27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 16

27-Feb-17 Entrance region & fully developed flow

Fluid Mechanics - II 17
27-Feb-17

Entrance length
• The entrance region can be represented by
entrance length le, which can be empirically
determined by the following formulae for
both regimes:
– Laminar  e D  0.06 Re
• At lower critical Reynolds number 2100, le/D = 126,
• And a 10 cm Dia pipe would have le = 12.6 m.
– Turbulent  e D  4.4(Re)1 6
• At upper critical Reynolds number 4000, le/D = 17.53,
• And a 10 cm Dia pipe would have le = 1.75 m.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 18

27-Feb-17 Problem 8.6

• To cool a given room, 0.1 m3/s of air is supplied
through a 20cm diameter pipe. Approximately
how long is the entrance length in this pipe?
• Solution
– Volume flow rate = 0.1 m3/s
– Diameter, D = 20 cm
– Viscosity,  = 1.79x10-5
• Step – 1:
– V = (4 x 0.1)/(D2) = 0.4/0.1256 = 3.185 m/s
– Re = VD/ = 42,700
• Step – 2:
– le = 4.4(42700)1/6 0.2 = 5.2 m

Fluid Mechanics - II 19
27-Feb-17

Entrance Length
• The boundary layer
thickness in the inviscid p
core varies.

• Therefore the pressure distribution behaves non-linearly

in this region and the pressure slope is not constant.
• However, after the flow is fully developed, the slope
becomes constant and the pressure drop p is directly
caused only by viscous effect.
• By projecting the graph back towards the tank, we can
estimate the pressure drop due to entrance flow.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 22

27-Feb-17 Fully developed laminar flow

• Fully developed: the velocity
profile is the same at any
cross section of the pipe.
• Whether the flow is laminar
or turbulent,
– Flow in a long, straight,
constant diameter sections of
a pipe becomes fully
developed.
– But the other flow properties
are different for these two
types of flow.

Fluid Mechanics - II 23
27-Feb-17

Fully developed laminar flow

• Knowledge of the velocity profile can lead
directly to other useful information such as
pressure drop, head loss, flowrate.
• We begin by developing the equation for
the velocity profile in fully developed
laminar flow.
– If the flow is not fully developed, a theoretical
analysis becomes much more complex
– If the flow is turbulent, a rigorous theoretical
analysis is as yet not possible.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 24

27-Feb-17 Fully developed laminar flow

• There are numerous ways to derive
important results pertaining to fully
developed laminar flow.
• Three alternatives include:
– From F = ma applied directly to a fluid element,
– From the Navier –Stokes equations of motion, &
– From dimensional analysis methods.

Fluid Mechanics - II 25
27-Feb-17

F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• Consider the motion of a cylindrical fluid
element at time ‘t’ within a pipe.

– The local acceleration is zero because the flow is

steady (V/ t = 0), and
– The convective acceleration is zero because the
flow is fully developed (V.V= u u/x i = 0).

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Fluid Mechanics - II 26

27-Feb-17 F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• Every part of the fluid merely flows along its

streamline parallel to the pipe walls with
constant velocity,
• Velocity varies from one pathline to another.
• This velocity variation, combined with the fluid
viscosity, produces the shear stress.

Fluid Mechanics - II 27
27-Feb-17

F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• If gravitational effects are neglected, the
pressure is constant across any vertical cross
section of the pipe, although it varies along
the pipe from one section to the next.
• If the pressure is P1 at section (1), it is P1-P
at section (2).
• A shear stress , acts on the surface of the
cylinder of fluid it is a function of the radius of
the cylinder,  =  (r).
• We isolate the cylinder of fluid and apply
Newton’s second law, Fx= m ax,

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Fluid Mechanics - II 28

27-Feb-17 F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• The fluid is not accelerating, so that ax = 0.

• Thus, fully developed horizontal pipe flow is a
balance between pressure and viscous forces
– The pressure difference acting on the end of the
cylinder of area r² and
– The shear stress acting on the lateral surface of the
cylinder of area 2rl.

Fluid Mechanics - II 29
27-Feb-17

F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• This force balance can be written as
𝑝1 𝜋𝑟 2 − 𝑝1 − ∆𝑝 𝜋𝑟 2 − 𝜏2𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 0
 𝑝1 𝑟 − 𝑝1 𝑟 + ∆𝑝𝑟 − 𝜏2𝑙 = 0
∆𝑝 2𝜏
 =
𝑙 𝑟
• Since neither p nor l are functions of the
2𝜏
radial coordinate, r, it implies that must
𝑟
also be independent of r.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 31

27-Feb-17 F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• That is,  = Cr , where C is a constant.

– At the centerline of the pipe (r = 0) there is no shear

stress  = 0.
– At the pipe wall (r = D/2) the shear stress is a
maximum, denoted by  w the wall shear stress.
– And, 𝜏𝑤 = 𝐶 𝐷Τ2  𝐶 = 2𝜏𝑤 Τ𝐷

Fluid Mechanics - II 32
27-Feb-17

F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• Hence, the shear stress distribution
throughout the pipe is a linear function of the
radial coordinate.
2𝜏𝑤
– Thus, 𝜏 = 𝐶𝑟  𝜏 = 𝑟, put this in previous eq
𝐷
∆𝑝 2𝜏 ∆𝑝 2 2𝜏𝑤 4𝑙𝜏
– We have, =  = 𝑟  ∆𝑝 = 𝑤
𝑙 𝑟 𝑙 𝑟 𝐷 𝐷
• We get a relation between
– pressure drop, and
– wall shear stress

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Fluid Mechanics - II 33

27-Feb-17 F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• To carry the analysis further we must
describe how the shear stress is related to
the velocity.
• For a laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid, the
shear stress is simply proportional to the
𝑑𝑢
velocity gradient. 𝜏 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
• In the notation associated with our pipe
𝑑𝑢
flow, this becomes. 𝜏 = −𝜇
𝑑𝑟

Fluid Mechanics - II 34
27-Feb-17

F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• The two governing laws for fully developed
laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid within a
horizontal pipe are
∆𝑝 2𝜏 ∆𝑝
• = 𝜏= 𝑟 and
𝑙 𝑟 2𝑙
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 1 ∆𝑝 ∆𝑝
• 𝜏 = −𝜇  =− 𝑟  𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝜇 2𝑙 2𝜇𝑙
• Integrating we get,
∆𝑝
• 𝑢=− 𝑟 2 + 𝑐1
4𝜇𝑙
• where c1 is a constant.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 35

27-Feb-17 F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

∆𝑝
• 𝑢=− 𝑟 2 + 𝑐1
4𝜇𝑙
• @ r = D/2, u= 0 because the fluid is viscous it sticks to
∆𝑝 𝐷 2 ∆𝑝
the pipe wall, and 0 = − + 𝑐1  𝑐1 = 𝐷2
4𝜇𝑙 2 16𝜇𝑙
• @ r = 0, u = umax = Vc the center line velocity, from above
∆𝑝 ∆𝑝 ∆𝑝
equation 𝑉𝑐 = − 02 + 𝐷2  𝑉𝑐 = 𝐷2
4𝜇𝑙 16𝜇𝑙 16𝜇𝑙
• Using these in equation of velocity
∆𝑝 ∆𝑝 ∆𝑝 2𝑟 2 ∆𝑝
𝑢=− 𝑟2 + 𝐷2  𝑢 = − 𝐷2 + 𝐷2
4𝜇𝑙 16𝜇𝑙 16𝜇𝑙 𝐷 16𝜇𝑙

2𝑟 2
 𝑢 𝑟 = 𝑉𝑐 1 −
𝐷

Fluid Mechanics - II 36
27-Feb-17

F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• The volume flowrate through the pipe can be obtained
by integrating the velocity profile across the pipe.
2𝑟 2
• 𝑄 = ‫ 𝐴𝑑𝑢 ׬‬, 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 and 𝑢 𝑟 = 𝑉𝑐 1 −
𝐷

𝐷Τ2 2𝑟 2
•  𝑄 = ‫׬‬0 𝑉𝑐 1 − 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝐷

𝑅 𝑟 2
•  𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑉𝑐 ‫׬‬0 1 − 𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑅
𝑅
𝑟2 1 𝑟4
•  𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑉𝑐 −
2 𝑅2 4 0

𝑅2 𝑅2 𝜋𝑅 2 𝑉𝑐
•  𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑉𝑐 − 𝑄=
2 4 2

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Fluid Mechanics - II 37

27-Feb-17 F = ma Applied to a Fluid Element

• The average velocity is the flowrate divided by the
cross-sectional area,
𝑄 𝑄 1 𝜋𝑅 2 𝑉𝑐
• 𝑉= 𝑉= 𝑉=
𝐴 𝜋𝑅 2 𝜋𝑅 2 2
𝑉𝑐 1 ∆𝑝
• 𝑉= 𝑉= 𝐷2
2 2 16𝜇𝑙
∆𝑝
• 𝑉= 𝐷2
32𝜇𝑙
• The average flow rate can be calculated from 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋𝐷2 ∆𝑝
• Q= 𝐷2
4 32𝜇𝑙
𝜋𝐷4 ∆𝑝
• Q=
128𝜇𝑙

Fluid Mechanics - II 38
27-Feb-17

Poiseuille flow
• These results show that for laminar pipe
flow in a horizontal pipe the flowrate is
– directly proportional to the pressure drop,
– inversely proportional to the viscosity,
– inversely proportional to the pipe length, and
– proportional to the pipe diameter to the fourth
power.
• This flow, first determined experimentally
by Hagen in 1839 and Poiseuille in 1840,
is termed Hagen–Poiseuille flow.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 39

27-Feb-17 Inclined pipes

• Replace the pressure drop p, by the effect

of both pressure and gravity p - l sin.

Fluid Mechanics - II 40
27-Feb-17

Example
• An oil with a viscosity of 𝜇 = 0.4 𝑁𝑠Τ𝑚2
and density 𝜌 = 900 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 flows in a pipe
of diameter, 𝐷 = 0.02𝑚. Find
1. What pressure drop, is needed to produce a
flow rate of 𝑄 = 2 × 10−5 𝑚3 Τ𝑠 if the pipe is
horizontal with 𝑥1 = 0 and 𝑥2 = 10𝑚?
2. How steep a hill, must the pipe be on, if the
oil is to flow through the pipe at the same
rate as in part 1, but with 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 ?

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Fluid Mechanics - II 41

27-Feb-17 Solution
• Step 1: Determine Reynolds number
• 𝑉 = 𝑄Τ𝐴 = 2 × 10−5 Τ 3.14 × 0.022 ÷ 4 =
0.0637 𝑚Τ𝑠
• 𝑅𝑒 = 900 × 0.0637 × 0.02 Τ0.4 = 2.86 <
2100 therefore flow is laminar.
𝜋𝐷4 ∆𝑝
• Part 1: Pressure Drop from Q =
128𝜇𝑙
𝑄128𝜇𝑙 2×10−5 ×128×0.4×10
• ∆𝑝 = = = 20.37 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝐷4 3.14×0.024

Fluid Mechanics - II 42
27-Feb-17

Solution
• Part 2: with 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 , find angle 𝜃
𝜋𝐷4 ∆𝑝−𝛾𝑙 sin 𝜃
• Q=
128𝜇𝑙
𝑄128𝜇𝑙
• ∆𝑝 − 𝛾𝑙 sin 𝜃 =
𝜋𝐷4
• − sin 𝜃 = 20371.8Τ𝛾𝑙
•  𝜃 = sin−1 −20371.8Τ 900 × 9.81 × 10
•  𝜃 = −13.34°.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 43

27-Feb-17 Problem 8.12

• For fully developed laminar pipe flow of
water in a circular pipe, the velocity profile
is given by 𝑢 = 2 1 − 𝑟 2 Τ𝑅2 in m/s,
where R is the inner radius of the pipe.
• Assuming that the pipe diameter is 4 cm,
find the maximum and average velocities
in the pipe as well as the volume flow rate.
• Find the shear stress at the wall.

Fluid Mechanics - II 44
27-Feb-17

Solution
• Maximum velocity is at center the line,
 @ r = 0, 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑢 0 = 2 1 − 0Τ22 ,𝑉𝑐 = 2 𝑚Τ𝑠
• And average velocity,
 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑐 Τ2 = 2Τ2 = 1 𝑚Τ𝑠
• Flow rate,
 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝜋0.022 1 = 0.001256 𝑚3 Τ𝑠
• For the shear stress at the wall.
𝑟2
𝑢 =2 1−
𝑅2
𝑑𝑢 2𝑟
 =2 0 −2 , And
𝑑𝑟 𝑅2
𝑑𝑢 −4 0.02
 𝜏 = −𝜇 = −0.00112 = 0.224 𝑁Τ𝑚2
𝑑𝑟 0.0004

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Fluid Mechanics - II 46

27-Feb-17 From the Navier–Stokes Equations

• General motion of an incompressible
Newtonian fluid is governed by
– the continuity equation, and
– the momentum equation
• For steady, fully developed flow in a pipe,
the velocity contains only an axial
component, which is a function of only the
radial coordinate.
• For such conditions, the left-hand side of
momentum Eq. is zero.

Fluid Mechanics - II 47
27-Feb-17

From the Navier–Stokes Equations

• The Navier –Stokes equations become.

• In polar coordinates

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Fluid Mechanics - II 48

27-Feb-17 From Dimensional Analysis

• We assume that the pressure drop in the
horizontal pipe, is a function of
– the average velocity of the fluid in the pipe, V,
– the length of the pipe, l
– the pipe diameter, D, and
– the viscosity of the fluid, .
• The density or the specific weight of the
fluid are not important parameters.

Fluid Mechanics - II 49
27-Feb-17

From Dimensional Analysis

• There are five variables that can be described
in terms of three reference dimensions M, L, T.
• This flow can be described in terms of, k – r = 5
– 3 = 2 dimensionless groups.
• These are

• The value of C must be determined by theory or

experiment.
– For a round pipe, For ducts of other cross-sectional
shapes, the value of C is different

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 50

27-Feb-17 From Dimensional Analysis

• Rewrite the pressure drop equation for
laminar horizontal pipe flow in terms of
dimensionless quantities.
• ∆𝑝 = 32𝜇𝑙𝑉 Τ𝐷2
∆𝑝 32𝜇𝑙𝑉Τ𝐷2
• 1 = 1
𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉 2
2 2
∆𝑝 𝜇 𝑙
• 1 = 64
𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝐷
2
∆𝑝 𝐷 64
• 1 =𝑓=
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑙 𝑅𝑒
2

Fluid Mechanics - II 51
27-Feb-17

Energy Considerations
• The energy equation for incompressible,
steady flow between two locations

• For a pipe area = const so V1 =V2.

• The energy dissipated by the viscous forces

within the fluid is supplied by the excess work
done by the pressure and gravity forces as
shown in the figure.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 54

27-Feb-17 Problem 8.19

• Water at 20 C flows through a horizontal
1-mm-diameter tube to which are attached
two pressure taps a distance of 1 m apart.
– What is the maximum pressure drop allowed if
the flow is to be laminar?
– Assume the manufacturing tolerance on the
tube diameter is D = 10.1mm. Given this
uncertainty in the tube diameter, what is the
maximum pressure drop allowed if it must be
assured that the flow is laminar?

Fluid Mechanics - II 55
27-Feb-17

Solution
• From the expression, the maximum pressure
corresponds with maximum velocity,
• And maximum velocity in laminar flow occurs at
a Reynolds number of 2100
𝜌𝑉𝐷
• 𝑅𝑒 = = 2100.
𝜇
2100𝜇 2100×1.12 ×10−3
• 𝑉= = = 2.3567 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝜌𝐷 998×0.001
• ∆𝑝 = 32𝜇𝑙𝑉 𝐷 Τ 2
 ∆𝑝 = 32 × 0.00112 × 1 × 2.35 Τ0.0012
 ∆𝑝 = 84.46 𝑘𝑃𝑎

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Fluid Mechanics - II 56

27-Feb-17 Solution
• The pressure in terms of pipe diameter is
2100𝜇 2 67200𝜇2 𝑙
∆𝑝 = 32𝜇𝑙 ൗ𝐷 =
𝜌𝐷 𝜌𝐷3
• Pressure drop with lowest possible diameter is
67200×0.001122 ×1
 ∆𝑝 = = 124.14 𝑘𝑃𝑎
998×0.00093
• Pressure drop with highest possible diameter is
67200×0.001122 ×1
 ∆𝑝 = = 63.46 𝑘𝑃𝑎
998×0.00113
• The maximum allowable pressure is 63.46 kPa.

Fluid Mechanics - II 57
27-Feb-17

Problem 8.20
• Glycerin at 20 C flows upward in a vertical
75-mm-diameter pipe with a centerline
velocity of 1.0 m s.
• Determine the head loss and pressure
drop in a 10-m length of the pipe.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 58

27-Feb-17 Solution
• For Laminar flow, the average velocity is, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑐 Τ2 = 0.5 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝜌𝑉𝐷 1260×0.5×0.075
• Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 = = = 31.5 < 2100
𝜇 1.5
• ∆𝑝 − 𝛾𝑙 sin 𝜃 = 32𝜇𝑙𝑉 Τ𝐷2
• ∆𝑝 = 32 × 1.5 × 10 × 0.5Τ0.0752 + 1260 × 9.81 × 10 × sin 90°
• ∆𝑝 = 166.27 𝑘𝑃𝑎
• For head loss
𝑝1 𝑉1 2 𝑝2 𝑉2 2
• + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
∆𝑝 166.27×103
• ℎ𝐿 = − 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = − 10 − 0 = 3.45 𝑚
𝛾 1260×9.81

Fluid Mechanics - II 59
27-Feb-17

Problem 8.28
• Oil of SG = 0.87 and a
kinematic viscosity of 
= 2.2x10-4 flows
through the vertical
pipe shown at a rate of
4x10-4 m3/s.
• Determine the
manometer reading, h.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 60

27-Feb-17 Solution p1

𝑄 4×10−4
• 𝑉=𝐴= = 1.27
𝜋×0.022 Τ4
𝑉𝐷 1.27×0.02
h1
• 𝑅𝑒 = = = 115.75 < 2100
𝑣 0.00022
• ∆𝑝 − 𝛾𝑙 sin 𝜃 = 128𝜇𝑙𝑄 Τ𝜋𝐷4
h2
128 0.00022×0.87×1000 4×0.0004 p2
• ∆𝑝 = 𝜋×0.024
+0.87 × 9810 × 4 sin 270°
• ∆𝑝 = 77983.37 − 34138.8 = 43.84457 𝑘𝑃𝑎
• For manometer reading
ℎ1 − ℎ = 𝑙 − ℎ2
• 𝑝1 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ1 − 𝛾𝑚 ℎ + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ2 = 𝑝2
⇒ ℎ1 + ℎ2 = 𝑙 + ℎ
• 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ1 + ℎ2 − 𝛾𝑚 ℎ = 0
• 43.84 × 103 + 8534.7 𝑙 + ℎ − 1273ℎ = 0
• 43.84 × 103 + 8534.7 × 4 + ℎ 8534.7 − 1273 = 0
• ℎ = 10.73𝑚.

Fluid Mechanics - II 61
27-Feb-17

Problem
• An oil with  = 900 kg/m3 and
 = 0.0002 m2/s flows upward
through an inclined pipe as
shown.
• The pressure and elevation
are known at sections 1 and
2, 10 m apart.
– verify that the flow is up,
– compute hf between 1 and 2,
and
– Compute Q, V, and Re.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 63

27-Feb-17

FULLY DEVELOPED TURBULENT

FLOW
Section 8.3
Page 399

Fluid Mechanics - II 64
27-Feb-17

Fully developed turbulent flow

• Turbulent pipe flow is more likely to occur
than laminar flow in practical situations,
• A considerable amount of knowledge about
the topic has been developed, however the
field of turbulent flow still remains one of
the least understood area of fluid
mechanics.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 65

27-Feb-17 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow

• Reynolds number must be less than
approx. 2100 for laminar flow and greater
than approx. 4000 for turbulent flow.

Fluid Mechanics - II 66
27-Feb-17

Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow

• Axial component of velocity, u = u(t), at a
given location in turbulent pipe flow is.

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Fluid Mechanics - II 67

27-Feb-17 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow

• Its irregular, random nature is the
distinguishing feature of turbulent flows.
• The character of many of the important
properties of the flow (pressure drop, heat
transfer, etc.) depends strongly on the
existence and nature of the turbulent
fluctuations or randomness indicated.

Fluid Mechanics - II 68
27-Feb-17

Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow

• Mixing, heat and mass transfer
processes are enhanced in turbulent
flow compared to laminar flow.
• The macroscopic scale of the
randomness in turbulent flow is very
effective in transporting energy and
mass throughout the flow field,
thereby increasing the various rate
processes involved.
• Laminar flow, is very small but finite-
sized fluid particles flowing smoothly
in levels, one over another.
• The only randomness and mixing
takes place on the molecular scale
and result in relatively small heat,
mass, and momentum transfer rates.

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 69

27-Feb-17 Mixing
• Less viscous liquids mix
easily due to turbulence,
as compared to fluids
with higher viscosity
which remain laminar.

