Water Air Soil Pollut (2023) 234:21

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-06029-2

PHA‑Based Bioplastic: a Potential Alternative to Address

Microplastic Pollution
Shiva Aley Acharjee · Pranjal Bharali ·
Bhagyudoy Gogoi · Viphrezolie Sorhie ·
Bendangtula Walling · Alemtoshi

Received: 5 October 2022 / Accepted: 14 December 2022 / Published online: 29 December 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Abstract Petroleum-derived plastics are linked to as food-processing industry, medical, agriculture,

a variety of growing environmental issues through- automobile industry, etc. However, it is also associ-
out their lifecycle, including emission of greenhouse ated with disadvantages like high cost, uneconomic
gases, accumulation in terrestrial and marine habi- feasibility, brittleness, and hydrophilic nature. A vari-
tats, pollution, among others. There has been a lot ety of tactics have been explored to improve the qual-
of attention over the last decade in industrial and ities of bioplastics, with the most prevalent being the
research communities in developing and produc- development of gas and water barrier properties. The
ing eco-friendly polymers to deal with the current prime objective of this study is to review the current
environmental issues. Bioplastics preferably are a knowledge on PHAs and provide a brief introduction
fast-developing family of polymeric substances that to PHAs, which have drawn attention as a possible
are frequently promoted as substitutes to petroleum- potential alternative to conventional plastics due to
derived plastics. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have their biological origin, biocompatibility, and biodeg-
a number of appealing properties that make PHAs radability, thereby reducing the negative impact of
a feasible source material for bioplastics, either as a microplastics in the environment. This review may
direct replacement of petroleum-derived plastics or help trigger further scientific interest to thoroughly
as a blend with elements derived from natural ori- research on PHAs as a sustainable option to greener
gin, fabricated biodegradable polymers, and/or non- bioplastics.
biodegradable polymers. Among the most promis-
ing PHAs, polyhydroxybutyrates (PHBs) are the Keywords Microplastics · Bioplastics ·
most well-known and have a significant potential to Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) ·
replace traditional plastics. These biodegradable plas- Polyhydroxybutyrates (PHBs)
tics decompose faster after decomposing into carbon
dioxide, water, and inorganic chemicals. Bioplastics
have been extensively utilized in several sectors such 1 Introduction

Plastic products are incredibly versatile due to their

S. A. Acharjee · P. Bharali (*) · B. Gogoi · V. Sorhie ·
B. Walling · Alemtoshi low thermal and electric conductivity, lightweight,
Applied Environmental Microbial Biotechnology rigid, long-lasting and corrosion resistance, which
Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, enable them to serve as an oxygen and water bar-
Nagaland University, Hq‑ Lumami, Zunheboto‑798627,
rier. Their low cost also contributes to their easy and
Nagaland, India
e-mail: [email protected] widespread production, where they are utilized in

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numerous applications extending from food indus- polymers (Mascarenhas & Aruna, 2017). The grow-
try to medical and technological uses that benefit ing demand for environment-friendly products, along
the society (Frias & Nash, 2019; Thompson et al., with the need to cut carbon emissions and micro-
2009). However, plastic waste has been visible as a plastic and plastic pollution in earth’s biosphere,
worldwide pervasive pollution over the last decade. has prompted the growth of new bioplastic supplies
Around the world, plastics, and therefore its wastes in recent years that meet a similar demand as exist-
and residues, can be found in land, ocean, and fresh- ing plastics with lower environmental impact (Calero
water habitats, including in the most remote loca- et al., 2021). Meereboer et al. (2020) examined recent
tions. Although global plastic production and utility developments and opportunities to use polyhydroxy-
are increasing, waste management and treatment in alkanoates (PHA)-based bioplastics as an alternative
many places remains a major concern. As a result, at to petroleum-based plastics. In contrast to the nega-
a staggering pace of 31.9 million metric tons per year, tive effects of disposing of plastics in landfills, PHA-
plastic ends up in the natural surroundings (Bucci based bioplastics exhibit biodegradable behavior in
et al., 2020; Jambeck et al., 2015). Currently, only all anaerobic and aerobic environments as described
a small portion of this plastic is recycled when it is by American Society for Testing and Materials stand-
disposed of, and the remaining bulk is released into ards and can be used to make fully compostable, soil-
the environment, where it may stay for many years and marine-biodegradable goods.
before totally degrading. Over time, these plastics To produce bioplastics and associated biomateri-
degrade in the environment, producing micro- and als, PHAs may be extracted and refined from a variety
nanoplastics, which are tiny particles or fibers gener- of bacterial strains. This may help reduce the depend-
ally harmful to living organisms (Pellini et al., 2018). ency of the present world on petroleum-derived plas-
Immoderate usage of plastics has wreaked havoc on tics, which will reduce plastic pollution and safeguard
the environment, with humans producing about 34 the nature (Muneer et al., 2020). PHAs are typically
million tons of plastic recently. Only 7% of produc- produced by intracellular microbes and stored as car-
tion gets recycled, with remaining 93% ending up in bon and energy in specialized sub-cellular organelles
landfills, oceans, and seas (Shah et al., 2021). Ari- (carbonosomes) when they are exposed to nutritional
kan and Ozsoy (2015) mentioned several environ- limitations (Tanamool et al., 2013). Usually, limiting
mental and economic issues in their study caused by nutritional factors like phosphorus (P) and nitrogen
widespread use of plastics, including landfill prob- (N) restrictions or the availability of an excess carbon
lems, plastic accumulation in oceans, incineration (C) supply is known to stimulate polyhydroxybutyrate
of plastics, non-degradability or durability, and eco- (PHB) production in bacteria. The requirements of C
nomic problems such as crude oil competition and in living organisms are often greater than N. The pro-
energy security. These negative consequences have portion of these components (C:N) governs how bac-
the potential to harm humans and animals, as well teria utilize an organic substance. According to Wei
as completely disrupt biological cycles and ecosys- et al. (2011), when gluconic acid was utilized as the
tems. Therefore, finding a substitute for petroleum- carbon source, the best C:N ratio for the efficient pro-
derived polymers is becoming a pressing need to pre- duction of PHAs in Cupriavidus taiwanensis was 8:1,
vent the undesirable effects that traditional polymers with a PHB concentration of 58.81%. Likewise, at a
have made in the environment due to their excessive C:N ratio of 8:1, Bacillus thuringiensis IAM 12,077
utilization and improper disposal (Narayanan et al., produced the greatest PHB content of 72.3% utiliz-
2020a). To find alternatives, researchers developed ing starch as the carbon source, according to Gowda
entirely biodegradable polymers that can be discarded and Shivakumar’s (2014) research. According to Lee
in the environment and easily degraded by micro- et al. (2020), Rhodobacter sphaeroides produced the
organisms’ enzymatic activity. These materials are highest PHB content of 51.57% at a C:N ratio of 15:1
known as “Bioplastics” (Marjadi & Dharaiya, 2010). when succinic acid was used as the carbon source.
Because of their similar physical and chemical quali- Thus, depending on the kinds of bacteria and the car-
ties, as well as their ability to biodegrade quicker than bon sources, the C:N ratio for the optimal generation
petroleum-derived plastics, bioplastics are regarded of PHB varies. However, the carbon need is almost
viable alternatives for petroleum-derived synthetic always greater than the nitrogen requirement. Based

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Table 1  Production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) by various microorganisms using variety of carbon sources
Microorganisms Carbon source Dry cell PHAs yield (g/L) PHAs References
weight (DCW) accumula-
(g/L) tion (%)

Burkholderia cepacia Glycerol 5.8 4.8 82.76 Zhu et al. (2010)

ATCC 17,759
Bacillus aryabhattai sweet sorghum juice 3.02 1.74 57.62 Tanamool et al. (2013)
Brevundimonas sp. NAC1 Cardboard industry waste – 4.042 77.63 Bhuwal et al. (2013)
water
Enterococcus sp. NAP11 Cardboard industry waste – 5.236 79.27
water
Bacillus sp. NA10 Cardboard industry 7.8 5.202 66.70 Bhuwal et al. (2014)
effluent
Bacillus thuringiensis Starch 3.6 2.6 72.3 Gowda and Shivakumar
IAM 12,077 (2014)
Cupriavidus necator Fructose 11.6 7.48 64.48 Aramvash et al. (2015)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Mustard oil – 9.01 20.1 Javed and Jamil (2015)
Bacillus sp. Sugarcane bagasse 9.0 5.0 55.55 Getachew and Woldesenbet
(2016)
Pseudomonas putida Waste frying oil 4.90 2.80 57 Gatea et al. (2018)
Bacillus siamensis Orange peel 2.66 2.16 81.2 Vijay and Tarika (2019)
PD-A10
Bacillus subtilis JCM Onion peel 3.33 2.93 88
1465
Staphylococcus aureus Onion peel 1.56 1.29 83
JH1
Bacillus megaterium Molasses – 19.52 60.02 Joyline and Aruna (2019)
Bacillus cereus Rice bran 36.26 33.19 91.54 Narayanan et al. (2020a)
NDRMN001
E. coli Sago molasses 33.26 27.1 81.47 Narayanan et al. (2020b)
Paraburkholderia sp. Glucose 5.14 5 97.3 Sriyapai et al. (2022)
PFN29

on previous investigations, production of polyhy- open environment (Moshood et al., 2022). Its char-
droxyalkanoates (PHAs) by various bacteria using acteristics like flexibility, crystallinity, elasticity, and
variety of carbon sources is presented in Table 1. thermoplasticity are comparable to those of thermo-
One of the most promising biopolymers is poly- plastics that are petroleum-derived, and it can be bio-
hydroxybutyrates (PHBs), a biogenic short-chain degraded by depolymerase enzymes found in bacteria
polyhydroxyalkanoates synthesized by the process and fungi that break down PHBs. Such bacteria and
of glycolysis where preferably soluble mono- and fungi exist extensively in various ecological systems
di-saccharides are utilized to produce acetyl-CoA (Awasthi et al., 2020). PHAs are utilized to develop
which later converted into PHBs. PHBs are addition- bioplastics, which are of great interest to researchers
ally harmless to the environment and people due to in polymeric science due to their sustainability and
its biodegradability and biocompatibility as com- effectiveness in achieving some of the related (e.g.,
pared to petroleum-derived plastics. In contrast to environment; health; food security) sustainable devel-
traditional plastics, which have a life expectancy of opment goals set forth by the United Nations. Moreo-
between 100 and 1000 years, PHA-based bioplastic ver, they can help to reduce dependency on fossil
may degrade into water ­(H2O) and carbon dioxide fuels and uphold sustainability initiative (Muneer
­(CO2) in 20 to 45 days if there is adequate humidity, et al., 2020). However, the primary limiting fac-
oxygen, and a sufficient number of microbes in the tor that has restricted the marketable applicability of

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Fig. 1  a Pie chart of global distribution of plastics in various sectors (Statista, 2021) and b Pie chart of global plastic waste manage-
ment before recycling, 2019 (OECD, 2022)

PHBs is its cost of production. Therefore, the devel- market demand for major plastics was 16 million tons.
opment of PHBs as an ecologically friendly plas- Furthermore, India’s market share in the global mar-
tic for commercial uses will require a cost-effective ket for Styrenics1 is 5.7%. A study in Statista (2021)
process and hyper-producing strains (Kavitha et al., reported that a whopping 46% of the plastic garbage
2018). This paper is a preliminary review presenting produced worldwide in 2018 came from packaging.
PHAs as a potential alternative to conventional plas- This was significantly more than any other industry,
tics, and highlights its limitations and future research with textiles accounting for around 15% of the entire
direction. bulk. Figure 1a shows the Global distribution of plas-
tics in various sectors. In industrial facilities across
the globe in 2019, 60 Mt of generated plastic trash,
2 Brief History of Plastic 6 Mt of residues from plastic recycling, and 1 Mt of
collected litter were burned, whereas 162 Mt of gen-
Bakelite, the first genuinely synthetic polymer, was erated garbage, 11 Mt of residues, and 1 Mt of col-
manufactured in 1907 by Leo Baekeland, a Belgian lected litter were dumped in landfills (OECD, 2022).
chemist, and numerous more plastics emerged within Figure 1b shows that 15% of global plastic wastes
the next few decades (Thompson et al., 2009). Plastic are collected for recycling, 17% are incinerated, 22%
was produced in 60 million metric tons over the world are mismanaged or littered, and remaining 46% are
in 1980. By the year 2000, production had risen to dumped in landfills.
187 million metric tons, followed by 265 million The European plastics value chain, which con-
in 2010, and 348 million in 2017 (Chalmin, 2019). sists of plastics producers, plastics converters, plas-
Global plastic production was 335 Mt in (2016), tics recyclers, and machinery producers, witnessed
348 Mt (2017), 359 Mt (2018), 368 Mt (2019), and a decline in both its production and demand lev-
367 Mt in 2020, excluding the recycled plastics. els in 2020 as a consequence of the COVID crisis.
There is no other commodity in the world that has
seen such expansion (Plastics Europe, 2021). Accord-
ing to Indian plastic Industry Report (2019), the 1
High impact polystyrene (HIPS), also referred to as sty-
Global market demand for major plastics from 2018 rene, is an affordable, light-weight, and readily transportable
to 2019 was 280 million tons, whereas the Indian expandable plastic substance.

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Fig. 2  Schematic illustration of the different occurrences and pathways of MPs (modified from Picó & Barceló, 2019)

Nevertheless, this industry managed to maintain a those that are around 5 mm in diameter (Gregory &
significant level of employment (Plastics Europe, Andrady, 2003). Microplastics (MPs) in the oceans,
2021). The world’s plastic manufacturing peaked in unlike large plastic waste, cannot be efficiently
2019 at 368 million tons, and then fell to 367 mil- detected and collected for recycling or be treated by
lion tons in 2020, which was the first noticeable drop other regulated disposal. Since floating MPs counts
in the history of the plastics industry ever observed. can reach as high as ­103–104 per ­m3 in coastal areas,
However, the COVID-19 pandemic has induce a sig- the lack of an efficient removal method is a severe
nificant increase in plastic pollution due to overflow concern because floating MPs in the oceans gather
of medical waste, requirement for suitable personal pollutants and carry them through ocean currents,
protective equipment (PPE), rise in online shop- as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the marine
ping and food delivery, prohibition on reusable bags, environment bind to the surface of plastic debris
among others (Shams et al., 2021). Despite efforts to (Andrady, 2017). Figure 2 represents the schematic
break the plastic cycle and its harm to the environ- illustration of the different occurrences and pathways
ment, it is projected that over 40 million tons of plas- of MPs.
tic will arrive into the environment annually, of which
11 million tons will be the macro- and microplastic 3.1 Physical Pathway of MPs
debris that ends up in the ocean (Sorasan et al., 2022).
The prime source of MPs pollution is plastic pellet
pollution, which is highly associated with the leakage
3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological during manufacture and/or transport. MPs are preva-
Pathway Associated with the Occurrences lent in areas near the plastics industry because emis-
of Microplastics sions from this business may also transport plastic
pellets. MPs are often utilized as an ingredient in per-
Informally, the word “microplastics" is used in the lit- sonal care products, such as toothpaste, liquid bath,
erature to describe a surprisingly broad range of par- exfoliants in cleansers, scrubs, or microbeads for cos-
ticle sizes, from those that are just a few microns to metics (Kurniawan et al., 2021). Waldschläger et al.

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(2020) reported that MPs with particle size around particularly Phthalates, which could be deleterious to
0.2–2 mm are used as abrasive materials in air-blast- soil biology and public health (Wang et al., 2016a, b).
ing and industrial technology. Air blasting technology
is frequently used in the automotive, aviation, marine,
3.3 Biological Pathway of MPs
telecommunication, and manufacturing industries
(Sharma & Chatterjee, 2017). Plastics wind up in the
MPs are devoured by a varied spectrum of marine
aquatic environment due to inappropriate disposal,
biota due to their minute size (1 µm–5 mm) and their
where they move into higher trophic levels often end-
presence in both benthic and pelagic settings. Pol-
ing in human food. An explanation might be that the
lutants’ potential to absorb from water and pass to
biofouling process, in which micro- and macro-organ-
higher trophic levels via biomagnification, as well as
isms attach to the surface of MPs raise their average
difficulties with pollutant transfer in the food chain,
physical density, causing them to sink to the bottom
pose a serious concern. MPs are composed of haz-
of water body. Due to their greater surface area to vol-
ardous compounds and monomers with a high area-
ume ratios, small pieces of plastic fragments intend
to-volume ratio, making them efficient absorbers
to be removed by biofouling more rapidly than large
of hydrophobic contaminants from bodies of water
ones (Fazey & Ryan, 2016).
(Mato et al., 2001). For example, ciliates in hetero-
trophic plankton absorb MPs by phagocytosis (Laist,
3.2 Chemical Pathway of Microplastics
1987). MPs can also sink to the bottom of the ocean
due to biofouling wherein microorganisms form a
MPs are more vulnerable to contamination by several
biofilm layer over the tiny MPs increasing its mate-
airborne pollutants because they have a higher surface
rial density. This leads to either the sinking or verti-
area to volume ratio than macroplastics. They serve
cal oscillation of MPs (Kooi et al., 2017). Therefore,
as environmental reservoirs for dangerous chemicals
accumulating contaminants may move to higher
because they are formed of hydrophobic compounds,
trophic levels through such pathway, posing a major
which enable chemical contaminants to accumulate
threat to the health of the marine ecosystem (Wirtz,
in or on their surfaces (do Sul & Costa, 2014). MPs
2012). The MPs that is consumed by seabirds like
found in the soil may eventually find their way into
albatrosses, shearwaters, petrels, and northern ful-
the groundwater system by percolating or infiltrating
mars when they feed at the water’s surface accumu-
into soil pores. Moreover, being a possible sink for
lates in their digestive system and makes up about 30
MPs, soil offers a direct path to aquifers or ground-
to 35% of the plastics that originates in industrial pel-
water systems (O’Connor et al., 2019). Polyethylene
lets (Blight & Burger, 1997).
(PE) and polypropylene (PP) are the two polymers
that are typically found in soil environments around
the world, with smaller levels of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) also 4 Overview of Plastic Degradation
being present. Although the structure of these plas-
tic polymers is simple, several additives (plasticiz- Conventional plastics are generally not easily
ers, flame retardants, thermal stabilizers, lubricants, degraded and they usually remain in the environment
and pigments) are added to improve the performance for the next 1000 years depending on their properties
of the plastics, which could greatly increase the eco- and their surroundings. However, at a very slow pace
logical toxicity (Koelmans et al., 2019). The primary the biotic and abiotic factors cause breakdown of
sources of macro- and microplastics inflowing agri- plastics and bring changes in the inherent properties
cultural soils are thought to include plastic mulch of the plastics (Zhang et al., 2021). The general pro-
films, municipal rubbish, biosolids (anaerobic diges- cess of degradation of plastics is illustrated in Fig. 3.
tate and sewage sludge), plastic-coated fertilizers, Over time, the degraded plastics give rise to MPs that
and atmospheric deposition (Liu et al., 2018). Macro- tend to accumulate in the nature and they are easily
plastic residues usually break down into micro- and released to the aquatic environment and the biotic
nano-plastics once they are in the soil, absorbing dif- system as a whole via currents in ocean, tides, tsuna-
ferent heavy metals or releasing organic pollutants, mis or wind (Cai et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2016a, b).
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Fig. 3  An illustration of the mechanisms behind plastic deterioration (modified from Zhang et al., 2021)

4.1 Abiotic Degradation of Plastics (290–315 nm) irradiation (Liu et al., 2019; Zhang
et al., 2021). In general, plastics such as PE resists
In this type of plastic degradation, the abiotic fac- photodegradation due to absence of chromophores,
tors like water, temperature, light, air and other forces but impurities or structural changes in the plastic act
(mechanical) bring physicochemical changes in the as chromophores like the carbonyl groups within the
plastics (Zhang et al., 2021). Due to plastics’ lim- PE backbone which undergoes Norrish Type I and
ited bioavailability, abiotic breakdown is typically Type II reactions forming ketones, radicals and end-
anticipated to occur before biodegradation (Andrady, vinlys resulting in a main-chain scission (Zhang et al.,
2015). The abiotic degradation of plastics can occur 2021). The free radicals generally react with oxygen
generally via photo-degradation, thermal, chemical or forming peroxy radicals that are further converted to
mechanical (Zhang et al., 2021). peroxide moiety and finally dissociated into macro-
alkoxy and hydroxyl radicals that catalyze the subse-
4.1.1 Photodegradation of Plastics quent reactions (Torikai et al., 1986). Similar to PE,
impurities in PP helps in forming radicals in presence
One of the most significant environmental factors of UV radiation and subsequent reactions lead to ran-
that triggers plastic breakdown is photodegradation. dom cross-linking and chain scissions, with formation
Plastics often undergo photodegradation through of low molecular weight degraded products (Su et al.,
the use of free radical-mediated processes brought 2019; Zhang et al., 2021). Likewise, in PVC, impuri-
on by solar radiation, mainly due to ultraviolet ties act as chromophores which absorb UV radiations
(UV) radiation, the UV-A (315–400 nm) and UV-B and forms free radicals which can further generate

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hydroperoxides that break the double bonds of the basic hydrogen ions ­(H+) or hydroxide ions (­ OH−) in
backbone chain resulting in small fragmented prod- an aqueous environment (Hocker et al., 2014).
ucts (Law, 2017; Yang et al., 2018).
4.1.4 Mechanical Degradation of Plastics
4.1.2 Thermal Degradation of Plastics
The term “mechanical deterioration” describes how
The term “thermal degradation” describes the deg- polymers break down as a result of outside influ-
radation of polymers as a result of energy input at ences. Environmental external pressures might result
high temperatures. At high temperatures, plastics can from plastics rubbing up against sand and rocks due
experience thermo-oxidative reactions. Long polymer to waves and wind. The mechanical breakdown of
chains can be disrupted, creating radicals, when the polymers can also be brought on by the thawing and
polymer absorbs enough heat to break over the energy freezing of plastics in aquatic conditions (Pal et al.,
barrier (Peterson et al., 2001; Pirsaheb et al., 2020). 2018). Lower elongation at break values increases the
Both molecule reduction and expansion may occur likelihood that plastics may shatter in the presence of
during heated degradation as an outcome of cross- external tensile forces. Plastics that are subjected to
linking and chain scission. The temperature required constant stress eventually experience polymer chain
for thermal deterioration is determined by the thermal scission (Sohma, 1989). The mechanical character-
characteristics of the plastic polymers and the availa- istics of plastics, notably their tensile modulus and
bility of oxygen (Crawford & Quinn, 2017). Addition- tensile elongation at break, will be impacted by chain
ally, the deterioration of plastics may be accelerated scissions of polymers during thermal, photo, and
by temperature and UV light, and the rate of oxidative chemical degradation (Andrady, 2017; Zhang et al.,
processes also speeds up in response to temperature 2021). Mechanical degradation is mostly relevant to
(Andrady et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2021). synthetic fibers, which undergo degradation forming
MPs fibers via stresses, shear or abrasion during laun-
4.1.3 Chemical Degradation of Plastics dering (Cesa et al., 2020).

Pollutants including ozone (­O3), nitrogen dioxide 4.2 Biotic Degradation of Plastics

(­ NO2), sulfur dioxide (­ SO2), and volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs) in the environment can either directly The term “biotic degradation of plastics” describes
damage plastics or stimulate the creation of radicals how microorganisms erode polymers. Microorgan-
through photochemical reactions, which may addi- isms can breakdown plastics either physically by
tionally cause plastics to degrade (Crawford & Quinn, digesting, biting, or chewing fragmentation or biolog-
2017). Chain scission on the polymer chain results ically by biochemical processes (Danso et al., 2019).
from the interaction of O ­ 3 with double bonds. O­ 3 can The biological breakdown of plastics may be primar-
likewise react with saturated polymers; however it ily caused by microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi,
does so far more slowly (Cheremisinoff, 2001). More- and insects (Crawford & Quinn, 2017). Due to their
over, UV light has the ability to excite ­SO2, resulting solid form and the fact that only a very tiny portion
in a reactive singlet or triplet state that directly inter- of the polymer is exposed to potential degraders,
acts with the unsaturated carbon-to-carbon double conventional plastics often have a very poor bioavail-
bond (C = C) or produces ­O3 through a photochemi- ability (Battin et al., 2016). Additionally, because
cal reaction with ­O2. Furthermore, because of the odd macromolecule polymers cannot be utilized directly
electrons present in the molecule, ­NO2 is highly reac- by bacteria, extracellular enzymes must first break
tive and may quickly react with the unsaturated C = C them down into smaller molecules before they can be
in the polymer (McKeen, 2019). The pH and salin- absorbed by cells and used for further metabolization
ity of the water are the two chemical parameters that (Chen et al., 2019).
have the greatest impact on plastic decomposition in The bacteria Azotobacter beijerinckii was revealed
aquatic environments. Polyamides (PAs), a kind of to have “hydroquinone peroxidase” as the mecha-
plastic that is vulnerable to hydrolysis, may degrade nism for polystyrene (PS) biodegradation (Nakamiya
when exposed to high concentrations of acidic or et al., 1997). Furthermore, it has been hypothesized

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Fig. 4  Effect of microplastics in aquatic environment (modified from Issac and Kandasubramanian, 2021)

that a number of fungi-excreted enzymes can shorten and heavy metals, are also carried by MPs and are a
PE polymer strands (Sánchez, 2020). The oxidative source of multiple stresses for life (Manzoor et al.,
breakdown of hydrolysable polymers may also be 2021). MPs litter in the ocean is a potential contributor
aided by enzymatic oxidation in addition to hydroly- to biodiversity loss and a health risk to humans. Plas-
sis (Magnin et al., 2020). Plastics eventually have the tics and their degraded by-products are consumed by
potential to mineralize into ­CO2 and ­H2O in aerobic a wide range of aquatic creatures, from invertebrates
environments and into ­CO2, methane ­(CH4), organic to fish, with varying effects (Li et al., 2020). MPs
acids, ­H2O, and ammonium ­(NH4) in anaerobic envi- also serve as a carrier for chemical contaminants in
ronments, which promotes the formation of microbial aquatic ecosystems by transporting chemicals to other
biomass (Zhang et al., 2021). aquatic organisms or locations (Ha & Yeo, 2018). Due
to their tiny size, which is similar to plankton, MPs
pose a risk to the health of the organism by being eas-
5 Impact on Aquatic Ecosystem ily consumed by fish and other aquatic animal, along
with any toxins they may be linked to. Even at higher
Most of the plastic waste discovered in coastal water- trophic levels, birds consume fish that has already
ways is assumed to have originated from poor land ingested MPs and hence accumulating it in their body
management mainly due to illegal dumping of wastes, (Manzoor et al., 2021). The effect of MPs in aquatic
storm water runoff, and activities like fishing, ship- environment is shown in Fig. 4.
ping, and aquaculture. The rivers, sewage systems, Since MPs has been found in numerous bio-
surface runoffs, wind, and shore trash all carry plas- tas at various trophic levels, it is clear that MPs
tic debris from the terrestrial to the marine (Ory et al., has moved through the food chain over time. After
2020). The persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic entering aquatic habitats, MPs can be transported
(PBT) compounds, which include organic pollutants throughout the food chain, for instance, from small

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to large plankton or from mussel (Mytilus edulis) to just begun to pick up the pace (He et al., 2020). Con-
green crab (Carcinus maenas) (Zhang et al., 2019). tinuous inputs and fragmentation of massive plastic
According to Kühn et al. (2015), MPs accumula- litters, the most of which are thought to come from
tion has increased in numerous marine species from terrestrial sources, have contributed to the abun-
1997 to 2015. The number of afflicted species has dance of MPs in oceans. Terrestrial domain like land
dramatically expanded as a result of MPs accumula- is more prone to plastic contamination than oceans.
tion. Nelms et al. (2019) reported that MPs were dis- The annual intake of MPs from sewage sludge/bio-
covered to be tropically transported from wild mack- solids applied to agricultural areas is estimated to
erel (Scomber scombrus) to gray seals (Halichoerus surpass the total quantity of MPs now floating in the
grypus). Numerous fish species and other animals oceans (Wang et al., 2020). Since soil microbial com-
that are higher up the food chain have been found munities are the primary drivers of carbon process-
to exhibit biomagnification (Bhuyan, 2022). One ing, nitrogen cycling, and other biogeochemical pro-
of the most important components of the marine cesses vital to human life, alteration in soil structures
ecosystem, plankton, is also negatively impacted (water-holding capacity, water stable aggregates, bulk
by MPs. Chlorophyll absorption is decreasing as a density, pore volume) linked to the presence of MPs
result of MPs entering phytoplankton cell walls. may have a direct impact on these processes. These
When exposed to MPs, heterotrophic plankton that modifications in physicochemical characteristics rely
goes through the phagocytosis process keeps these on the polymer, concentration, and shape of the MPs
minute plastic pieces in their tissues (Chatterjee & (Baho et al., 2021). The potential for MPs to disrupt
Sharma, 2019). The occurrence of MPs in the diges- important soil–water connections and the effects on
tive tracts of wild gudgeons (Gobio gobio) from soil structure and microbial activity were studied and
French rivers showed that continental fish consumed showed that MPs had an impact on the water hold-
MPs, with MPs contamination found in 12% of col- ing capacity, bulk density, and a link between water
lected fish (Sanchez et al., 2014). More, the presence stable aggregates and microbial activity. More, MPs
of mesoplastics and MPs in freshwater fish from were considered as significant anthropogenic stress-
China showed that all 21 sea species and 6 freshwa- ors and key agents of climate change in terrestrial
ter species of fish contained plastics (Jabeen et al., environment (de Souza Machado et al., 2018).
2017). Traces or residues of consumption of foamed MPs are integrated into the soil by numerous phys-
PS was also found in the stomach contents or feces icochemical interactions, which impact growth of
of a variety of aquatic creatures, such as fish, crusta- plants and soil bioactivity (Sarker et al., 2020). MPs
ceans, turtles, birds, and mammals. As floating frag- pollution of soils may affect the biophysical and geo-
ments are quite identical in size and color to con- chemical conditions as well as the characteristics of
ventional food items like fish eggs, larvae, and fish, the soil. This may also have a significant impact on
foamed PS is frequently found in seabird’s stomach the structural and functional variety of soil micro-
too (Laist, 1987; Turner, 2020). bial communities, perhaps leading to severe soil
environmental issues (Khalid et al., 2020; Rillig &
Bonkowski, 2018). When the Mung bean (Vigna
6 Impact on Terrestrial Ecosystems radiata) was directly exhibited to soil polluted with
nanoplastics, Chae and An (2020) noticed 83.3%
In aquatic ecosystems, MPs are already seen as a decline in root development at a concentration of
serious issue. However, when compared to effects on 100 mg ­kg−1 nanoplastics in the soil. Additionally,
aquatic species, understanding of MP’s effects on the a buildup of micro plastic particles in Mung bean
terrestrial ecosystem is rather limited. The threat of leaves was noted. The African giant snail (Achatina
MPs transmission from agricultural land to the human fulica), which consumed the tainted Mung bean plant,
food chain has recently been studied and established. was thereafter adversely affected in terms of growth
Therefore, MPs should be viewed as a potential dan- rate. MPs have the ability to alter soil structure and
ger to sustainable agriculture and food supply (Sarker characteristics, as well as plant performance. Several
et al., 2020). MPs in aquatic habitats have been thor- studies have confirmed that MPs delay seed germi-
oughly studied, but research in terrestrial habitats has nation, limit plant development, and cause genetic

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Fig. 5  Effect of microplas-

tics to plants and organisms
that live in soil (modified
from Khalid et al., 2020)

toxicity and ecotoxicity in plants, among other things, in the dispersal of MPs (Bergmann et al., 2019).
depending on the kind and amount of MPs (Ge et al., Figure 6 schematizes the airborne MPs being depos-
2021). Recently, a hydroponics experiment studied ited into global biosphere. In rainwater and air sam-
the aggregation and transfer of MPs in rice seedlings ples taken from 11 remote and protected sites in the
and showed that rice seedlings can aggregate MPs in Western US, the presence of MPs was also reported
their roots and relocate them to aerial parts, possibly (Brahney et al., 2020). The data showed that more
transporting the amassed MPs to herbivores if feeds than 1000 tons of MPs enter these areas annually.
on such MPs loaded plant parts (Liu et al., 2022). However, compared to rainfall, snow MPs tend to be
Figure 5 shows the effect of microplastics to plants huge and more varied in their composition and shape.
and organisms that live in soil. This may be because snowflakes are larger and have
slower terminal velocities than raindrops. It is there-
fore imperative to pay more attention to the substan-
7 Impact on Aerial Ecosystems tial role that snowfall plays in the transference of MPs
from the atmosphere to the soil and surface water
In addition to being found in water and soil, MPs (Abbasi et al., 2022).
have also been found in the air, which is often over- MPs were reported in Arctic polar waters for the
looked in many studies yet significant source of inha- first time by Lusher et al. (2015). Most of the MPs
lation and oral exposure (Sridharan et al., 2021). MPs discovered were fibers. The sources and routes by
have been found in soils, densely inhabited areas, which MPs entered the Arctic are still unknown.
and many other locations all over the world, with the Although it is probable that the northeast Atlantic
Antarctic and Arctic regions raising the most concern and Norway’s prevailing winds and surface water
(Shao et al., 2022). Atmospheric transport may also transport have an impact on the amount of MPs that
play a crucial role in the spread of MPs to pristine enter Arctic waters. More recently, the first evidence
habitats around the world (Sridharan et al., 2021). of MPs in Antarctic snow was documented by Aves
Furthermore, MPs were also discovered in Arctic et al. (2022). The most typical morphotype observed
snow, indicating considerable atmospheric contami- was a fiber, and PET was the most typical polymer
nation, showing that aerial transport plays a big part discovered. The study also noted that MPs could also

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Fig. 6  Schematic represen-

tation of airborne micro-
plastics being deposited into
global biosphere (modified
from Shao et al., 2022)

be transferred over extended distances by ocean cur- foreign substance. In addition, persistent inflamma-
rents, exchanged from the ocean to the atmosphere tion may result in cancer (Enyoh et al., 2019). Prata
during evaporation, and transported over both short (2018) has discussed occupational diseases in work-
and long distances by the atmosphere. Airborne MPs ers from a variety of industries that is caused by air-
are typically generated when bigger plastics are bro- borne MPs. Chronic bronchitis, extrinsic allergic
ken down by UV light, but they can also come from alveolitis, chronic pneumonia, pneumothorax, dysp-
clothing and personal care items (Lett et al., 2021). nea, and cancer are among these illnesses. However,
Since they are microscopic and have a low density, a need for additional research is deemed necessary to
these particles are easily swept into the atmosphere completely comprehend the above mentioned occupa-
by air currents after degrading (Revell et al., 2021). tional diseases and establish safe exposure limits.
The wind-driven dispersion of dried sludge byprod-
ucts applied to agricultural soils may also cause MPs
to be released into the atmosphere. Synthetic fibers, 8 Impact on Human Biological System
microbeads, and particles have been identified in the
wastewater treatment facilities’ sludge and became There are significant environmental issues as an out-
airborne (Amato-Lourenco et al., 2020). Abrasions come of the massive quantities of waste plastic that
of car tyres are a main source of airborne MPs along have accumulated in the environment. Studies have
with paint and abrasive cleaning agents (Verschoor, revealed that these plastic wastes continue to harm
2018). An important way that humans are suscepti- wild animals’ health and may be a concern to peo-
ble to aerial MPs is by inhalation, and dust is a key ple’s health as they are potential pathogen carriers
inhalation medium. When inhaled, aerial MPs have (Sang et al., 2021). The size of plastic waste is a sig-
the potential to cause a variety of ailments in the nificant consideration not only for ingestion by organ-
human cardiovascular and respiratory systems, as isms but also primarily for its ability to pass through
well as cancer (Sridharan et al., 2021). The immedi- biological barriers, which has an array of impacts
ate bronchial reactions (asthma-like) that occur when at the cellular level (Binelli et al., 2020). MPs pen-
particles are inhaled are the first signs of toxicity, and etrate the human body by the intake of food contain-
the detrimental impacts of particle toxicity are pri- ing them, inhalation of airborne MPs, and skin con-
marily associated to inflammation caused by particle tact with these particles found in goods, fabrics, or
localization and immune cells that produce proteases, dust. Microorganisms like Vibrio spp. may also colo-
reactive oxygen species, and cytokines to fight the nize the surface of MPs. MPs might serve as vectors

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Fig. 7  Exposure route of

microplastics to human
body and its associated
effects (modified from
Ageel et al., 2022; Bhuyan,
2022)

in this situation, bringing pathogens to the tissues, of these metabolites in their urine. Despite detoxify-
shielding them from the immune system, and induc- ing, minute quantities of EDCs produced from plas-
ing tissue injury that might encourage infection (Prata tic tend to bio-accumulate in bodily tissues (Biamis
et al., 2020). Figure 7 shows a schematic diagram of et al., 2021). MPs in human feces were first discov-
exposure route of MPs to human body and its associ- ered by Harvey and Watts (2018). The most prevalent
ated effects. polymers were PP and PET and more than half of the
MPs may be absorbed and consumed by spe- global population is estimated to bear MPs in their
cies at the primary trophic level, such as zooplank- feces. In addition, the occurrence of MPs in human
ton and phytoplankton, providing a possible route placenta was first evidenced by Ragusa et al. (2021).
into the food chain (Lusher, 2015). The marine food Using Raman microspectroscopy, 12 MPs fragments
web diversity in aquatic animals, such as turtles, (varying in size from 5 to 10 μm) with irregular shape
seabirds, fish, crabs, and worms, have been docu- were discovered in the placentas of four women with
mented for the ingestion of MPs. Several studies have physiological pregnancies. More recently, Leslie
shown that MPs accumulate in the guts of organisms, et al. (2022) discovered and quantified MPs in human
which are usually not directly ingested by humans. blood for the first-time. Baeza-Martínez et al. (2022)
However, humans do eat shellfish, including clams, also reported the discovery of the first MPs evidence
mussels, and some shrimps, along with their gut as in human lower airways, in the form of microfibers.
a whole (Galloway, 2015). Thus, significant threat This discovery has enormous significance as it dem-
to human health is posed by MPs in seafood. There onstrates that MPs can move throughout the body and
is a great possibility that intestinal MPs contamina- could be lodged in organs.
tion will spread throughout the body. The different
effects associated with MPs exposure to the body are
oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, carcino- 9 Challenges Associated with the Strategies
genicity, reproductive toxicity, immunity disruption, to Mitigate Plastic Pollution
alteration of metabolism, translocation of cells, and
inflammation (Bhuyan, 2022). The combined effects 9.1 Landfilling
of plastics and their composites, often known as
endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), are harm- Landfills are one of the simplest and cheapest ways
ful to both human and marine species health. All to dispose polymers; however, there is a major issue
recent human study subjects had high concentrations due to the limited availability of landfill space. This

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works well with biodegradable polymers (Roohi 9.4 Clean‑up activities

et al., 2018). Due to the linear rather than cyclical
nature of the material flow, landfills have a consider- In addition to being tools for awareness-raising
able negative effect from sustainability perspective, and citizen science, cleanup initiatives have been
where none of the material resources used to make suggested as mitigation techniques. However, the
plastics is recovered (Hopewell et al., 2009). pervasive pollution of the environment with plas-
tic particles of all sizes makes it appear difficult to
completely eradicate plastic pollution (Prata et al.,
9.2 Incineration
2019).
When disposed plastics are burned in an incin-
9.5 Reducing Plastics Consumption
erator, it leads to the generation of secondary toxic
air pollutants, which is known to have detrimen-
Food safety has become a growing concern among
tal impacts on the environment and human health
the people throughout the globe. It has been estimated
(Roohi et al., 2018). Hazardous compounds may
that approximately 450 people died in UK in the year
be emitted into the atmosphere during the process
2006 because of foodborne diseases. The most con-
of incineration. For instance, the presence of PVC
venient way to enhance food safety is through appro-
and halogenated compounds in mixed plastic trash
priate packaging, which minimizes food contamina-
incineration raises the possibility of releasing diox-
tion. The majority of such food packaging industry
ins, polychlorinated biphenyls and furans into the
depends entirely on single use plastics. Although the
environment. Moreover, after these hazardous com-
strategy of reducing the plastics consumption is ben-
pounds are released, it binds with dust particles and
eficial, it is occasionally challenging because of food
can be transported over great distances by the wind.
safety concerns and inconvenience (Beitzen-Heineke
Therefore, incineration of plastic in context of solid
et al., 2017).
waste-management is preferred lesser than landfill-
ing and mechanical recycling, primarily due to the
9.6 Using Paper Bags and Jute Bags
detrimental effect on the various components of the
environment (Hopewell et al., 2009). Moreover, strict
Although paper bags have been proposed as plas-
pollution control guidelines imposed by the regula-
tic bag substitutes, paper bag manufacture uses 40%
tory authorities have further restricted its wide scale
more energy than plastic bag production (Schnurr
operations, and only plastic incinerating plants for
et al., 2018). Paper bags are reusable and recyclable,
recovering energy are allowed to operate (Raubenhe-
but they use more fossil fuels to generate and manu-
imer & McIlgorm, 2017).
facture than plastic bags because they are made from
wood fiber pulp or recycled fibers. Jute bags are well
9.3 Challenges in recycling processes recognized for their resilience and are created from
renewable vegetable fibers. Jute bags, however, can
Recycling is a significant method found to be effec- pose a greater risk of microbial contamination due to
tive in reducing plastic waste, but it is projected that cleaning difficulties, and when combined with chemi-
approximately 12% (800 Mt) of plastics were incin- cals to increase durability, they might raise the dan-
erated and only 9% (600 Mt) of the total (6300 Mt) ger of environmental contamination when compost
amount of plastics produced have been recycled in (Nwafor & Walker, 2020).
the year between 1950 and 2015. The remaining 79%
(4900 Mt) of plastics has either been dumped in land- 9.7 Ban on Single‑Use Plastics
fills or is still lying in the nature (Geyer et al., 2017).
In addition, every recycling cycle includes degrada- One of the typical measures recently implemented
tion, due to exposure to hot processing temperatures by governments of several nations all over the world
that cause a breakdown of molecules into monomers to reduce the predicament of plastic pollution is to
and oligomers, which may migrate to packaged food enforce a ban on shopping bags made of single-use
products (Dey et al., 2021). plastic (SUP) (Dey et al., 2021). However, an outright

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ban on plastic bags won’t do much to address the fact an excellent alternative to conventional plastics (Loh
that a particular nation lacks an efficient environmen- & Chew, 2021).
tal management strategy. Such measures, however
judicious they may be, will not protect the environ- 10.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
ment from the negative consequences of a “throw-
away” mentality of the people that need to be more PHAs are a type of biopolyester and the most well-
environmentally educated to become better aware of known are polyhydroxybutyrates (PHBs) and a
the extent of the problem and the collective efforts copolymer of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxy-
to be undertaken to solve this problem for their own valerate)s (PHBVs). PHAs, including PHBs, poly-
salvation and benefit. Instead, better management hydroxyvalerates (PHVs), poly-4-hydroxybutyrates
rather than a constraint on the usage of thin plastic (P4HBs), as well as polyhydroxyhexanoates (PHHs)
bags would probably be a better option and a possible and polyhydroxyoctanoates (PHOs) (Ansari & Fatma,
solution to the issues they cause (Casanova, 2012). 2014) are biodegradable, environmentally benign,
Planning and implementing sustainable low-cost solid and non-toxic (Muneer et al., 2022). General struc-
waste management strategies is crucial for emerging ture of PHAs and some of its polymers is presented in
countries like India. The lack of effective sanitation Fig. 8. PHAs are made from lignocellulosic biomass
techniques is mostly caused by lack of awareness, and can be thermoformed into a variety of bio-based
inappropriate technical knowledge, a lack of fund- products (Reshmy et al., 2021). Both gram-negative
ing, irresponsibility at all levels of the society, and the and gram-positive microorganisms (George et al.,
implementation and enforcement of law and policy 2021) produce granules of PHAs, which are used as
(Rajmohan et al., 2019). water-insoluble storage compounds when the envi-
ronment is stressful. They are produced by biosyn-
thesis, which occurs when there is a surplus of car-
10 A Possible Approach to Mitigate Plastic bon and a limited supply of vital growth nutrients
Pollution like nitrogen or phosphate (Możejko-Ciesielska &
Kiewisz, 2016). According to their structural char-
A multimodal approach involving prevention, reuse, acteristics, these bacterial polyesters can be broadly
recycling, recovery, and disposal is necessary to separated into two groups: short-chain-length PHAs
address the world’s plastic problem and biodegrad- (scl-PHAs), which have 3–5 carbon atoms, and
able plastics are a crucial and integral part of this medium-chain-length PHAs (mcl-PHAs), which have
strategy (Flury & Narayan, 2021). Single-use plastic 6–14 carbon atoms (Kim, 2002). However, compared
will be banned by 2030, according to the European to scl-PHAs production, the process development
Union’s plastic strategy. Therefore, the packaging for mcl-PHAs production has been significantly less
and distribution sectors were compelled to pioneer extensive (Sun et al., 2007). A few bacteria can col-
the usage of biodegradable polymers as an alternate lect PHAs up to 90% of the dry cell weight (George
to traditional plastics (Loh & Chew, 2021). Polyhy- et al., 2021). Olive oil, fermented molasses, date
droxyalkanoates (PHAs) are seen as potential substi- syrup, pomace, effluents from paper mill and palm oil
tutes for conventional petrochemical plastics because mill are just a few of the wastes that have been used
of their robust mechanical qualities that are compara- as carbon source and have accumulated between 40
ble to those of thermoplastics derived from petroleum and 70% biodegradable PHAs (Abd El-malek et al.,
and their high level of biodegradability (Khatami 2020). PHAs are a type of biopolymers that are not
et al., 2021). Additionally, PHAs generation by only ecologically friendly, but it also has a variety of
microbes has drawn some interest in past few years in material qualities that can be adjusted. The current
the field of medical science due to its biocompatibil- market cost of PHAs is roughly €5 per kg, which is
ity properties where it can be implanted in living tis- over 6 times more expensive than the cost of tradi-
sues of human without triggering any immunological tional plastics (€0.8–1.5 per kg). This is primarily
responses. Other properties like non-toxicity, insolu- due to the high cost of biodegradable polymers, as
bility in water, as well as its thermo-plasticity, make it most techniques are still in the research and devel-
opment stages (Khatami et al., 2021). In spite of its

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Fig. 8  General structure of PHAs and some of its polymers (modified from Akinmulewo & Nwinyi, 2019)

high manufacture cost, the production capacity of crystallinity. It is available either as a pure polymer or
PHAs was 2.11 million tons globally in 2018 and is as a component of copolymers and blends. In a varied
projected to surpass 2.6 million tons in 2023. With range of bacterial strains, it is produced as a carbon
additional cost reductions and the increase in highly reserve and is then manufactured industrially through
improved utilization, it is expected to evolve into a bacterial fermentation (McAdam et al., 2020). In their
valuable material that is marketable (Sun et al., 2018). cells, bacterial species collect intracellular PHBs
granules as a source of carbon and energy. The role
of carbon-rich culture media in PHBs synthesis is
11 Polyhydroxybutyrates crucial. Carbon is used by micro-organisms for both
energy production and biosynthesis. For microbial
In 1925, Lemoigne made the first discovery of the growth and the production of PHBs, an appropriate
linear polyester poly-3-hydroxybutyrates (PHBs) in carbon supply is essential. Simple sugars like glucose,
bacteria. The biological synthesis of PHBs from non- fructose, mannose, galactose, sucrose, and xylose,
replenishing sources taking place in both gram-neg- as well as polysaccharides like starch and lipids like
ative and gram-positive bacteria under the circum- oleates and glycerides, are examples of sources of
stance of nutritional imbalance is the most significant defined carbon. Nitrogen is also a key component in
factor in its production (Rajan et al., 2019). PHBs fermentation media as a vital component of proteins,
have a linear chain structure and both crystalline and nucleic acids, and co-enzymes like vitamins (Allikian
amorphous phases, which results in its high degree of et al., 2019). Among the inexpensive carbon sources

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Fig. 9  Biochemical mechanism for PHB production. a Schematic diagram showing metabolic pathway of PHB production. b Sche-
matic diagram showing metabolic pathway of PHB production along with its chemical structure (modified from Ross et al., 2017)

are molasses, maize steep liquor, starch, wheat bran, enzyme acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxybu-
among others (Verlinden et al., 2007). tyryl-CoA is generated by reducing acetoacetyl-CoA
PHBs are a member of the PHAs family and are by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (PhaB). Finally,
distinguished by an ester linkage group (− COOR) employing PHB synthase (PhaC), PHBs is polymer-
and methyl functional group (− ­ CH3); these func- ized from 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, releasing CoA
tional groups are also responsible for the material’s (Ross et al., 2017). The biochemical mechanism for
hydrophobic, high crystallinity, thermoplastic, and PHB production is displayed in Fig. 9.
brittle properties. PHBs and its byproducts, for exam- A wide range of bacteria are the most researched,
ple, have two major temperatures that define their accepted, and renowned species in the bioplastics
thermal properties: a melting temperature ­(Tm) for manufacturing process. PHAs granules are used by
their crystalline phase and a glass transition temper- many bacterial species as a source of carbon stores
ature ­(Tg) for their amorphous phase (Grigore et al., and energy in their cells (Thiruchelvi et al., 2020).
2019). PHBs are an excellent alternative for synthetic The microorganisms such as Bacillus cereus (Naray-
polymers and have mechanical qualities similar to anan et al., 2020a), Cupriavidus necator (Aramvash
polypropylene (Verlinden et al., 2007). The biochemi- et al., 2015), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Javed &
cal mechanism by which PHBs are produced has Jamil, 2015), Azospirillum rubrum (Jin & Nikolau,
three phases. Firstly, to form acetoacetyl-coenzyme A 2014), Brevundimonas spp., and Enterococcus spp.
(CoA), two molecules of acetyl-CoA are linked uti- from cardboard industry waste water (Bhuwal et al.,
lizing 3-ketothiolase (PhaA). Secondly, utilizing the 2013), Burkholderia cepacia from biodiesel-glycerol

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(Zhu et al., 2010), Pseudomonas putida from veg- sweet Sorghum juice as carbon source. The study
etable oil wastes (Gatea et al., 2018), Bacillus mega- revealed that Bacillus aryabhattai had the high-
terium (Joyline & Aruna, 2019), Bacillus siamen- est PHAs accumulation of 1.74 g/L with 57.62% of
sis, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus (Vijay DCW. A study was conducted by Narayanan et al.
& Tarika, 2019), Paraburkholderia spp. (Sriyapai (2020a) to identify the most common bacteria that
et al., 2022), Methylocystis spp. and Rhizobium spp. produce PHBs in polluted lake soil samples and
(Abd El-malek et al., 2020; Snell & Peoples, 2009), found that Bacillus cereus strain NDRMN001 has the
Aeromonas hydrophila, Burkholderia sacchari, Aci- ability to produce 91.54% of PHBs from 36.26 g/L
netobacter spp., Halomonas boliviensis, Sphingob- culture biomass.
acterium spp., Caulobacter spp., Brochothrix spp.,
Ralstonia spp., and Yokenella spp. (Mascarenhas &
Aruna, 2017) are capable of producing PHBs. These
microorganisms utilize various substrates for the pro- 12 Properties of PHBs
duction of PHAs. For instance, different forms of
PHAs can be created from a wide range of sustainable 12.1 Physico‑Mechanical Properties
sources, comprising fatty acids, agricultural wastes,
and by-products from industries. Furthermore, the PHBs are a homopolymer with highly crystalline,
market price of commonly utilized substrates, namely rigid, but brittle material. It performs as a hard-elastic
oils, pure sugars and fatty acids, accounts for half substance when spun into fibers. Copolymers with the
of the entire cost of PHAs production. Therefore, a majority of PHBs’ other mechanical qualities, like
number of research works has been done in order to PHBVs or mcl-PHAs, are less brittle and stiff than
incorporate low-cost carbon-rich substrates like agro- PHBs. The crystalline helical structure of homopoly-
industrial wastes (sugarcane bagasse, rice bran, wheat mer PHBs appears to be shared by a number of dif-
bran, wheat straw, and corn cob) for the production of ferent copolymers (Verlinden et al., 2007). Along
PHAs (Abd El-malek et al., 2020). Tsang et al. (2019) with molecular weight, the length of the side chain,
reviewed on current technology for the synthesis of the kind of monomer, and the separation between
PHA-based bioplastics from food waste (FW). When the ester bond and the functional group all affect
FW is landfilled, it causes harmful effects such as the mechanical properties of PHAs. The interaction
groundwater contamination and emission of green- of these variables can alter the glass transition (­Tg)
house gases. Therefore, production of PHA-based and melting ­(Tm) temperatures of polymers as well
bioplastics seems to be an ideal method for FW dis- as their crystallinity (stiffness/flexibility) (Guima-
posal, and its production from FW is a renewable and rães et al., 2022). PHAs with medium chain lengths
sustainable method that uses resources that are car- are elastic and flexible; they have high elongation at
bon neutral. break ratios, moderate tensile strength, and low crys-
Nevertheless, only a few bacterial strains have tallinity. mcl-PHAs polymers exhibit higher elonga-
so far been employed effectively on an industrial tion-to-break ratios, lower glass transition tempera-
scale to produce PHAs due to high production cost tures, and lower melting temperatures than scl-PHAs
(Możejko-Ciesielska & Kiewisz, 2016). To deter- polymers (Sharma et al., 2017).
mine the efficacy of PHAs production, Mohapatra PHBs material’s mechanical characteristics, such
et al. (2017) have isolated and screened different as its tensile strength (43 MPa) and Young’s modulus
Bacillus species. They found that under optimized (3.5 GPa), are comparable to those of isotactic poly-
condition (glucose concentration of 10 g/L, tempera- propylene’s tensile strength (38 MPa) and Young’s
ture 37 °C for 48 h, C:N ratio 6:1, pH 7) for micro- modulus (1.7 GPa). Nevertheless, PHBs’ extension
bial growth, the Bacillus species produced 3.09 g/L to break (5%) is significantly lesser than polypropyl-
of PHAs, which was believed to be a greater yield ene’s (400%). In comparison to polypropylene, PHBs
than Paenibacillus durus (Hungund et al., 2013) that looks to be a harder and more brittle material (Sudesh
accumulated 0.9 g/L of PHAs using fructose as car- et al., 2000). PHBs grow into incredibly thin lamel-
bon source. To produce an eco-friendly biodegrad- lar crystals that are arranged as spherulites when it
able polymer of PHAs, Tanamool et al. (2013) used is produced from the melt or oblong lath-like single

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crystals in dilute solution. Lamellar thicknesses in cartilage restoration, cardiac patch fabrication, menis-
PHBs spherulites are normally in the range of 5 nm, cal repair devices, adhesions barriers, repair patches,
though they can be noticeably smaller in crystals pro- orthopedic pins, tacks and rivets, screws and sta-
duced from solutions (Barham et al., 1984; Van der ples, stents, suture fastener, surgical mesh and other
Walle et al., 2001). devices are among the most potential devices (Kalia
et al., 2021; Ray & Kalia, 2017). Furthermore, when
12.2 Thermal Properties utilized in vivo, PHAs have no acute or long-term
negative impacts on health (Raza et al., 2018).
At temperatures near its melting point, which is PHAs are also employed in agriculture for a
160–180 °C, PHBs exhibits severe instability. It is variety of purposes, including seed and fertilizer
a thermoplastic polymer having a T ­ m in the range encapsulation, crop protection films, and biode-
of 160–180 °C and a T ­ g of 0–5 °C. Around its T
­ m, gradable pesticide and insecticide carriers (George
it starts to degrade thermally. The melting points of et al., 2021). Shade nets, clips, geotextiles, wires,
PHBs vary based on the carbon source. Due to its and pheromone dispensers are examples of prod-
semi-crystalline nature, PHBs exhibits a melting ucts used in agriculture to protect plants from severe
behavior between crystalline and pure amorphous environmental conditions (Kalia et al., 2021). Many
materials (Sreedevi et al., 2015). At temperatures farmers cover their fields with plastic blankets to
exceeding 170 °C, there are reports of alterations boost product production. Traditional polymers
in molecular weight and the generation of crotonic leave traces, whereas biodegradable plastic made
acid (Van der Walle et al., 2001). After being held at from natural materials degrades completely. Biode-
190 °C for 1 h, a sample of PHBs was found to lose gradable mulch film can be ploughed back into the
nearly half of its initial molecular weight (Barham field after its use, reducing labor and disposal cost
et al., 1984). (Rujnić-Sokele & Pilipović, 2017; Venkatachalam &
Palaniswamy, 2020).
The automotive sector is pursuing sustainability
13 Applications of Polyhydroxyalkanoates efforts, such as the use of biopolymers. Toyota claims
to be the first to utilize sugarcane-based PET in car
Biopolymers such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) liners as well as some interior surfaces. In one model,
are biodegradable and can be made without fossil Mazda motors claims an interior fittings content of
fuels because they are mostly made from biomass, more than 80% plant-derived content, as well as seat
implying possible carbon neutrality. As a result, there covers made entirely of plant-derived biofabric (Lack-
has been a surge in the use of these materials in the ner, 2000). PHBs, one of the PHAs, may prove to be a
form of blends or composites with degradable or non- highly environment-friendly material for the automo-
degradable synthetic polymers (Nandakumar et al., tives interior components (Mostafa et al., 2020). Fur-
2021). PHAs are an essential source of packaging thermore, technological advancements have assured
material because of qualities including thermoplas- that the spectrum of biopolymers applications con-
ticity, hydrophobicity, insulation, and vapor barrier. tinues to expand, currently including keyboard parts,
PHA-derived jars, disposable cups, trays, containers, mobile phone coverings, microchips and ultracapaci-
and foam-based packaging utensils are already avail- tors (Rekhi et al., 2022), and automobile components
able in the food industry (Rekhi et al., 2022). PHAs (Industry Experts, 2012). The applications of PHAs
have various medical utilizations such as drug car- biopolymers are presented in Fig. 10.
rier, tissue engineering, heart valves, surgical sutures,
medical implants, artificial skin, artificial organ
reconstruction, chemotherapeutics, antibacterial, 14 Advantages of Polyhydroxybutyrates
anti-cancer agents, memory boosters, and biocontrol
agents in aquaculture. PHAs have been presented as In comparison to conventional plastics made from
a possible medical device material since it is biocom- petrochemicals, polyhydroxybutyrates (PHBs) have
patible with human bones and tissues, biodegrad- various benefits. PHBs are completely biodegradable
able, and has high mechanical properties. Articular and are made from renewable resources. It is entirely

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Fig. 10  Applications of PHAs Biopolymers (modified from Abd El-malek et al., 2020)
Water Air Soil Pollut (2023) 234:21
Water Air Soil Pollut (2023) 234:21 Page 21 of 31 21

nontoxic and has better physical qualities for food photo-degrade and turn into tiny microplastics, pol-
packaging applications than polypropylene (Ansari luting the marine environment (Zhang et al., 2021).
& Fatma, 2014). Green plastics provide a number
of advantages over petroleum-based plastics, includ- 14.2 Biocompatibility
ing non-toxic chemicals, ease of recycling, reduced
use of fossil fuels, lower energy requirements, and PHBs are biocompatible with human bones and tis-
are renewable and environmentally safe (Thiruchelvi sues; therefore, it can be inserted into the human body
et al., 2020). Another advantage of bioplastics’ bio- without triggering an inflammatory reaction. It can be
degradability is that the end products can be recycled employed as a carrier for the gradual release of drugs
as raw materials, removing the requirement for virgin since it degrades gradually within the human body
raw materials and providing the product with several (Nair & Laurencin, 2007). The biocompatibility of
end-of-life alternatives (Nandakumar et al., 2021). PHBs is also possible to assess in the context of tis-
The various advantages of PHBs are discussed below. sue engineering, and this quality can be improved by
sodium hydroxide and lipase treatment (Zhao et al.,
14.1 Biodegradability 2002). By amalgamation with other polymers, alter-
ing the surface, or integrating PHAs with different
PHAs are considered to be the most important biopol- inorganic materials, PHAs can further improve their
ymers because of their high biodegradation efficiency, mechanical and biocompatibility qualities, making
which is essential for their replacement of traditional them acceptable for a broader range of applications
plastics (Robledo-Ortíz et al., 2021). Biodegradation (Sreedevi et al., 2015).
can take place in both anaerobic and aerobic environ-
ments when microorganisms like bacteria, fungus, 14.3 Natural Feedstock
or actinomycetes are present (Lammi et al., 2019).
The final products under aerobic conditions are bio- Biopolymers are made from substances that are
mass, carbon dioxide ­(CO2), and water, whereas the naturally occurring and can be produced by a vari-
final products under anaerobic conditions are bio- ety of metabolic processes in living cells, includ-
mass, ­CO2, methane (­CH4), and water (Gu, 2003). ing microbes and plants, that involve chemical and
These products are not hazardous to the environment, thermo-chemical polymerization (Haddadi et al.,
and ­CO2 and ­CH4 in particular could be employed 2019). Currently, using inexpensive raw materials are
in power plants to produce electricity (Kuciel et al., given some thought to reduce PHBs cost. Biomasses
2019). During photosynthesis, the byproducts are from maintaining green spaces, wastes, and byprod-
further reabsorbed by microorganisms and plants, ucts of industry, including glycerol, sugarcane bagas-
serving as a feedstock for the subsequent synthesis ses, and lignocellulosic biomass from agricultural or
of PHAs. PHAs are a component of the biosphere’s forest residues, and dairy wastes and food industry
nutrient cycle as a result of this property (Bhola waste (Sirohi et al., 2020) are some of these potential
et al., 2021). The rate and time of biodegradation can substrates. This method’s main benefit is that it turns
be influenced by the polymer’s crystallinity, surface these wastes into products with added value (Angelini
morphology, side-chain length, and shape, as well as et al., 2015).
environmental factors like temperature, UV exposure,
nutrition levels, mechanical force strength, types of 14.4 Sustainable Bioeconomy
bacteria present, pH, and oxygen levels. The average
rate of PHAs biodegradation in the marine environ- If sustainability requirements are incorporated into
ment was found to be 0.04–0.09 mg/day/cm2, indicat- the process and product design, PHAs can be desir-
ing that it would take between 1.5 and 3.5 years for able substance for a sustainable bioeconomy. The uti-
a PHAs water bottle to entirely decompose (Dilkes- lization of lignocellulosic biomass as a feedstock has
Hoffman et al., 2019). In contrast, a conventional potential for sustainable PHAs production because
plastic takes about 500 to 1000 years to degrade in it naturally occurs as waste and can therefore reduce
marine environment (Whiting, 2018). However, feedstock greenhouse gas emissions, land use, and
they do not decompose completely; instead, they

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other feedstock-associated effects like water use and yields and productivity in terms of volume. Moreo-
fertilizer (Dietrich et al., 2017). ver, consumer purchasing habits and attitudes toward
sustainable products also have an impact on the cost
and competition issues (Maraveas, 2020). Due to the
15 Limitations of Biodegradable Plastics fact that consumers focus their purchasing decisions
on a product’s value in relation to its price, bio-based
PHBs are a unique type of hydrophobic polymer with polymers are still currently unable to compete with
a high melting point and crystallinity that is genuinely traditional plastics on the commercial market (Kap-
biocompatible and biodegradable. However, for some ferer & Laurent, 2016; Maraveas, 2020).
applications, its strength and a few additional quali-
ties, like thermal stability, solvent resistance, gas per-
meability, and flame retardance, are insufficient for 16 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
end use (Maiti et al., 2007). The thermal instability
of PHBs, which causes its molecular weight to fall at The current predicament created by huge quantity of
170–185 °C by a random scission mechanism, is one non-biodegradable wastes in the environment has led
of its most significant drawbacks. It has a relatively to spurring research into novel biodegradable materi-
small processing window because its melting point, als build from natural resources like biomass, plants,
which is about 175 °C, is just a little below its degra- and microorganisms. MPs being an emerging pollut-
dation temperature, which starts at 185 °C (Robledo- ant in both marine and terrestrial environment, it is
Ortíz et al., 2021). Moreover, PHBs has very poor necessary to reduce its application and opt for an eco-
mechanical qualities with a low elongation at break friendly plastic such as bioplastics. The process of
as a result of its high crystallinity, which restricts the landfills needs a lot of space, an uninterrupted energy
variety of its applications (Ansari & Fatma, 2014). supply, and billions of dollars to continue operating in
Therefore, to enhance the thermal, physical, and order to fix an issue that shouldn’t have existed in the
mechanical properties of these materials, it is cru- first place. The marine environment has already been
cial to produce blends of components from natural irreparably damaged by ocean dumping (Bhola et al.,
sources, synthetic biodegradable polymers, and/or 2021). A new plastic economy paradigm is required
non-biodegradable polymers (Moreira et al., 2022). to reduce plastic waste from packaging. This idea of a
Blending, coating, adding nanoparticles, adding cel- circular economy includes bio-based and biodegrad-
lulose, chemical/physical alteration, are some of the able polymers (Flury & Narayan, 2021). Bioplastics
options (Jabeen et al., 2015). PHAs are substantially can help solve environmental issues such as unregu-
more costly than conventional polymers and other lated garbage dumping on land and disposal into the
bio-based biodegradable plastics, despite the fact that sea, as well as the hazardous compounds released as
some PHAs improve ductility as their chain length a result. However, to maximize the benefits of bio-
rises (Meereboer et al., 2020). Furthermore, main- plastics, appropriate collection, sorting, and recycling
taining best bacterial growth conditions is one of the processes, as well as public awareness, are required
main hindrances to the industrial output of PHAs. (Venkatachalam & Palaniswamy, 2020). This study
At the completion of the cultivation of bacteria, the gives a brief overview of PHAs, which have now
majority of fermentation techniques do not provide gained interest for being prospective substitutes for
the maximum synthesis of PHAs granules (Sharma traditional plastics because of their biological origin,
et al., 2021). Due to limitations in production tech- biodegradability, and biocompatibility, and subse-
niques, the cost of bio-based polymers has histori- quently mitigating MPs pollution. Although bioplas-
cally been a significant barrier in commercial use. tic production would reduce fossil fuel consumption,
The emergence of microbial synthesis pathways and ­CO2 emissions, and plastic waste generation, the high
the accessibility of inexpensive carbon-rich precur- cost of producing bioplastic from bacteria remains a
sors have made it easier to produce PHAs at a reason- key restriction when compared to the cost of produc-
able price for usage in medical and other commercial ing petroleum-derived polymers (Ali et al., 2017).
applications. However, the drawback of mixed cul- However, as bio-engineering techniques are progres-
tures is that they are less expensive but produce poor sively improving, they have the ability to manufacture

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Water Air Soil Pollut (2023) 234:21 Page 23 of 31 21

effective, high-performance high-yield PHBs, even Abd El-malek, F., Khairy, H., Farag, A., & Omar, S. (2020).
from wastestream resources, lowering costs and pro- The sustainability of microbial bioplastics, produc-
tion and applications. International Journal of Biologi-
ducing PHBs materials at competitive prices with cal Macromolecules, 157, 319–328. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
the necessary mechanical qualities to open up a wide 1016/j.​ijbio​mac.​2020.​04.​076
range of advanced applications and market prospects Ageel, H. K., Harrad, S., & Abdallah, M. A. E. (2022).
(McAdam et al., 2020). Their range of applications Occurrence, human exposure, and risk of microplas-
tics in the indoor environment. Environmental Science:
will expand as production costs are brought reduced, Processes & Impacts, 24(1), 17–31.
culminating in a competitive pricing for these biode- Akinmulewo, A. B., & Nwinyi, O. C. (2019). Polyhydroxy-
gradable polymers (Kavitha et al., 2018). Petroleum- alkanoate: A biodegradable polymer (a mini review).
derived plastic is expected to be completely substi- In Journal of physics: Conference series (1378, 4,
042007). IOP Publishing. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1088/​
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will give an opportunity for technological advance- Ali, W. S., Zaki, N. H., & Obiad, S. Y. N. (2017). Production
ment without worrying too much about dumping and of bioplastic by bacteria isolated from local soil and
will benefit the economy in the sectors where petro- organic wastes. Current Research in Microbiology and
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PHAs from low-cost raw materials, such as waste and isola​ted_​from_​local_​soil_​and_​organ​ic_​wastes
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damentals of fermentation media. In Essentials in Fer-
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commercialization, significant research and develop- Amato-Lourenço, L. F., dos Santos Galvão, L., de Weger, L.
ment is still required (Keshavarz & Roy, 2010). The A., Hiemstra, P. S., Vijver, M. G., & Mauad, T. (2020).
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use of biodegradable plastics to reduce pollution is a microplastics to respiratory human health? Science of
discussed benefit; nevertheless, substituting conven- the Total Environment, 749, 1–27. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
tional plastics with bioplastics is not the most efficient 1016/j.​scito​tenv.​2020.​141676
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oceans. In M. Bergmann, L. Gutow, & M. Klages
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paid on both production and disposal processes. This climate change and UV-B on materials. Photochemical &
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thoroughly research on PHAs as a sustainable option 1039/​b2110​85g
Angelini, S., Cerruti, P., Immirzi, B., Poskovic, M., Santagata,
to green plastic. G., Scarinzi, G., & Malinconico, M. (2015). From micro-
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https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​978-​81-​322-​2595-9_​10
Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflict of inter- Ansari, S., & Fatma, T. (2014). Polyhydroxybutyrate-a biode-
est. gradable plastic and its various formulations. Interna-
tional Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engi-
neering and Technology, 3(2), 9598–9602. https://​doi.​
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