CHAPTER 20

LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

Organs for locomotion and movement
Locomotory structures need not be different from those affecting other types of movements.
For example, in Paramoecium, cilia helps in the movement of food through cytopharynx and in
locomotion as well.
Hydra can use its tentacles for capturing its prey and use them for locomotion.
We use limbs for changes in body postures and locomotion as well
Types of movement
• Amoeboid movement
• Ciliary movement
• Muscular movement
Amoeboid movement

• Some specialised cells in our body like macrophages and leucocytes in blood exhibit
amoeboid movement.
• It is effected by pseudopodia formed by the streaming of protoplasm (as in
Amoeba).
• Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments are also involved in amoeboid movement

Ciliary movement
• Ciliary movement occurs in most of our internal tubular organs which are lined by
ciliated epithelium.
• The coordinated movements of cilia in the trachea help us in removing dust particles
and some of the foreign substances inhaled along with the atmospheric air.
• Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract is also facilitated by the ciliary
movement.
Muscular movement
• Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc, require muscular movement.
Muscles
• Muscle is a specialised tissue of mesodermal origin.
• About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a human adult is contributed by
muscles.
• They have special properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility and
elasticity.
• Muscles have been classified using different criteria, namely
location, appearance and nature of regulation of their activities
 Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified :
(i) Skeletal (ii) Visceral and (iii) Cardiac.

Type Location Appearance Nature of action

Skeletal muscle Attached to bones Striated Voluntary
Visceral muscle Found in internal organs Non striated (smooth) Involuntary
Cardiac muscle Present in heart Striated Involuntary

SKELETAL MUSCLE- structure

• Each organised skeletal muscle in our body is made of a number of muscle bundles
or fascicles held together by a common collagenous connective tissue layer called
fascia.
• Each muscle bundle contains a number of muscle fibres
• Each muscle fibre is lined by the plasma membrane called sarcolemma enclosing
the sarcoplasm.
• Muscle fibre is a syncitium as the sarcoplasm contains many nuclei.
• The endoplasmic reticulum, i.e., sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle fibres is the
store house of calcium ions.
• A characteristic feature of the muscle fibre is the presence of a large number of
parallelly arranged filaments in the sarcoplasm called myofilaments or myofibrils.

• Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it . The striated appearance is
due to the distribution pattern of two kinds of proteins- Actin and Myosin
• The light bands contain actin and is called I-band or Isotropic band, whereas the
dark band called ‘A’ or Anisotropic band contains myosin.
• Actin filaments are thinner as compared to the myosin filaments, hence are
commonly called thin and thick filaments respectively.
• In the centre of each ‘I’ band is an elastic fibre called ‘Z’ line which bisects it. The
thin filaments are firmly attached to the ‘Z’ line.
• The thick filaments in the ‘A’ band are also held together in the middle of this band
by a thin fibrous membrane called ‘M’ line.
• The ‘A’ and ‘I’ bands are arranged alternately throughout the length of the myofibrils.
• The portion of the myofibril between two successive ‘Z’ lines is considered as the
functional unit of contraction and is called a sarcomere
• In a resting state, the edges of thin filaments on either side of the thick filaments
partially overlap the free ends of the thick filaments leaving the central part of the
thick filaments. This central part of thick filament, not overlapped by thin filaments is
called the ‘H’ zone.
Structure of Contractile Proteins
Actin
• Each actin (thin) filament is made of two ‘F’ (filamentous) actins helically wound to each
other.
• Each ‘F’ actin is a polymer of monomeric ‘G’ (Globular) actins.
• Two filaments of another protein, tropomyosin also run close to the ‘F’ actins
throughout its length.
• A complex protein Troponin is distributed at regular intervals on the tropomyosin.
• In the resting state a subunit of troponin masks the active binding sites for myosin on
the actin filaments

Myosin
• Each myosin (thick) filament is also a polymerised protein.
• Many monomeric proteins called Meromyosins constitute one thick filament.
• Each meromyosin has two important parts, a globular head with a short arm and a tail,
the former being called the heavy meromyosin (HMM) and the latter, the light
meromyosin (LMM).
• The HMM component, i.e.; the head and short arm projects outwards at regular
distance and angle from each other from the surface of a polymerised myosin filament
and is known as cross arm.
• The globular head is an active ATPase enzyme and has binding sites for ATP and active
sites for actin.
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
Sliding Filament Theory
This theory states that contraction of a muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin
filaments over the thick filaments
• Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal sent by the central nervous system (CNS)
via a motor neuron
• A motor neuron along with the muscle fibres connected to it constitute a motor unit.
• The junction between a motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is
called the neuromuscular junction or motor-end plate.
• A neural signal reaching this junction releases a neurotransmitter (Acetyl choline)
which generates an action potential in the sarcolemma.
• This spreads through the muscle fibre and causes the release of calcium ions into
the sarcoplasm.
• Increase in Ca++ level leads to the binding of calcium with a subunit of troponin on
actin filaments and thereby remove the masking of active sites for myosin.
• Utilising the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds to the exposed
active sites on actin to form a cross bridge
• The rotation of the cross bridge pulls the attached actin filaments towards the
centre of ‘A’ band.
• The ‘Z’ line attached to these actins are also pulled inwards
• This causes a shortening of the sarcomere, i.e., contraction.
• During shortening of the muscle, i.e., contraction, the ‘I’ bands get reduced,
whereas the ‘A’ bands retain the length.

