned material encounters
ambient air leaks, which provide a source of oxygen, or when the excess fuel situation is corrected and excess
oxygen becomes available (Mullinger, 1988).

Clearing Preheater Blockages

Preheater vessels and ducts occasionally become plugged with deposits. These deposits are frequently caused
by volatile minor compounds in cement raw materials and fuels, such as alkali sulfates and alkali chlorides.
During kiln system operation, small deposits may be cleaned by air lances or high pressure, low volume water
blasters; more extensive deposits require the system to be shutdown for cleaning (Alsop and Post, 1995).
Cleaning any preheater blockages should be done only by well-trained employees wearing all required protective
clothing.
Some additional guidance provided by Alsop and Post (1995) is as follows: Before any ports or doors are
opened for cleaning, all personnel must be alerted, the operator must be informed, and no one can be allowed in
the areas below any open ports or doors. When the system is shut down and preheater deposits are being
cleaned, no one can be allowed in any parts of the kiln system, including the clinker cooler or around the kiln
hood on the firing floor. The deposits are at high temperatures (e.g., 1000°C or more) and may have the flow
characteristics of water. Clearing preheater blockages is an extremely dangerous activity if not done properly
and is very hazardous even when all precautions are taken.
Cement Kiln Dust Safety Considerations
Fresh cement kiln dust (CKD) or alkali bypass dust is hazardous because the temperature can range between
100 – 600°C, and contact with unprotected skin can result in severe burns. Additionally, CKD – and especially
bypass dust – can be very caustic. Frequently, CKD and bypass dust contain alkali sulfate and free lime.
Although lime, when mixed with water, will typically produce a pH of about 12.4 (Oates, 1998), in the presence
of alkali sulfate the following reactions may occur:

K2SO4 + CaO + H2O → 2KOH +CaSO4

Na2SO4 + CaO + H2O → 2NaOH +CaSO4
Potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide solutions both have a potential pH of over 14 and can
cause severe chemical burns in contact with unprotected skin.

REFERENCES
Alsop, P. A., and Post, J. W., Cement Plant Operations Handbook – for Dry Process Plants, Tradeship
Publications, Ltd., Portsmouth, England, 1995.

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