Fluid Mechanics - II 71
27-Feb-17

Turbulent shear stress

• The fundamental difference between
laminar and turbulent flow lies in the
chaotic, random behavior of the various
fluid parameters.
• Such flows can be described in terms of
their mean values (denoted with an
overbar) on which are superimposed the
fluctuations (denoted with a prime).

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Fluid Mechanics - II 72

27-Feb-17 Turbulent shear stress

• Thus, if u u(x, y, z, t) is the x component of
instantaneous velocity, then its time mean
(or time average) value, ū , is;

– The time interval, T, is considerably longer

than the period of the longest fluctuations
– And considerably shorter than any
unsteadiness of the average velocity

Fluid Mechanics - II 74
27-Feb-17

Turbulent shear stress

• Can the concept of viscous shear stress
for laminar flow ( =  du/dy) be applied to
turbulent flow by replacing u, the
instantaneous velocity, by ū, the time
average velocity ?
– The shear stress in turbulent flow is not merely
proportional to the gradient of the time-
average velocity: ≠  dū/dy.
– It also contains a contribution due to the
random fluctuations of the components of
velocity.

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 75

27-Feb-17 Turbulent shear stress

• The random velocity components that account
for momentum transfer (and the shear force)
are u’ and v’.
• A more detailed consideration of the processes
involved will show that the apparent shear
stress is given by the following

Fluid Mechanics - II 76
27-Feb-17

Turbulent shear stress

• The shear stress for turbulent flow can be
defined in terms of a new parameter called
the eddy viscosity, .

• The eddy viscosity changes from one

turbulent flow condition to another and from
one point in a turbulent flow to another.
• The turbulent process could be viewed as the
random transport of bundles of fluid particles
over a certain distance, lm, the mixing length,
from a region of one velocity to another region
of a different velocity.

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 77

27-Feb-17 Turbulent shear stress

• By the use of some ad hoc assumptions and physical
reasoning, the eddy viscosity is then given by.

– The problem is shifted to determining the mixing length, lm which

is not constant throughout the flow field.
– Near a solid surface the turbulence is dependent on the distance
from the surface.
• Thus, additional assumptions are made regarding how the
mixing length varies throughout the flow.
• There is no general model that can predict the shear stress
throughout an incompressible, viscous turbulent flow.
• It is impossible to integrate the force balance equation to
obtain the turbulent velocity profile as was done for laminar
flow.

Fluid Mechanics - II 78
27-Feb-17

Turbulent Velocity Profile

• An often-used correlation is the empirical
power-law velocity profile. ‘n’ is a function of
the Reynolds number, typically from 6 to 10.
• The power-law profile cannot be valid near
the wall, since according to this equation the
velocity gradient is infinite there.
• In addition, it cannot be precisely valid near
the centerline because it does not give dū/dr
= 0 at r = 0.
• However, it does provide a
reasonable approximation to
the measured velocity profiles
across most of the pipe.

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 79

27-Feb-17 Turbulence modeling

• It is not yet possible to theoretically predict
the random, irregular details of turbulent
flows.
• One can time average the governing Navier–
Stokes equations to obtain equations for the
average velocity and pressure.
• The resulting time-averaged differential
equations contain not only the desired
average pressure and velocity as variables,
but also averages of products of the
fluctuations—terms of the type that one tried
to eliminate by averaging the equations!

Fluid Mechanics - II 80
27-Feb-17

Chaos and turbulence

• Chaos theory, which is quite complex and is
currently under development, involves the
behavior of nonlinear dynamical systems and
their response to initial and boundary
conditions.
• The flow of a viscous fluid, which is governed
by the nonlinear Navier–Stokes equations,
may be such a system.
• It may be that chaos theory can provide the
turbulence properties and structure directly
from the governing equations.

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 81

27-Feb-17 Chaos Theory

• Chaos:
– When the present determines the future,
but the approximate present does not
approximately determine the future.
• Chaos theory:
– Study of the behavior of dynamic
systems that are highly sensitive to initial
conditions (butterfly effect).
• Small differences in initial conditions
(e.g. rounding errors, or minor
displacement of pendulum) yield widely
diverging outcomes for such dynamic
systems, rendering long-term
prediction impossible in general. Double Rod
Pendulum

Fluid Mechanics - II 82
27-Feb-17

Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• Turbulent flow can be a very complex, difficult
topic, most turbulent pipe flow analyses are
based on experimental data and semi-empirical
formulas.
• These data are expressed conveniently in
dimensionless form.
• It is often necessary to determine the head loss,
hL, that occurs in a pipe flow so that the
following equation, can be used in the analysis
of pipe flow problems.

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 83

27-Feb-17 Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• The overall head loss for the pipe system
hL, consists of
– the head loss due to viscous effects in the
straight pipes, termed the major loss and
denoted hL major, and
– the head loss in the various pipe components,
termed the minor loss and denoted hL minor,

Fluid Mechanics - II 84
27-Feb-17

Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• Major losses
– the pressure drop and head loss in a pipe are
dependent on the wall shear stress, w,
between the fluid and pipe surface.
– Difference b/w laminar and turbulent flow is:
• the shear stress for turbulent flow is a function of
the density of the fluid,
• the shear stress for laminar flow, is independent of
the density, leaving the viscosity, as the only
important fluid property.

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 85

27-Feb-17 Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• Major losses
– the pressure drop, p for steady,
incompressible turbulent flow in a
horizontal round pipe of diameter D
is:
– ∆𝑝 = 𝐹 𝑉, 𝐷, 𝑙, 𝜀, 𝜇, 𝜌
• The pressure drop for laminar pipe
flow is found to be independent of the
roughness of the pipe,
• It is necessary to include pressure
drop when considering turbulent flow.

Fluid Mechanics - II 86
27-Feb-17

Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• Major losses
– A relatively thin viscous sublayer is
formed in the fluid near the pipe wall in
turbulent flow
• Thus for turbulent flow the pressure drop
is expected to be a function of the wall
roughness.
– relatively small roughness elements
have completely negligible effects on
laminar pipe flow.
– For pipes with very large wall
“roughness” such as that in corrugated
pipes, the flowrate may be a function
of the “roughness.”
– We will consider only typical constant
diameter pipes with relative
roughness's in the range

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 87

27-Feb-17 Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• Major losses
– The pressure drop, p can be
expressed in terms of k – r = 4
dimensionless groups.
– This result differs from that used for
laminar flow in two ways.
• the pressure term is made dimensionless by
dividing by the dynamic pressure, rather
than a characteristic viscous shear stress,
• we have introduced two additional
dimensionless parameters, the Reynolds
number, and the relative roughness, which
are not present in the laminar formulation.

Fluid Mechanics - II 88
27-Feb-17

Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• Major losses
– Since the pressure drop should be
proportional to the pipe length, the l/D
term can be factored out.
– We defined friction factor as:
– Thus for horizontal pipe flow.
– And
• For laminar fully developed flow, f = 64/Re
• For turbulent flow, the functional
dependence of the friction factor on the
Reynolds number and the relative
roughness, is a rather complex one that
cannot, be obtained from a theory

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 89

27-Feb-17 Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• Major losses
– Join energy equation with expression of
pressure drop. We get:

– This is the Darcy–Weisbach equation, it is valid

for any fully developed, steady, incompressible
pipe flow, horizontal or not.
– In general with Vin = Vout, the energy eq gives

Fluid Mechanics - II 90
27-Feb-17

Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• Major Losses
– It is not easy to determine the functional dependence of the
friction factor on the Reynolds number and relative roughness.
– Much of this information is a result of experiments conducted by
Nikuradse in 1933 and amplified by many others since then.
– One difficulty lies in the determination of the roughness of the
pipe.
• Nikuradse used artificially roughened pipes produced by gluing sand
grains of known size onto pipe walls to produce pipes with sandpaper-
type surfaces.
• The pressure drop needed to produce a desired flowrate was measured
and the data were converted into the friction factor for the corresponding
Reynolds number and relative roughness.
• The tests were repeated numerous times for a wide range of Re and /D
to determine the f=(Re, /D ) dependence.
– In commercially available pipes it is possible to obtain a measure
of the effective relative roughness of typical pipes and thus to
obtain the friction factor.

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 27-Feb-17

Fluid Mechanics - II 91

27-Feb-17 Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

• Major losses
– Typical roughness values for various pipe surfaces are shown along
with the functional dependence of f on Re and called the Moody
chart in honor of L. F. Moody, who, along with C. F. Colebrook,
correlated the original data of Nikuradse in terms of the relative
roughness of commercially available pipe materials.

34