Calcium is then pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum which breaks the link between
actin and myosin (cross bridge breakage). Myosin and actin return to their unbound state
causing the muscle to relax.
MYOGLOBIN
• Muscle contains a red coloured oxygen storing pigment called myoglobin.
• Myoglobin content vary in different muscles.
• Muscles are of 2 types based on myoglobin content.
• They are
Red muscle with high myoglobin content
White muscle with less myoglobin content
 Red muscle White muscle
• Myoglobin content is high • They possess very less quantity of
• These muscles also contain plenty of myoglobin
mitochondria which can utilise the large • Number of mitochondria are few
amount of oxygen stored in them for ATP • The amount of sarcoplasmic reticulum is
production. high.
• These muscles called aerobic muscles • They depend on anaerobic process for
• Eg. Muscles which maintain posture energy.
• Eg. Eye muscles

SKELETAL SYSTEM
Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages
• Bone and cartilage are specialised connective tissues. The former has a very hard
matrix due to calcium salts in it and the latter has slightly pliable matrix due to
chondroitin salts.
• In human beings, this system is made up of 206 bones and a few cartilages.
• It is grouped into two principal divisions – the axial and the appendicular
skeleton
AXIAL SKELETON
• Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body.
• The skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton.
• The skull is composed of two sets of bones cranial and facial, that totals to 22 bones.
• Cranial bones are 8 in number.They form the hard protective outer covering, cranium for
the brain
• The facial region is made up of 14 skeletal elements which form the front part of the
skull.
• A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is present at the base of the buccal cavity and it is
also included in the skull
• Each middle ear contains three tiny bones , collectively called as ear ossicles
• Malleus
• Incus
• Stapes

• The skull region articulates with the superior region of the vertebral column with the
help of two occipital condyles (dicondylic skull).
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
• Our vertebral column is formed by 26 serially arranged units called vertebrae and
is dorsally placed.
• It extends from the base of the skull and constitutes the main framework of the
trunk.
 • Each vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the
spinal cord passes.
• First vertebra is the atlas and it articulates with the occipital condyles.
• The vertebral column is differentiated into cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5),
sacral (1-fused) and coccygeal (1-fused) regions starting from the skull
The vertebral column protects the spinal cord, supports the head and serves as the point of
attachment for the ribs and musculature of the back
RIBS and STERNUM
Sternum is a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax.
There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the vertebral column
and ventrally to the sternum.
It has two articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and is hence called bicephalic.
• First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs.Dorsally, they are attached to the thoracic
vertebrae and ventrally connected to the sternum with the help of hyaline cartilage.
• The 8th, 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the sternum but join
the seventh rib with the help of hyaline cartilage. These are called vertebrochondral
(false) ribs.
• Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not connected ventrally and are therefore, called
floating ribs.
• Thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum together form the rib cage
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The bones of the limbs along with their girdles constitute the appendicular skeleton. Each limb
is made of 30 bones.
FORE LIMB
The bones of the hand (fore limb) are
• Humerus (1)
• Radius (1) and Ulna (1)
• Carpals (wrist bones – 8 in number)
• Metacarpals (palm bones – 5 in number)
• Phalanges (digits – 14 in number)
HIND LIMB
• Femur (thigh bone – the longest bone)
• Tibia and Fibula
• Tarsals (ankle bones – 7 in number)
• Metatarsals (5 in number)
• Phalanges (digits – 14 in number) are the bones of the legs (hind limb) .
• A cup shaped bone called patella cover the knee ventrally (knee cap).
GIRDLES
Pectoral and Pelvic girdle bones help in the articulation of the upper and the lower limbs
respectively with the axial skeleton. Each girdle is formed of two halves.

PECTORAL GIRDLE
Each half of pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and a scapula.
CLAVICLE
• Each clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures.
• This bone is commonly called the collar bone.
SCAPULA
• Scapula is a large triangular flat bone situated in the dorsal part of the thorax
between the second and the seventh ribs.
• The dorsal, flat, triangular body of scapula has a slightly elevated ridge called the
spine which projects as a flat, expanded process called the acromion.
The clavicle articulates with this.
• Below the acromion is a depression called the glenoid cavity which articulates
with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint.

PELVIC GIRDLE
• Pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones.
• Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones – ilium, ischium and
pubis.
 • At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called acetabulum cavity to
which the thigh bone articulates.
• The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form the pubic symphysis
containing fibrous cartilage

JOINTS
• Joints are points of contact between bones, or between bones and cartilages.
• Joints have been classified into three major structural forms, namely, Fibrous,
Cartilaginous, Synovial
Fibrous Joints
• Fibrous joints do not allow any movement (immovable joints)
• This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones which fuse end-to-end with the help of
dense fibrous connective tissues in theform of sutures, to form the cranium.
Cartilagenous Joints
• In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are joined together with the help of
cartilages.
• The joint between the adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column is of this
pattern and it permits limited movements (slightly movable joints)
Synovial Joints
 • Synovial joints are characterised by the presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity
between the articulating surfaces of the two bones. Such an arrangement allows
considerable movement.(freely movable joints)
• These joints help in locomotion and many other movements.
Examples
• Ball and socket joint (between humerus and pectoral girdle)
• Hinge joint (knee joint)
• Pivot joint (between atlas and axis)
• Gliding joint (between the carpals)
• Saddle joint (between carpal and metacarpal of thumb)

DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM

• Myasthenia gravis: Auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to
fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscle.
• Muscular dystrophy: Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle mostly due to genetic
disorder.
• Tetany: Rapid spasms (involuntary muscle cramps) in muscle due to low Ca++ in body
fluid.
• Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.
• Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterised by decreased bone mass and
increased chances of fractures. Decreased levels of estrogen is a common cause.
• Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid